SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING – 18EC652

MODULE – 4
DIGITAL AND INTELLIGENT SENSORS

 The presence of digital systems for information processing and display in measurement
and control systems makes digital sensors very attractive.
 Because their output is in digital form, they require only very simple signal conditioning
and are less susceptible to electromagnetic interference than analog sensors.
 Digital sensors are grouped into 3 classes:
 The first yields a digital version of the measurand. This group includes position
encoders.
 The second group is based on physical oscillatory phenomenon that is later sensed by
a conventional modulating or generating sensor. Sensors in this group are designated
as self-resonant, variable-frequency, or quasi-digital sensors. They require an
electronic circuit (a digital counter) to yield the desired digital output signal.
 The third group of digital sensors use modulating sensors included in variable
electronic oscillators. Because the oscillation frequency is measured digitally, these
sensors do not need any ADC.

POSITION ENCODERS
Linear and angular position sensors are the only type of digital output sensors available
in different commercial models. Incremental encoders are in fact quasi-digital.
Incremental Position Encoders
 An incremental position encoder consists of a linear rule or a low-inertia disk driven
by the part whose position is to be determined.
 As shown in figure 4.1, the element includes two types of regions or sectors arranged
in a repetitive pattern having a property that differentiates them.

Figure 4.1 Principle of linear and rotary incremental position encoders

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 Physical properties used for sector differentiation can be magnetic, electric, or optic.
 A fixed head or reading device senses these properties and yields a definite output
change when there is an increment in position equal to twice the pitch p.
 The basic output is a pulse train with 50% duty cycle.
𝜋𝑑
 A disk with diameter d gives 𝑚 = pulses for each turn.
2𝑝
 This sensing method is simple and economic but has some shortcomings.
1. The information about the position is lost whenever power fails, or just after
switch-on, and also under strong interference.
2. To obtain a digital output compatible with input-output peripherals in a computer,
an up-down counter is necessary.
3. They do not detect the movement direction unless additional elements are added.

Magnetic incremental position encoders

 A toothed wheel or etched metal tape scale of ferromagnetic material produces a
voltage impulse each time it passes by a fixed coil placed in a constant magnetic field as
shown in Figure 4.2a.
 The resulting signal is almost sinusoidal

Figure 4.2 a. Magnetic incremental position encoders using Coil and magnet

 A minimal and maximal velocity determines the application range for this method as
used in antilock braking systems (ABS) in cars.
 An AMR or GMR sensor can replace the coil to obtain a change in resistance whose
amplitude does not depend on the turning speed.
 Figure 8.2b shows, an inductive system but this time based on a toroid with two
windings.
 One winding is used for exciting, using currents between 20 kHz and 200 kHz, and the
other is used for detection.
 There are two output states:
 “1” when no voltage is detected and
 “0” when a voltage with the exciting frequency is detected.

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Figure 4.2 b. Magnetic incremental position encoders with Toroidal core

 The moving element has magnetized regions.

 Each time one of these regions passes in front of the reading head, the core saturates
(because the flux emanating from the material adds to the flux created by the exciting
signal) and the secondary winding does not detect any voltage: state “1”.
 When there is a region with no magnetization in front of the reading head, the
secondary winding detects a voltage induced by the primary: state “0”.
 A Hall effect sensor, magnetoresistor, or Wiegand sensor can replace the toroidal core.
 Inductive encoders are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

Electric encoders
 Electric encoders can be capacitive or contacting encoders.
 They use a patterned strip without shielding between the scale and the ruler.
 This results in a cyclic change in capacitance with a period equal to the pitch, as low as
0.4 mm.
 The contacting encoder, as shown in Figure 4.3, has a moving element formed by an
alumina substrate with a fused glass layer and a conductive palladium-silver pattern
screen printed on top of the glass.
 During the fabrication process, the conductive pattern sinks into the glass to yield a 5
mm to 8 mm step-height differential between the conductor and the insulator surface.
 The wiper is from precious metal.
 This silver-in-glass technology offers low cost, ruggedness, high-resistance to corrosion,
and life expectancy of up to fifteen million cycles, far above the 100,000 cycles of former
PCB designs.

