SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

MODULE – 3
SELF GENERATING SENSORS

 Self-generating sensors yield an electric signal from a measurand without requiring any
electric supply.
 Based on reversible effects, these sensors can be used as actuators to obtain nonelectric
outputs from electric signals.
 They are used for measuring many common quantities such as, temperature, force,
pressure, and acceleration.

THERMOELECTRIC SENSORS: THERMOCOUPLES

Reversible Thermoelectric Effects

 Thermoelectric sensors are based on two effects that are reversible. They are the Peltier
effect and the Thomson effect.
 Thomas J. Seebeck first discovered in 1822 that in a circuit with two dissimilar
homogeneous metals A and B, having two junctions at different temperatures, an electric
current arises as shown in Figure 3.1. Thus, there is a conversion from thermal to electric
energy.
 If the circuit is opened, a thermoelectric electromotive force (emf) appears that depends
only on the metals and on the junction temperatures.

Figure 3.1 Seebeck effect in a thermocouple: (a) a current or (b) a potential difference
appear when two metal junctions at different temperatures .

 A pair of different metals with a fixed junction at a point or zone constitutes a

thermocouple.
 The relationship between the emf EAB and the difference in temperature between both
junctions T defines the Seebeck coefficient SAB,

where SA and SB are, respectively, the absolute thermoelectric power for A & B.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 1

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 SAB usually increasing with T

 The current flowing in the circuit depends on conductors' resistances
 The emf depends only on the difference in temperature between both junctions and on
the metals, provided that they are homogeneous.
 This emf is due to the Peltier and Thomson effects.

Peltier effect
 The Peltier effect (discovered by Jean C. A. Peltier in 1834) is the heating or cooling of a
junction of two different metals when an electric current flows through it.
 When the current direction reverses, so does the heat flow as shown in Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 Peltier effect

 If a junction heats (liberates heat), then when the current is reversed, it cools (absorbs
heat), and if it cools, then when the current is reversed, it heats.
 This effect is reversible.
 It depends only on the junction composition and temperature.
 Peltier coefficient πAB , also called Peltier voltage (unit is volts), is defined as the heat
generated at the junction between A and B for each unit of charge (positive charge)
flowing from B to A,

• For a junction at absolute temperature T

Thomson effect
 Thomson effect was discovered by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) in 1847- 1854.
 It is defined as heat absorption or liberation in a homogeneous conductor with
a nonhomogeneous temperature when there is a current along it as shown in Figure 3.3.
 The heat liberated is proportional to the current, and therefore changes its sign for a
reversed current.
 Heat is absorbed when charges flow from the colder to the hotter points, and it is
liberated when they flow from the hotter to the colder one.
 In other words, heat is absorbed when charge and heat flow in opposite directions, and
heat is liberated when they flow in the same direction.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 2

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

x
Figure 3.3 Thomson effect

 The heat flux per unit volume q in a conductor of resistivity r with a longitudinal
temperature gradient dT/dx, along which there is a current density i, is

where σ is the Thomson coefficient.

 The first term on the right side describes the irreversible Joule effect and the second term
describes the reversible Thomson effect.
 Referring to the circuit of Figure 3.1, if the current is small enough to make the Joule
effect negligible, then only the reversible effects can be considered.
 The resulting thermoelectric power (dEAB/dT) ∆T must equal the net thermal energy
converted.
 In Figure 3.4a where one junction is at temperature T +∆T and the other one is at T, the
heat absorbed in the hot junction is πAB (T +∆T), while the heat liberated at the cool
junction is - πAB (T).
 By the Thomson effect, there is an amount of heat -σA x ∆T liberated along A while there
is an amount of heat σB x ∆T absorbed along B as shown in figure 3.4b.

Figure 3.4(a) Peltier effect Figure 3.4(b)) Thomson effect

 The power balance is thus

 By dividing both sides by ∆T and taking limits when ∆T goes to zero, we have

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 3

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 This equation constitutes the basic theorem for thermoelectricity and shows that the
Seebeck effect results from the Peltier and Thomson effects.

THERMOCOUPLE
 A thermocouple circuit with a junction at constant temperature (reference junction)
yields an emf that is a function of the temperature at the measuring junction.
 The equivalent circuit for an ungrounded thermocouple is a voltage source with different
output resistance at each terminal (that of the corresponding metal).

Figure 3.5 Thermocouple

The application of thermocouples to temperature measurement is subject to several

limitations:
 Thermocouple must be so selected that it does melt in our application. Also, it must be
ensured that the environment it is placed in does not attack any of the junction metals.
 The current along the thermocouple circuit must be very small.
• Otherwise, because the Peltier and Thomson effects are reversible, the
temperatures of the conductor junctions would differ from that of the
environment, thus leading to serious errors.
• Also, Conductors must be homogeneous, so as to prevent any mechanical or
thermal stress during installation or operation
 One of the junctions must be kept at a fixed temperature if the temperature at the other
junction is to be measured.
• Any change in that reference junction would result in a serious error.
• Also, the output signal will have a high constant value undergoing only very
small changes due to the temperature changes.