Figure 4.3 Silver-in-glass technology for contacting incremental position encoder

Optical encoders
 These are based on opaque and transparent regions, on reflective and nonreflective
regions, and also on interference fringes.

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 The fixed reading head includes a light source (infrared LED), and a photodetector
(phototransistor or photodiode).
 Dust-particle buildup, time and temperature drifts for optoelectronic components and
vibration effects on focusing elements are the main problems in these encoders.

 With opaque and transparent regions - chromium on glass, slotted metal and so on are
used. The emitter and the receiver must be placed on each side of the moving element
as shown in Figure 4.4a.
 Glass disks are more stable, rigid, hard, and flat than metal disks, but are less resistant
to vibration and shock.
 With reflective and nonreflective zones - polished steel with an engraved surface as
shown in Figure 4.4b. The emitter and the detector must be on the same side of the
coding element.

Figure 4.4 Incremental optical encoder. (a) With opaque and transparent sectors. (b) With
reflective and nonreflective sectors.

Interference fringe encoders

 Interference fringe encoders are based on moiré patterns.
 For a linear movement, a fixed and a movable ruler having lines inclined with respect
to each other is used as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Optical incremental encoder based on interference fringes (moiré patterns).

 The horizontal dark fringe moves in the vertical direction when the sliding rule moves
horizontally.
 If the inclination α is such that tan 𝛼 = 𝑝⁄𝑑 , a relative displacement p (line pitch)
produces a vertical displacement d of a dark horizontal fringe.

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 If the relative inclination is n times higher, n dark horizontal fringes appear.
 Interference fringes from a rotary movement can be obtained from two superimposed
disks, one fixed with N radial lines and the other one movable with N + 1 radial lines.
 Interference fringes are also obtained if both disks have N lines but one is off center, or
one has N lines with a different inclination.
 A light emitter- detector pair yields an almost sinusoidal signal with N cycles/turn for
a rotary encoder.
 Incremental encoders have resolution ranges from 100 counts/turn to 81,000
counts/turn and accuracy up to 30”.

 When the detector produces two sinusoidal outputs with different phase shifts,
interpolation methods can increase the resolution by a factor of up to 256.
 One interpolation method digitally measures the phase from the quadrature outputs

where Vp is the amplitude of the output voltage, N is the number of steps (pitches) in one
turn, and θ is the current shaft angle, calculated from

 θ is a periodic quantity that gives 2π rad for each 3600/N angle increment.
 To measure the phase, the 2 π rad phase plane is divided in several sectors and the
sector corresponding to each Va, Vb pair is stored in a ROM.
 Va and Vb are each digitized by an ADC, and the system looks in the ROM for the
corresponding phase.

 Encoder disks diameters are from 25 mm to 90 mm.

 Linear incremental encoders can measure position with resolution of up to 0.5
µm/period and accuracy up to 50 µm.
 They are used for position control in
 reading/writing head positioning in disk and magnetic tape drives,
 paper positioning in printers, copiers, and fax machines,
 tool positioning in automatic machines, and dimensional metrology.

Resolution:
 Optical encoders yield the highest resolution. The limiting factor is the photodetector size.
 Resolution can be increased by using one or several fixed grids or masks with opaque and
transparent regions, placed between the movable element and the detector, and having
the same pitch as the encoded element as shown in Figure 4.6.
 The detector receives the maximal light when all the grids and the movable encoded
element are perfectly aligned.

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 As the encoded element moves, the light received will decrease until reaching a
minimum.
 The photodetector averages the signal from more than one slot.
 The output is a continuous (not discrete) signal between maxima that can be interpolated.

Figure 4.6 Use of a fixed grid for increasing the resolution

 Pulse multiplication increases the disk resolution by two or four times.

 An EX-OR gate fed by two out-of-phase signals duplicates the number of pulses (Figure
4.7a).
 Differentiating a single signal results in an impulse for each rising or falling edge
 If those impulses are further rectified and stretched, the number of pulses is duplicated
(Figure4.7b).
 Differentiating two pulse channels improves the resolution by four.

Figure 4.7 Pulse multiplication to increase encoder resolution.

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Direction of movement:
 To determine the movement direction, we require another reading element, and
sometimes another encoded element, together with some appropriate electronic
circuits.
 In inductive encoders, another sensing coil is placed to obtain a 900 out-of-phase signal,
termed as quadrature encoding as shown in Figure 4.8.
 In one direction, signal A leads signal B, whereas in the opposite direction, signal B
leads signal A.
 A phase detector (JK-FF in Figure 4.8) indicates whether the turning direction is
clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW).

Figure 4.8 Detection of movement direction in incremental encoders.

 In optical and contacting (electric) encoders, another encoded track having a small
phase shift with respect to the first one is added, with its corresponding read head.
 In interference fringe encoders and in high-resolution optical encoders, two optical
units are used, which yield two signals with a 900 relative phase shift.
 Some encoders use two additional units at 1800 with respect to the other two, to further
increase the resolution.
Absolute positioning:
 In order to detect the absolute position of the movable part, an up-down counter is
used that is fed by pulses from the detector (Figure 4.9a).
 The direction of counting is determined by the movement direction.
 Resetting is done through a third encoder output signal termed marker or zero index
(home position)(Figure 4.9b)

Figure 4.9a An up-down counter offers absolute positioning from an incremental

encoder with two out-of-phase outputs

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Figure 4.9b Additional marker for absolute positioning.

 Alternatively, one output controls the direction of counting while the other output is
counted (Figure 4.9a).

 Incremental encoders are limited by the maximal frequency accepted by electronic

circuits if the maximal rotating speed is very high.
 Digital tachometers having only one track or a few tracks yield a lower number of
pulses at each turn.

Absolute Position Encoders

 Absolute position encoders yield a unique digital output corresponding to each
resolvable position of a movable element, rule, or disk, with respect to an internal
reference.
 The movable element is formed by regions having a distinguishing property, and is
assigned the binary values 0 or 1.
 Their tracks are arranged so that the reading system directly yields the coded number
corresponding to each position.
 Each track corresponds to an output bit, with the innermost track yielding the most
significant bit.
 The most common sensors for these encoders are optical sensors.

Figure 4.10 Principle of absolute position encoders for linear and rotary movements

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 Absolute encoders have intrinsic immunity to interruptions and electromagnetic
interference. They do not accumulate errors.
 Feedback systems relying on them do not require a homing sequence at start up, or when
power fails, or at routine intervals during operation.
 They have a more complex reading head. There are as many reading elements as encoded
tracks.
 They must be perfectly aligned; otherwise the output code may be ambiguous when
changing from one position to a contiguous position.
 Binary codes with unit distance in all positions are unambiguous.
 Table below shows the weight for each bit and the pattern of the coded regions
corresponding to different codes.

Common Codes in Absolute Position Encoders

 The Gray code is the commonest continuous code and has the same resolution as the
natural binary code.
 If the output information is to be sent to a computer, it must be first converted to binary
code.
 Gray to Binary code conversion is done as following. Figure 4.11 shows the corresponding
circuit

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Figure 4.11 Gray to Binary code converter

 To numerically display the position, a conversion to BCD code is performed.

 Disks directly coded do not require any conversion, but have the ambiguity problem.
 To resolve this, a double set of reading heads displaced by a given distance between them
is used and decision rule is applied so that the reading only from one of the two sensors
for each track is accepted.
 Also, a marker is placed in the center of each track and accepts the read head signal only
when it signals a non-transition zone between positions.