• An approximate formula valid for all thermocouples is

where T1 and T2 are the absolute respective temperatures for each junction and C1 and C2
are constants that depend on materials A and B.

From the above equation, we have

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 4

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

which shows that the emf depends not only on the temperature differences but also on their
absolute value.
The number of useful thermocouples available is limited because C2 should be very small.

ADVANTAGES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF THERMOCOUPLES

Thermocouples have many advantages and are the most frequently used sensors for
temperature measurement.
 They have a very broad measurement range, as a group from -2700C to 3000 0C, and each
particular model has a broad range.
 They display acceptable long-term stability and a high reliability.
 At low temperatures they have higher accuracy than RTDs.
 Their small size also yields a fast speed of response, on the order of milliseconds.
 They are also robust, simple, and easy to use, and very low cost models are available
suitable for many applications.
 Because they do not need excitation, they do not have the self-heating problems suffered
by RTDs, particularly in gas measurements.
 They also accept long connection wires.

Common Thermocouples
In thermocouple junctions there is a simultaneous requirement for
(a) a low resistivity temperature coefficient,
(b) resistance to becoming oxidized at high temperatures to withstand the working
environment, and
(c) a linearity as high as possible.

• Alloys that fulfill all these requirements are Ni90Cr10 (chromel), Cu57Ni43 (constantan),
Ni94Al2Mn3Si (alumel).
• Environmental protection is obtained by a sheath, made of stainless steel
• Table below gives the characteristics for some common thermocouples and their ANSI
designation.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 5

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 Type C and N are not ANSI standards. There are thin-film models for surface temperature
measurement.
 Type J thermocouples are versatile and have low cost. They withstand oxidizing and reducing
environments. They are often used in open-air furnaces.
 Type K thermocouples are used in nonreducing environments and their measurement range are
better than types E, J, and T in oxidizing environments.
 Type T thermocouples resist corrosion; hence they are useful in high humidity environments.
 Type E thermocouples have the highest sensitivity, and they withstand corrosion below 00C and
in oxidizing environments.
 Type N thermocouples resist oxidation and are stable at high temperature.
 Thermocouples based on noble metals (types B, R, and S) are highly resistive to oxidation and
corrosion.

Figure 3.6 shows different junction types available.

Figure 3.6 Different kinds of thermocouple junctions and their sheaths]:

(a) butt welded junction; (b) lap-welded junction; (c) twisted wire; (d) exposed thermocouple;
(e) enclosed thermocouple; (f) grounded thermocouple soldered to the covering

 Exposed junctions are used for static measurements or in noncorrosive gas flows where
a fast response time is required. But they are fragile.
 Enclosed (ungrounded) junctions are intended for corrosive environments where there
is the need for an electrical isolation of the thermocouple. The junction is enclosed by the
sheath and is insulated by means of a good thermal conductor such as oil, mercury, or
metallic powder. When a fast response is needed and a thick sheath is not required, then
mineral insulators such as MgO, Al2O3, or BeO powders are used.
 Grounded junctions is used for measurement of static temperatures or temperatures in
flowing corrosive gases or liquids. They are also used in measurements performed under
high pressures. The junction is soldered to the protective sheath so that the thermal
response will be faster than when insulated. But, noisy grounds require ungrounded
thermocouples.

Practical Thermocouple Laws

There are several experimental laws for temperature measurement using
thermocouples that greatly simplify the analysis of thermocouple circuits.
Law of Homogeneous Circuits:
“The intermediate temperatures along a conductor do not alter the emf produced by a given temperature
difference between junctions”.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 6

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Figure 3.7 Homogeneous circuits law for thermocouples

 In Figure 3.7a the temperatures T3 and T4 do not alter the emf due to T1 and T2. In
particular, if T1=T2 and A or B are heated, there is no current.
 Compensation wires made from metals that do not display any appreciable emf can be
used and are cheaper than thermocouple wires.

Law of Intermediate Metals.

“The algebraic sum of all emfs in a circuit composed by several different metals remains zero as long as
the entire circuit is at a uniform temperature”.
 This implies that a meter can be inserted into the circuit without adding any errors,
provided that the new junctions introduced are all at the same temperature, as indicated
in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Intermediate metals law for thermocouple circuits.

 A corollary of this law is that “if the thermal relationship between each of two materials and a
third one is known, then it is possible to deduce the relationship between the two first ones”, as
shown in Figure 3.9.
 In order to know the temperature, instead of calibrating all the possible metal pairs to a
given emf measured with a given pair, it is enough to know its behavior with respect a
third material.
 The reference metal is platinum.

Figure 3.9 Corollary for intermediate metals law in thermocouple circuits.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 7

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Law of Successive or Intermediate Temperatures:

“If two homogeneous metals yield an emf E1 when their junctions are at T1 and T2, and an emf E2 when
they are at T2 and T3, then the emf when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be E1 + E2 .” as shown in
figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Intermediate temperature law for thermocouple circuits .