Resolution:
 The resolution of absolute encoders is from 6 bits to 21 bits in Gray code (8 bits to 12 bits
is common), with diameters from 50 mm to 175 mm for rotary encoders and accuracy up
to 20”.
 The resolution improves by increasing the number of encoded tracks, but the resulting
increase in diameter and inertia limits this solution.
 An alternative is to use a gear and another encoder, but the final resolution always
limited by that of the first disk.
 Another method to increase resolution is to add a fixed grid to produce sinusoidal
outputs and then interpolate as in incremental encoders.
 The movable disk includes an additional radial track along the disk periphery as shown
in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12 Digital encoder disk with an added track (along the external perimeter

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 A more efficient absolute encoder has a single encoded track placed along the
periphery.
 The reading head is at a distance that depends on the pitch and the desired resolution.
 For a 0.1 mm pitch, to have a 10 bit resolution a circumference of 102.4 mm is required,
hence a radius of 16.3 mm.
 The track code is a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS).
 A PRBS with 2n - 1 terms can be generated using an n-bit register with a modulo-2
feedback.
 Figure 4.13, shows the 4 bit shift register with the feedback equation R (5) =R (1) ⨁ R (2)
that generates the 15-bit sequence 000100110101111.
 A 4 bit window sliding over this sequence is unique.
 Figure shows the code corresponding to the positions x = 0 and x = 7.

Figure 4.13 A 4 bit shift register with feedback generates a 15 bit pseudorandom binary
Sequence

Applications
 High-resolution measurement and control of linear and angular positions.
 Slow movements or where the movable element remains inactive for long time periods,
such as parabolic antennas.
 In robotics, plotters, machine tools, read head positioning in magnetic storage disks,
radiation source positioning in radiotherapy, radar, telescope orientation, overhead cranes,
and valve control.
 Also sense any quantity that can be converted to displacement by means of an appropriate
primary sensor as in liquid level measurements using a float.

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RESONANT SENSORS
 Sensors based on a resonant physical phenomenon produce an output frequency that
depends on a measurand affecting the oscillation frequency.
 They require a frequency-counter to measure either the frequency or the oscillation period
based on an accurate and stable clock.
 Sensors use either harmonic oscillators or relaxation oscillators.
 Harmonic oscillators store energy that changes from one form of storage to another.
 In relaxation oscillators there is a single energy storage form, and the stored energy is
periodically dissipated through some reset mechanism.
 Quartz clocks are accurate to derive a time base for most sensor applications, but they
drift with time and temperature.
 Time drifts arise from
 structural changes due to defects in crystal lattices,
 mechanical stress from supporting elements and
 mass changes because of absorption and desorption of contaminant gases inside the
crystal package.
 Aging curves describing Δf / f are first exponential but become stable after a few weeks or
months as shown in Figure 4.14a.

Figure 4.14a Aging curve for a quartz crystal oscillator (b) the temperature stability of
quartz oscillators

 Thermal drifts are the basis of quartz thermometers and have the form of a recumbent
``S.''
 Their value depends on the particular crystal cut.
 Figure 4.14b shows a family of temperature stability curves for a 10 MHz fundamental
quartz crystal with the angle of cut with respect to the z-axis as parameter; the z-axis is
the optical axis, which permits light to pass readily.
 For quartz clocks, the 35013’ cut yields the best stability over a short temperature range
about ambient temperature.
 The 35015’ cut (the AT cut, preferred above 1 MHz) has a better stability from 00C to 500C.

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Sensors Based on Quartz Resonators

 Quartz is piezoelectric and therefore an applied voltage stresses the crystal.
 If the voltage alternates at a proper rate, the crystal vibrates to produce a steady signal.
 Figure 4.15 (a) shows a high-frequency equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric material such
as quartz with metal electrodes deposited on two faces.
 L1 is associated with the mass of the
crystal,
 C1 with its elasticity or mechanical
compliance,
 R1 with its internal friction (resulting
in heat dissipation) when oscillating.
 C0 is the electrostatic capacitance of
Figure 4.15 (a) Equivalent circuit of quartz the crystal between the electrodes plus
crystal. the holder and the leads.