 This means that it is not necessary for the reference junction to be at 00C. Any other
reference temperature is also acceptable.

 The laws enable us to analyze circuits in Figure 3.11.

 As shown in Figure3.11 (a), several thermocouples connected in series constitutes a
thermopile. This increases the sensitivity compared to the case where a single
thermocouple is used.
 Figure 3.11 (b) shows a parallel connection, which yields the average temperature if all
thermocouples are linear in the measurement range and have the same resistance.

Figure 3.11 (a) Series (thermopile) and (b) parallel thermocouple connection

Cold Junction Compensation in Thermocouple Circuits

 Seebeck effect for temperature measurement requires that one junction must be at a fixed
reference temperature.
 The reference junction can be placed into melting ice as shown in Figure 3.12. It is easy
and highly accurate, but it requires frequent maintenance and has a high cost.
 The reference junction can also be maintained at a fixed temperature by means of a Peltier
cooler or by means of a constant temperature oven.
 In any case a long length of one of the thermocouple metal wires must be used, thus
increasing cost.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 8

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Figure 3.12 Temperature measurement using thermocouples Figure 3.13 Temperature measurement using
with a junction held at a constant reference temperature. two junctions at constant temperature and
common metal leads.

 Figure 3.12 shows use of a cheaper connecting wire (copper), but the need for a constant
reference temperature is still expensive.

 When the expected range of temperature variation is smaller than the required resolution,
the reference junction can be just exposed to the ambient.
 Otherwise, the reference (or cold) junction temperature compensation method can be used.
 In this method, the reference junction is left to undergo the ambient temperature
fluctuations and these fluctuations are measured by another temperature sensor placed
near the reference junction as shown in Figure 3.14.
 Then a voltage generated at the cold junction is subtracted from the voltage produced by
the circuit.
 The bridge supply voltage must be highly stable and can be provided by a mercury cell or
reference voltage generator.

Figure 3.14 Electronic compensation for the reference junction in a thermocouple circuit.

ICs that measure the ambient temperature and provide the compensation voltage.
• The LT1025 works with types E, J, K, R, S, and T.
• The AD594/AD595 is an instrumentation amplifier and thermocouple cold junction
compensator (for types J and K, respectively)

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 9

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
The Piezoelectric Effect
 The piezoelectric effect is the appearance of an electric polarization in a material that
strains under stress.
 It is a reversible effect. Therefore, when applying an electric voltage between two sides
of a piezoelectric material, it strains.
 Both effects were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880±1881.

 Ferroelectricity is the property of having a spontaneous or induced electric dipole

moment.
 It was first discovered by J. Valasek in 1921 in Rochelle salt.
 All ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric, but the converse is not always true.
 Piezoelectricity is related to the crystalline (ionic) structure whereas Ferromagnetism is
related to electron spin.

 Piezoelectric equations describe the

relationship between electric and
mechanical quantities in a
piezoelectric material.
 In Figure 3.15 a, two metal plates are
placed to form a capacitor. For a
dielectric nonpiezoelectric material
an applied force F yields a strain S.
According to Hooke's law, in the
elastic range, strain is given by
S = sT (1)
Figure 3.15 (a) Parameters used in piezoelectric
where s is compliance, 1/s is Young's
equations.
modulus, and T is the stress (F/A).

 A potential difference applied

between plates creates an electric
field E and

(2)
where D is the displacement vector
(or electric flux density), ε is the Figure 3.15 (b) Equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric
dielectric constant, ε0 = 8.85 pF/m is sensor.
the permittivity of vacuum, and P is
the polarization vector.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 10

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 For a unidimensional piezoelectric material with field, stress, strain, and polarization in
the same direction, according to the principle of energy conservation, at low frequency
we have
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜀 𝑇 𝐸 (3)
𝑆 = 𝑠𝐸 𝑇 + 𝑑′ 𝐸 (4)

where 𝜀 𝑇 is the permittivity at constant stress and 𝑠 𝐸 is the compliance at constant electric
field.
 d is the piezoelectric charge coefficient or piezoelectric constant, whose dimensions are
coulombs by newtons [C/N].
 Therefore, when compared to a nonpiezoelectric material, there is also a strain due to
the electric field and an electric charge due to the mechanical stress.
 When the surface area does not change under the applied stress, then d = d ‘.
 Solving equation (3) for E yields

(5)
where g = d/𝜺 is the piezoelectric voltage coefficient.
𝑻

 By solving (4) for T, we have

(6)
where e = d/𝒔 𝑬
is the piezoelectric stress coefficient.

 The electromechanical coupling coefficient is the square root of the quotient between
the energy available at the output and the stored energy, at frequencies well below that
of mechanical resonance.

(7)

 A three-dimensional crystalline solid

can experience tension and also
compression forces along the three
coordinate axes, designated by the
subscripts 1, 2, 3, and also torsion
forces designated by the subscripts 4,
5, and 6 (Figure 3.16).

Figure 3.16 Meaning of the indices for the

directions in a piezoelectric material

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 11

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 When there is no piezoelectric effect we have

 When there is a piezoelectric effect, the piezoelectric equations are

where j,n =1, . . . , 6, and i, k, l,m = 1, 2,3.

 The coefficients dij are the piezoelectric constants, which relate the electric field in
direction i to the deformation in direction j, and also the surface charge density in the
direction perpendicular to i with the stress in direction j.
 It holds that dij = dji, and it also holds that 𝜀𝑙𝑚 = 0 whenever l≠m.
 Also we have dij = εigij

Piezoelectric Materials
 Piezoelectric properties are present in 20 of the 32 crystallographic classes,
 They are also present in amorphous ferroelectric materials. Of those 20 classes, only 10
display ferroelectric properties.
 All piezoelectric materials are necessarily anisotropic as shown in Figure 3.17. In case (a)
there is central symmetry. An applied force does not yield any electric polarization. In
case (b), an applied force yields a parallel electric polarization, while in case (c) an applied
force yields a perpendicular polarization.

Figure 3.17 Effects of a mechanical stress on different molecules depending on their symmetry

 The natural piezoelectric materials most frequently used are quartz and tourmaline.
 The synthetic materials more extensively used are not crystalline but ceramics.
 These are formed by many little tightly compacted monocrystals (about 1 mm in size).
 These ceramics are ferroelectrics, and to align the monocrystals in the same direction (i.e.,
to polarize them) they are subjected to a strong electric field during their fabrication.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 12

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 The applied field depends on the material thickness, but values of about 10 kV/cm are
common at temperatures slightly above the Curie temperature (at higher temperatures
they are too conductive).
 When the field is removed, the monocrystals cannot reorder randomly because of the
mechanical stresses accumulated, so that a permanent electric polarization remains.
 Piezoelectric ceramics display a high thermal and physical stability and can be
manufactured in many different shapes and with a broad range of values for the
properties of interest.
 Their main shortcomings are the temperature sensitivity of their parameters and their
susceptibility to aging (loss of piezoelectric properties) when they are close to their Curie
temperature.
 The most commonly used ceramics are lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate,
and lead niobate.
 Bimorphs consist of two ceramic plates glued together and with opposite polarization.
 If one end is clamped and a mechanical load is applied to the other, one plate elongates
and the other shortens, thus generating two voltages of the same amplitude.
 Some polymers lacking central symmetry also display piezoelectric properties.
 The most common is polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF2 or PVDF), whose piezoelectric
voltage coe½cient is about four times that of quartz, and its copolymers.
 To improve the mechanical properties for piezoelectric sensors, piezoelectric
“composite” materials are used.
 They are heterogeneous systems consisting of two or more different phases, one of which
at least shows piezoelectric properties.

LIMITATIONS
The application of the piezoelectric effect to sense mechanical quantities is restricted by
several limitations.
1. The electric resistance for piezoelectric materials is very high but never infinite.
Therefore, a constant stress initially generates a charge that will slowly drain off as time
passes. Hence, there is no dc response.
2. Piezoelectric sensors show a high resonant peak in their frequency response.
This is because when a dynamic force is applied to them, the only damping source is the
internal friction in the material. Thus we must always work at frequencies well below
the mechanical resonant frequency.
Figure 3.18 shows the frequency response of a commercial piezoelectric accelerometer.
The gain at the resonant frequency (35 kHz) is 20 times that in the 5 Hz to 7 kHz band,
where the frequency response is at within ±5 %.
3. The piezoelectric coefficients are temperature-sensitive.
Above the Curie temperature all materials lose their piezoelectric properties. Curie
temperature is different for each material, and in some cases it is even lower than typical
temperatures in industrial environments.
Quartz is used up to 2600 C, tourmaline up to 7000 C, barium titanate up to 1250 C, and
PVDF up to 1350 C.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 13

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Figure 3.18 Frequency response for a piezoelectric accelerometer

4. Some materials that display piezoelectric properties are hygroscopic and are
inappropriate for sensors.
5. Piezoelectric materials have a very high output impedance (small capacitance with a high
leakage resistance). To measure the signal generated, an electrometer (voltage mode) or
charge amplifiers (charge mode) are used.
Integrated amplifier limits the temperature of operation to the range acceptable for the
electronic components.

 Piezoelectric sensors offer high sensitivity (more than one thousand times that of strain
gages), at a low cost.
 They undergo deformations smaller than 1 mm, and this high mechanical stiffness
makes them suitable for measuring effort variables (force, pressure).
 Their small size (even less than 1 mm) and the possibility of manufacturing devices with
unidirectional sensitivity makes them suitable for applications such as vibration
monitoring.

PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT AT LOW FREQUENCIES

Following are the different possible low-frequency applications for the piezoelectric effect.
(Note: The following equations have been derived based on the piezoelectric parameters
given in the figure below

Let 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜀 𝑇 𝐸 (1)
𝑆 = 𝑠𝐸 𝑇 + 𝑑′ 𝐸 (2)

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 14

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

A) NO FORCE IS APPLIED BUT ONLY A VOLTAGE V.