 The presence of a resonant circuit in Figure 4.15a permits the crystal to be used in an
oscillator.
 At series resonance

 As the frequency increases, the crystal

behaves as a positive reactance in series
with a resistance.
 At the antiresonant-frequency fa, the
crystal's reactance is maximal.
 The range from fs to fa is referred to as
the crystal's bandwidth.

Figure 4.15 (b) The reactance curve of

quartz crystal
 A high-purity single crystal yields a mechanical resonance with large long-term stability.
 Short-term stability depends on the quality factor Q (stiffness and low hysteresis) and
equivalent inductance
 Short-term stability permits the design of high-resolution sensors.
 Long-term stability implies a longer time interval between calibrations.

Digital Quartz Thermometers

 Since the quartz crystal is temperature-dependent, the oscillation frequency displays a
thermal drift.
 If precision-cut quartz crystals are used, the relationship between temperature and
frequency is very stable and repeatable.
 Then, from the oscillation frequency the temperature of the element can be determined.
 The general equation is

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where T0 is an arbitrary reference temperature (usually 250C), and f0, a, b, and c depend on
the cutting orientation.
 Ideally b = c = 0, but this is not easy.
 Alternatively high sensitivity and repeatability is to achieved instead of linearity and
obtain T from f - f0 by a look-up table as shown in Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16 Simplified diagram for a quartz digital thermometer.

 Some temperature probes include the electronic circuitry to output a pulse frequency
signal so as to enable remote sensing with low interference susceptibility than analog
voltage output.
 Oscillator frequencies range from 256 kHz to 28 MHz with temperature coefficients (a)
from 19 x 10-6 /0 C to 90 x 10-6 /0C.
 Sensitivities are up to about 1000 Hz/0C in the range from -500C to 1500C.
 Resolution can be as high as 0.00010C.
 Some probes reach -400C to 3000C, but with reduced linearity.
 Low-mass probes can be used for infrared radiation intensity measurement.

Quartz Microbalances
 The oscillation frequency of a crystal resonator decreases when the crystal mass
increases.
 If the initial oscillation frequency is f0, a deposition of a small mass Δm on a crystal
with surface area A and density ρ yields an approximate frequency shift given by the
Sauerbrey equation

where N is a constant and it is assumed that the mass is rigid.

 Disks with 10 to 15 mm diameter and 0.1 to 0.2 mm thickness yield resonant
frequencies from 5 MHz to 20 MHz and have a sensitivity of about 189 ng/(cm2 .Hz).
 A resonant temperature sensor when used compensates for any temperature
interference.
 This sensing method is applied to humidity measurement by covering the crystal with
a hygroscopic material exposed to the environment.
 Water absorbed increases the mass and reduces the crystal oscillation frequency.
 Crystals coated with specific organic nonvolatile materials can detect specific volatile
compounds in a gas phase with resolution of nanograms per square centimeter.

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Quartz crystals oscillators are widely used
 as thin-film thickness monitors to control deposition rates and
 in situ measurement of coating film thickness in the semiconductor and optical
industries.

Quartz Resonators for Force and Pressure Sensing

 Quartz crystals have highly stable elastic properties with very low creep and hysteresis
 Hence, they are used as mechanical resonators whose resonance frequency depends on
the applied stress.
 For a string-type resonator, the natural mechanical resonant frequency is

where n is the harmonic number considered, l is the length of the ``string'' (e.g., a long
slender quartz beam), T is the stress applied, and r is the density of the crystal material.

 Quartz being piezoelectric, the vibration can be excited by a driving alternating voltage.
 Voltage applied to surface electrodes creates an electric field that flexes a quartz beam
as shown in Figure 4.17a and the oscillation frequency is that of the voltage detected by
electrodes deposited on the crystal.