As shown in Figure 3.19 (a), no force is
applied but only a voltage V. Therefore, a
strain results.
Given that T= 0, from equation (2) we have
𝑆 = 𝑑𝐸 --- (3)
If the strain is in the longitudinal direction
(x), we have
∆𝑙 𝑉
=𝑑 (4)
𝑙 ℎ
Figure 3.19 (a) Null effort, T = 0
From (1) we have 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 𝑇
(5)

This means that an electric polarization appears as in any normal capacitor. This arrangement
is used for micropositioning of mirrors in lasers and of samples in scanning tunneling
microscopes.

B) NO ELECTRIC FIELD IS APPLIED BUT FORCE F.

As shown in Figure 3.19 (b), the metallic

plates are short-circuited and a force F is
applied. The result is that a polarization
appears because electric charges migrate
from one plate to the other.
Given that E= 0, from (1) we have
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑇 (6)
Figure 3.19 (b) Null electric field, E = 0
The charge obtained will be 𝑞 = 𝐷𝑙𝑤
𝐹 𝐹 𝑙𝑑
Since 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑇 and 𝑇 = , 𝑞 = 𝑙𝑤𝑑 = 𝐹 (7)
ℎ𝑤 ℎ𝑤 ℎ

As in any solid body, a compression strain also results: 𝑆 = 𝑠 𝐸 𝑇 (8)

This arrangement is applied to measure vibration, force, pressure, and deformation.

C) FORCE F IS APPLIED TO COMPENSATE FOR THE FIELD E DUE TO THE

APPLIED VOLTAGE.
As shown in Figure 3.19 (c), the net
deformation is zero because a force F is
applied just to compensate for the field
E due to the applied voltage.

Figure 3.19 (c) Null strain, S =0

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 15

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Therefore, we have S = 0 and from (2) we deduce

0 = 𝑠 𝐸 𝑇 + 𝑑𝐸
𝑠 𝐸 𝑇 = −𝑑𝐸

𝐹 𝑉 𝐹 𝑉
Since 𝑇 = and 𝐸 = , 𝑠𝐸 = −𝑑
ℎ𝑤 ℎ ℎ𝑤 ℎ

𝑤𝑑
𝐹 = − 𝑉 (8)
𝑠𝐸

The charge induced at each plate can be calculated from (1)

(Substituting for T and E)

Rearranging the above equation

(9)

The factor enclosed by the parentheses is designated εS, and it shows that the dielectric
constant decreases because of the piezoelectric effect.

D) NULL CHARGE DENSITY

For the open circuit, as shown in figure

3.19 (d), it is not possible to transfer any
charge from one plate to the other.
Therefore, despite the applied force, we
have D= 0.

Figure 3.19 (d) Null charge density, D = 0.

From (1) we deduce 0 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜀 𝑇 𝐸

𝜀 𝑇 𝐸 = −𝑑𝑇
𝑉 𝑉
Since 𝐸 = , 𝜀𝑇 = −𝑑𝑇
ℎ ℎ
𝑑ℎ𝑇 𝑑ℎ𝐹 𝑑𝐹
𝑉= − = − = − (10) (Substituting for T)
𝜀𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝜀𝑇 𝑤𝜀𝑇
The resulting strain will be

(Substituting for T and E)

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 16

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

∆𝑙
Substituting for 𝑆= and rearranging the above equation
𝑙

(11)

 The term inside the parentheses is sD ,and it shows that because of the piezoelectric effect,
the material stiffness increases.
 A hammer or cam striking a piezoelectric ceramic generates more than 20 kV.
 The resulting spark is used for lighting gas ranges or for ignition in small internal
combustion engines.

APPLICATIONS
 Figure 3.20 (a) shows an outline for the three types of sensors based on piezoelectric effect.
 Figure 3.20 (b) shows a pressure sensor compensated for acceleration by combining
signals from the stressed diaphragm and an inertial mass.

Figure 3.20 (a) Force, pressure, and movement sensors Figure 3.20(b) Piezoelectric pressure sensor
with acceleration compensation

 Piezoelectric pressure sensors are used for monitoring internal combustion engines and
in hydrophones. Because they lack dc response, they do not suit load cells.

 Piezoelectric accelerometers offer wider frequency bandwidth (0.1 Hz to 30 kHz), much

lower power consumption, and higher shock survivability than micromachined
accelerometers. Also, they are inferior for static or very low frequency measurements.
 They are applied to machine monitoring, shock detection in shipment monitoring, impact
detection, or drop testing, vehicle dynamics assessment and control, and structural dynamics
analysis to detect response to load, fatigue, and resonance.
 Polymer-based piezolectric sensors are applied to microphones, machine monitoring, leak
detection in pipes and high-pressure vessels (which produce a characteristic sound), keyboards,
coin sensors, occupancy sensing, and vehicle classification and counting in highways.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 17

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 They are becoming relevant in medical applications such as pacemaker rate adjustment
according to acceleration, sleep disorder monitoring, blood pressure monitoring, and blood flow
and respiratory sounds monitoring in ambulances.

PYROELECTRIC SENSORS
The Pyroelectric Effect
 The pyroelectric effect is analogous to the piezoelectric effect
 The pyroelectric effect refers to change in temperature causing change in spontaneous
polarization and resulting change in electric charge.
 This effect was named by David Brewster in 1824.

 When the change in temperature ∆T is uniform throughout the material, the pyroelectric
effect can be described by means of the pyroelectric coefficient, which is a vector p with
the equation
∆P =p ∆T (1)
where P is the spontaneous polarization.
 This effect is mainly used for thermal radiation detection at ambient temperature.

 When two metallic electrodes are deposited perpendicular to the direction of the
polarization it forms a capacitor (Cd) and acts as thermal sensor.
 When the detector absorbs radiation, its temperature and polarization changes, thus
resulting in a surface charge on the capacitor plates.
 If Ad is the area of incident radiation and the detector thickness b (small enough to neglect
temperature gradient in it ), then the charge induced will be

(2)
where ∆T is the increment in temperature of the detector.
 The resulting voltage will be

(3)
 When the incident radiation is pulsating and has a power Pi, the resulting voltage on the
capacitor is

(4)
where Rv (V/W) is the responsivity or voltage sensitivity,

(5)
where
o α = fraction of incident power converted into heat
o p = pyroelectric coefficient for the material , τ = thermal time constant

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 18

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

o CE = the volumetric specific heat capacity [≈ Q / V∆T] [J/(m3K)]

o ε = the dielectric constant,
o ω = the pulsating frequency for the incident radiation.

 The corresponding short-circuit current is

(6)
where Ri (A/W) is the current responsivity, given by

(7)
 As shown in figure 3.21, Ri is a high-pass response for frequencies above that determined
by the thermal constant of the material. Rv has a bandpass response.

Figure 3.21 Frequency response of pyroelectric sensors in voltage mode (Rv) and
current mode (Ri)

 However, equation (5) Rv for is a lowpass response because of the thermal time constant,
but the device responds only to temperature changes and, hence, there is no dc response.
 The upper corner frequency for commercial sensors is from 0.1 Hz to above 1 Hz.
 The voltage mode usually yields the best signal-to-noise ratio.
 The current mode yields a larger output signal and has a flatter frequency response.

 Pyroelectric sensors are also sensitive to thermal noise.

 The noise equivalent power (NEP) is the equivalent input power that results in an output
response equal to that of thermal fluctuations in the detector, in a given bandwidth.
 The detectivity is D = 1/NEP
 The NEP depends on wavelength, operating frequency, temperature, and noise
bandwidth (usually 1 Hz).
 For an ideal detector with area Ad cm2, at ambient temperature the NEP is about
5.5 x 10-11 √𝐴𝑑 (W/√𝐻𝑧).
 The D* (D-star) parameter normalizes the NEP to a given constant area,

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 19

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Figure 3.22 shows the equivalent circuit for a noisy pyroelectric sensor. The star symbol for the
current generator represents thermal noise indicating that it is a random signal.

Figure 3.22 Equivalent circuit for a pyroelectric sensor including thermal noise .

Pyroelectric Materials
 Pyroelectricity, like piezoelectricity, is also based on crystal anisotropy
 Ten of the 21 noncentrosymmetrical crystallographic classes have a polar axis of
symmetry that display pyroelectric properties.

 There are two groups of pyroelectric materials: linear and ferroelectric.

 The polarization of linear materials cannot be changed by inverting the electric field.
 This group includes materials such as tourmaline, lithium sulfate, and cadmium and selenium
sulfides.
 The polarization of ferroelectric can be reversed by the application of an external electric
field in the opposite direction.
 Some ferroelectric materials with pyroelectric properties are lithium tantalate, strontium
and barium niobate, lead zirconate-titanate, and triglicine sulfate (TGS).
 Some polymeric materials such as polyvinylidene (PVF2 or PVDF) are also pyroelectric.
 Pyroelectric properties disappear at the Curie temperature.
 The ideal pyroelectric material should have a high pyroelectric coefficient, a low
volumetric specific heat capacity, and a low permittivity.

Radiation Laws: Planck, Wien, and Stefan-Boltzmann

 The surface temperature of a heated target can be measured by allowing its emitted
radiation to be absorbed by a pyroelectric detector.
 At any temperature all bodies emit radiation and absorb that coming from other bodies
in their environment.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 20

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 If all bodies are not at the same temperature, the hotter ones will cool and the colder ones
will heat, so as to reach thermal equilibrium.
 When equilibrium is reached, all bodies emit as much radiation as they receive.
 The ratio between the energy emitted by a given body per unit area per unit time and
that emitted by a blackbody under the same conditions is the emissivity of that body ε.
 For a blackbody, ε = 1.
 The emissivity depends on the wavelength, the temperature, the physical state, and the
chemical characteristics of the surface.
 The energy Wλ emitted by the blackbody per unit time, per unit area, at a given
wavelength λ and temperature T, is given by Planck's law,

(1)
 The emissivity of real bodies depends on the wavelength, and we have

(2)
 The maximal emitted power for a blackbody is at a wavelength

(3)
is the equation for Wien's displacement law.
 It indicates that the maximum is obtained at a wavelength that decreases for increasing
temperatures.