Figure 4.17 (a) Quartz beam (b) Force sensor based on a quartz vibrating beam

 The high stiffness of quartz makes it suitable for force, torque, and pressure
measurement.
 A matched crystal placed nearby yields a signal to compensate temperature
interference.
 Figure 4.17b shows a sensor for tensile and compressive force based on a single quartz
beam.
 Other models have two or three beams.
 Load cells use a push rod to transmit the input force to the quartz sensor through a
lever mechanism.

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 Pressure sensors rely on either the force exerted by a primary sensor (diaphragm,
bellows) or the changing resonant frequency because of the pressure directly applied to
a quartz diaphragm.

Quartz Angular Rate Sensors

 A vibrating quartz tuning fork can sense angular velocity because of the Coriolis effect.
 The sensor consists of a double-ended quartz tuning fork micromachined from a single
quartz crystal as shown in Figure 4.18 rotating at the angular velocity Ω.

Figure 4.18 Angular rate sensor based on the Coriolis effect

 An oscillator excites the drive tines so that they move toward and away from one
another at a high frequency. Because of the Coriolis effect, there is a force acting on
each tine,

where m is the tine mass and vr is its instantaneous radial velocity.

 F is perpendicular to both Ω and vr, hence to the plane of the fork assembly.
 Because the tines move in opposite directions, the resultant forces also have opposite
directions.
 This produces a torque proportional to Ω.
 The pickup tines then move in and out of the plane, producing a signal that is
amplified and demodulated to yield a dc voltage proportional to the rate of rotation Ω.

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 Quartz angular rate sensors replace spinning-wheel gyroscopes because of their lower
cost, increased reliability and light weight.

APPLICATIONS:
It has been used
 to control angular velocity in aircraft, robots, and hydraulic equipment,
 to instrument automobile motions during crash tests,
 to evaluate rider quality in high-speed trains,
 to navigate autonomous underwater vehicles,
 to stabilize infrared cameras on helicopters, and in other applications.

SAW Sensors
 A perturbation produces waves on the surface of a liquid as well as on solid.
 A method to produce a surface perturbation is to place two interleaved metallic electrodes
(e.g., aluminum) on the surface of a piezoelectric material as shown in Figure 4.19.

Figure 4.19 Principle of surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters.

 A voltage of frequency f applied to the electrodes separated by a distance d produces a

surface deformation that propagates in both directions as a surface wave with velocity v,
depending on the material, provided that v = 2 f d.
 A similar electrode pair produces an alternating output voltage when the deformation
wave arrives at it.
 These devices called SAW (surface acoustic wave) are extensively used in filters and
oscillators above 100 MHz.
 The velocity v for the surface wave depends on the deformation state for the surface and
also on the temperature as they influence the density and elastic properties for the
material, in addition to altering the distance between electrodes.
 This is the principle for the use of these devices in sensors.
 SAW sensors are constructed as delay lines and placed in the feedback loop of an
amplifier, thus forming an oscillator whose oscillation frequency depends on the surface
deformation as shown in Figure 4.20.

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Figure 4.20 Oscillator based on a surface acoustic wave device used as a delay line.

 The total phase shift in the feedback loop is

where
o 𝛷0 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿⁄𝑣 is the phase shift due to the wave transit time from one electrode pair
to the other;
o 𝛿𝛷0 is the phase increment due to the substrate deformation and temperature
change, if any; and
o 𝛷𝑒𝑥 is the phase shift due to the amplifier and to the external impedance matching
network.

 The system oscillates when 𝛷𝑇 = 2𝑛π and the amplifier gain exceeds the total loss in the
system.
 The oscillation frequency conveys information about the measurand.
 Alternately, the delay time in a delay line can be measured with an emitter and a receiver
as shown in Figure 4.20.
 Any change in the propagation zone (L) that affects the velocity v or the length will be
detected.
 The emitter sends a wave packet that propagates on the surface with a velocity that
depends on the boundary conditions.
 Piezoelectric materials used for SAW sensors are quartz and LiNdO3.

APPLICATIONS
 SAW SENSORS are used to measure temperature, force, torque, pressure, acceleration,
and gas concentration by mass adsorption (chemosensors).
 Gas flow is measured by detecting its cooling effect on a SAW delay line oscillator.

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 The crystal surface coated with selective binding agent can be used for detecting CO,
HCl, H2, H2S, NH3, NO2, SO2, hydrocarbons and organophosphorous compounds.
 An uncoated SAW sensor working on the selective condensation of vapors can detect 500
chemical species.

 SAW sensors are very small, because v is of the order of 300 m/s to 4000 m/s and d
(spatial periodicity) is about 1 μm.
 They are simple and manufactured by photolithographic methods , hence relatively
inexpensive.

Vibrating Wire Strain Gages

 Figure 4.21 shows a Vibrating Wire Strain. When excited by a current pulse, the wire
vibrates in transverse direction.
 The lower transverse oscillation frequency for a vibrating taut string or wire of length l is

where F is the mechanical force applied to it and μ is the longitudinal mass density
(mass/length).

Figure 4.21 Vibrating wire gage

 If the position of one of the ends changes as it is mounted on a movable support, then the
oscillation period is directly proportional to the displacement.
 If a force is applied, the resulting oscillation frequency is directly proportional.

 Strain measurement can be done using the above equation, which results in

where E is Young's modulus and A is the wire's cross section.

 The oscillation frequency is measured with a variable reluctance sensor and is in the
audible range. Hence it is also called an acoustic gage.
 With a self-oscillating system, the detected signal is amplified and fed back to an
electromagnetic driver.
 Some units use the driver alternately as the detector (Figure 4.21).

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 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING – 18EC652
 This principle can sense any physical quantity resulting in a change in l, F, or m.
 A common application is strain or tension measurement.
 Vibrating-wire strain gages can detect nonplane deformation.
 In addition, they are insensitive to resistance changes in connecting wires due to
temperature.
 To compensate for temperature the resistance change of the driving coil wire is measured
as in RTDs.
 Other applications are the measurement of mass, displacement, pressure (using a
diaphragm with an attached magnet as primary sensor), force and weight (using a
cantilever as primary sensor).
 Vibrating strips are also based on the same measurement principle.
 Their lower natural longitudinal oscillation frequency is

where l is the length, E is Young's modulus, and ρ is the density.

 Vibrating strips are used for dust deposition measurement of exhaust gases and also to
measure viscosity.

Vibrating Cylinder Sensors

 The oscillation frequency in a thin (75 μm)-walled cylinder with a closed end, depends on
the dimensions and material for the cylinder and on any mass vibrating together with its
walls.
 To keep the system oscillating an electromagnetic driver is used.
 The pressure difference between both cylinder sides is measured as it results in
mechanical stresses in its walls.
 The same principle can be applied to gas density measurement because the gas near the
walls vibrates when the walls do.
 For corrosive liquids, a glass or ceramic cylinder and a piezoelectric driver are used, thus
avoiding corrosive-prone elements in electromagnetic drivers.
 The most common application of this principle is the measurement of the density of
flowing liquids as shown in Figure 4.22.
 It consists of two parallel pipes that are clamped at their ends and connected to the main
pipe by a flexible joint.
 The two pipes behave as a tuning fork and the oscillation frequency depends on the mass
and density in the form

where f0 is the conduit oscillation frequency when there is no liquid, and ρ0 is a constant
that depends on system geometry.
 The output frequency can be measured with a PLL whose voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO) drives the vibrating tube.

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 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING – 18EC652

Figure 4.22 Vibrating tube method to measure liquid density.