 Figure 3.23 shows the power flux per unit area emitted by the blackbody at different
temperatures and at different wavelengths (Planck's law). The dashed line passes
through the maximums (Wien's law).
 The total flux power emitted by the blackbody per unit area is obtained by integrating
Wλ for all wavelengths.
 In a half-plane (solid angle 2π), the total emitted flux is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature

 σ= 5.67 pW/cm2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 21

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Figure 3.23

 When this radiation arrives at an object, part of it is absorbed.

 When the absorption is high, the increase in temperature of the object can be significant.
 This is the principle of operation for thermal detectors: thermopiles and bolometers
(RTD, thermistors, pyroelectric detectors).

Applications
The most common application for the pyroelectric effect is the detection of thermal radiation
at ambient temperature. It has been applied to
 Pyrometers - noncontact temperature meters in furnaces, melted glass or metal, films,
and heat loss assessment in buildings
 radiometers - measurement of power generated by a radiation source.
 IR analyzers - based on the strong absorption of IR by CO2 and other gases
 intruder and position detection, automatic faucet control, fire detection, high-power laser
pulse detection, and high-resolution thermometry.
 Medical thermometers measure ear temperature detect infrared radiation from the
eardrum and surrounding tissue.

 Pyroelectric sensors are faster than other thermal detectors (thermocouples,

thermistors) because they are thin, have high sensitivity, and do not need to reach
thermal equilibrium with the radiation source.
 Thus used for imaging by scanning the surface to be detected, as in infrared
thermography and applied in nondestructive testing, hot spot monitoring, printed
circuit testing, and night vision.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 22

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSORS
The Photovoltaic Effect
 The photovoltaic effect is the generation of an electric potential when the radiation ionizes
a region where there is a potential barrier. It was discovered by E. Becquerel in 1839.
 The generated voltage is a function of the incoming radiation intensity.
 When a p-doped semiconductor contacts an n-doped semiconductor, charge carriers move
across the junction and recombine with charge carriers of opposite sign.
 As a result, at the contact surface there are very few free charge carriers.
 The positive ions in the n region and the negative ions in the p region produce an intense
electric field that opposes the diffusion of additional charge carriers through this potential
barrier.
 Thus an equilibrium is attained between the diffusion current and the current induced by
this electric field.
 As shown in figure 3.24, a radiation of energy larger than the semiconductor band gap
generates additional electron-hole pairs in the open circuit p-n junction.

Figure 3.24 Photoelectric effect in a p-n junction.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 23

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 The accumulation of electrons in the n region and of holes in the p region results in a
change in contact potential VP that can be measured by means of external connections to a
load resistance.
 This open-circuit voltage increases with the intensity of the incident radiation, until a
saturation point is reached (the limit is the band-gap energy).
 If the contacts are short-circuited, the current is proportional to the irradiation for a broad
range of values.
 Figure 3.25 shows the simplified equivalent circuit. isc is the shortcircuit current, Rp is the
parallel resistance, Rs is the output series resistance, and Cd is the junction capacitance. RL
is the load resistance.

Figure 3.25 Equivalent simplified circuit for a photovoltaic detector.

Materials
 The materials are so selected that it can detect a particular wavelength.
 In the visible and near-infrared regions, silicon and selenium are used.
 Silicon is in the form of homojunctions.
 Selenium in the form of a selenium layer (p) covering cadmium oxide (n).
 For silicon, an intrinsic silicon region is added between the p and n regions (p-i-n
detectors) with a wider depletion region, which yields a better efficiency at large
wavelengths, faster speed, and lower noise and dark current.
 At other wavelengths, germanium, indium antimonide (SbIn), and indium arsenide
(AsIn), among others, are used.

Applications
 Photovoltaic detectors are used either in applications where light intensity is measured
or in applications where light is used to sense a different quantity.
 They are used, in analytical instruments such as flame photometers and colorimeters, in
infrared pyrometers, in pulse laser monitors, in smoke detectors, in exposure meters in
photography, and in card readers.

ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS
 Potentiometric electrochemical sensors yield an electric potential in response to a
concentration change in a chemical sample.
 Amperometric sensors use an applied voltage to yield an electric current in response to
a concentration change in a chemical sample.
 Ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) are potentiometric sensors based on the voltage generated
in the interface between phases having different concentrations.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 24

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 Assume that there is only one ion species whose concentration changes from one phase
to another, or that there are more ions but a selective membrane allows only one specific
ion to go through it.
 Then the tendency for that ion to diffuse from the high concentration region to the low-
concentration region is opposed by an electric potential difference due to the ion electric
charge.
 When we have equilibrium between both forces (diffusion and electric potential), the
difference in potential is given by the Nernst equation (first reported in 1899),

where
o R = 8.31 J/(mol.K) is the gas constant,
o T is the temperature in kelvins,
o z is the valence for the ion,
o F = 96,500 C is Faraday's constant, and ai is the ion activity.

 For a liquid solution, activity is defined as

where
o Ci is the concentration for species i, and
o fi is the activity coefficient that describes the extent to which the behavior of species
i diverges from the ideal, which assumes that each ion is independent of the others.
 At high concentrations fi < 1.
 For very diluted concentrations, fi ≈ 1.
 This measurement principle is applied by using a two electrode arrangement as shown
in Figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26 Measurement arrangement using an ion-selective electrode (ISE).

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 25

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 One electrode includes has the ion selective membrane and it contains a solution having
a known concentration for ion species i.
 The other electrode is a reference, and all ions present in the sample to be measured can
freely diffuse through its membrane.
 This arrangement involves several interfaces, but only the one across the ion-selective
membrane generates a variable potential

where ai is the activity for the ionic species of interest in the sample, and E0 and k are
constants.
 Since ISE is sensitive to temperature, it is very important to know the cell temperature to
correctly interpret the measured potential difference.
 When the quantity of interest is not the ionic activity but the concentration

 If the activity coefficient is constant, then

 ISEs are bulky (100 mm to 150 mm in length and 10 mm in diameter), fragile, and require
maintenance because the electrolyte is volatile.
 Output impedance for ISEs is very high, normally from 20 MΩ to 1 GΩ, thus require
electrometer amplifiers with very high input impedance.
o Otherwise, current through the cell would imbalance the chemical reaction,
leading to variation in its electric potential.

Materials
 Depending on the material for the membrane, there are different kinds of selective
electrodes.
 Primary electrodes have a single membrane that is crystalline.
 When it is crystalline, it can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
 In heterogeneous electrodes the crystalline material is mixed with a matrix of inert material.
 Crystalline membrane electrodes are applied to concentration measurement for𝐹 − , 𝐶𝑙 − ,
𝐵𝑟 − , 𝐼 − , Cu2+, Pb2+, and Cd2+, among others.
 The most common electrodes with a noncrystalline membrane are glass electrodes, like
used for pH and Na+ measurement.
 Some metal salts that have high electric conductivity are deposited on a metal electrode to
act as electrolyte. These are termed solid-state electrodes.
 Other electrodes use a membrane (such as PVC or polyethylene) that includes an ion
exchanger or a neutral material that transports the ion.
 Double-membrane electrodes are gas electrodes that has a porous membrane through
which the gas diffuses and the presence of the gas produces a change (e.g., in pH).
 This method is applied for the concentration measurement of CO2, SO2, and NO2.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 26

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

APPLICATIONS
ISEs are used for concentration measurement
 in agriculture to analyze soils and fertilizers,
 in biomedical sciences and clinical laboratories for blood and urine analysis,
 in chemical and food industries, and
 in environmental monitoring to measure ambient pollution.

 Solid electrolyte oxygen sensors are based on the principle that oxygen ions adsorbed by
a metal oxide have an influence on the concentration of charge carriers and on
conductivity of the oxide- based on ions, hence it is an electrolyte.
 A common solid electrolyte for O2 detection is yttrium-doped zirconia (ZrO2-Y2O3)
placed between two porous thick-film platinum electrodes, inside a temperature-
controlled chamber at 6000C to 8500C, as shown in Figure 3.27.

Figure 3.27 A potentiometric oxygen sensor

 A potential difference is generated between electrodes on opposite sides of a stabilized

zirconia membrane at high temperature.
 The open-circuit output voltage is

where
o (pO2)1 and (pO2)2 are the oxygen partial pressures inside and outside the electrolyte.
o R = 8.31 J/(mol.K) is the gas constant,
o T is the temperature in kelvins,
o F = 96,500 C is Faraday's constant, and ai is the ion activity.

 If (pO2)2 is the partial pressure in a reference gas pressure from E we can determine (pO2)1
at a given temperature.

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 27

 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING

 These sensors are fast and withstand temperatures from 6000C to 12000C, but they drift
with temperature.
 They can be as small as 1 cm (length) by 2 mm (diameter).
 Because they consist of solid elements, their sensitivity to acceleration and vibration is
minimal.
 Their main shortcomings are that they need a high temperature to work and have a low
sensitivity to pressure changes.
 The voltage in the above equation is proportional to the logarithm of the ratio between
pressures, not to the pressure ratio. Hence, they can operate over a wide range of oxygen
concentration.
 They are used to determine the air-to-fuel ratio in internal combustion engines in
automobiles, boilers, and furnaces.

**************************************************************************************************

DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 28