Digital Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters
 The oscillations in a flowing fluid results in a variable frequency signal, which depends on
fluid velocity. These oscillations can be natural or forced.
 For gases, the forced oscillations are produced by placing a grooved conduit inside the
pipe so that the outcoming flow is helical and has its maximal velocity (minimal pressure)
at a point that shifts back and forth.
 The frequency at which this low-pressure point passes by a fixed detector is proportional
to fluid velocity, and therefore to volumetric flow.
 Fluctuations in the shifting point are sensed by a piezoelectric pressure sensor or a
thermistor (for temperature changes).
 Signal frequency ranges from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz.

 For liquids, a blunt object (vortex shedder) is place inside the conduit which is nonaligned
with the flow lines as shown in the Figure 4.23.
 This also works for gas and steam.

Figure 4.23 Vortex Flowmeters

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 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING – 18EC652
 The frequency of the vortices is proportional to the average flow velocity.
 There is always a minimal velocity below which vortex frequency is irregular.
 The larger the pipe diameter, the lower the output frequency.
 The diameter is limited to about 350 mm.

 This method is fairly accurate (about 0.5 %) and independent of fluid viscosity, density,
pressure, and temperature.
 It is used for flow measurements at high temperature and high pressure.
 Its main shortcomings are that it introduces a large drop in pressure and is unsuitable for
dirty, abrasive, or corroding fluids.

Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters

 A mass flowmeter based on the Coriolis effect consists of a U-shaped flow tube that
vibrates at its natural frequency (about 80 Hz) by an electromagnetic device located at the
bend of the tube as shown in Figure 4.24a.
 As the liquid flows into the tube, it experiences the Coriolis force.
 That is, when the liquid enters the tube, it resists being moved upward (or downward) and
reacts by pushing down (respectively, up);
 when the fluid leaves the tube, it resists having its vertical movement decreased and
pushes up (respectively,down) as shown in Figure 4.24b.
 Thus it results in tube twisting (Figure 4.24c) whose amplitude is proportional to the liquid
mass flow rate.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 4.24 (a) Coriolis flowmeter based on a vibrating U tube. (b) When the tube moves
upward, the fluid exerts a downward force at the inlet and an upward force at the outlet
that results in (c) a tube twist.

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 SENSOR & SIGNAL CONDITIONING – 18EC652

 Coriolis flowmeters measure mass directly and can measure corrosive fluids and difficult
fluids such as slurries, mud, and mixtures.
 There are models with two tubes, and different forms (S, Ω, and loop).
 They are not affected by changes in fluid pressure, density, temperature, or viscosity and
can achieve an uncertainty of about 0.3 %.
 They are not useful for low-pressure gas because of the low forces they develop.

Turbine Flowmeters
 Turbine flowmeters consist of a multiple-blade rotor placed inside a pipe with its
rotation axis perpendicular (for low/medium flow rates) or coaxial (for high flow rates)
to the fluid flow.
 The rotor is suspended in the fluid by ball or sleeve bearings.
 As the fluid passes through the blades, the rotor spins at a velocity proportional to the
average flow rate.
 The rotational speed is sensed by a magnetic pickup placed outside the pipe.
 Each time a turbine blade with an attached magnet or Wiegand wire passes the base of
the pickup, it generates an electric pulse.
 Alternatively, the magnet can be mounted in the pickup and the vane rotation changes
the reluctance.
 The total number of pulses in a given time interval is proportional to the total volume
displaced.

 Turbines are intrusive and therefore produce a pressure loss.

 Also, the immersed materials, including bearings, must be chemically compatible with
the fluid.
 Bearings wear out at high flow rates.
 One major advantage is their wide measurement range, usually 20:1 and even 30:1 in
some models.
 Typical uncertainty is about 0.5% for liquids and 1% for gases.
 Temperature and viscosity (for liquids) or pressure (for gases) corrections improve
accuracy.
 Turbine flowmeters are used for fuel flow measurement in aircraft, in water service
monitoring, and in monitoring spirometers.

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DIVYA G.S, ASST.PROF,EC DEPT,AIT 23