MODERN

INDIA
 MODERN HISTORY 2021

Title Page No Title Page No

Mughal Empire 1 Bardoli Satyagraha 87

Consequences of Hartog committee 91

decline of Mughal Empire 10
Abinav Bharat Society 100
The Rajput states 17
Calcutta Session 103
The Sikhs 20
Home Rule Movement 106
The Bengal and its Nawabs 22
Government Acts for
Family system and status Swadeshi Movement 108
of women 32
Swadeshi phase 109
Vasco De Gama 36
Anti partition movement 111
The Portuguese 39
Moderates vs. Extremists 114
The Dutch 40
Komata Maru Incident 117
British entry in trade 41
Home Rule Movement 119
The growth of the EIC trade 42
The Tolstoy farm 123
First Carnatic war 45
Gandhiji In India 124
British occupied Bengal 47
The revolutionary
Subsidiary alliance 53 Terrorists 135

Dalhousie and the policy The Poona Pact 143

of annexation 59
Individual Satyagraha 147
British economic policies 63
Important Happenings 151
British administrative system 71

Social and cultural policy 75

Important concepts 79

Anti-Simon commission 84
 MODERN HISTORY 2021

Mughal Empire deputed by Aurangzeb. The

Mughal Rajput relation became
worse during the period of
AURANGZEB:
Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb was the only Mughal
• Aurangzeb imprisoned his
Emperor who was not a
father and made himself the
drunkard. Aurangzeb is
Padushah in 1658. But his
considered as religiously
actual coronation was
fanatic. He was also a temple
conducted in 1659. Alamgir was
breaker. He persecuted the
the name adopted by Aurangzeb
Hindus and imposed
when he became the Padushah.
prohibition against the free
Aurangzeb is known as ‘Zinda
exercise of Holi and Diwali.
Pir’ or living saint because of his
Aurangzeb died in 1707
simple life.
February 20, at Ahmednagar.
• He banned music and dance. He
Aurangzeb’s tomb is situated at
ousted all the artists from his
Daulatabad in Maharashtra.
court. At the same time, he was
• The unity and stability of the
an accomplished Veena player.
Empire had been shaken up
Aurangzeb was the last great
during the long and strong reign
Mughal Emperor.
of Aurangzeb; yet in spite of his
• In 1675 he executed 9th Sikh
many harmful policies, the
Guru, Guru Tej Behadur
Mughal administration was still
because of his reluctance to
quite efficient and the Mughal
accept Islam. Teg Behadur was
army quite strong at the time, of
executed at the Chandni Chauk.
his death in 1707.
In 1679 Aurangzeb constructed
• Moreover, the Mughal dynasty
the tomb of his only wife Rubiad
still commanded respect in the
Daurani at Aurangabad in
country.
Maharashtra. It is known as
• Later Mughals Bahadurshah I
Bibi ka Makabara. It is
came to the throne after the
otherwise known as Mini
death of Aurangzeb. His real
Tajmahal as it was the blind
name was Muassam.
imitation of Tajmahal.
• In 1739 Nadirshah Quli the
• In the same year he reimpossed
Persian conqueror attacked
jaziya upon all the non-
India during the period of the
Muslims, which was earlier
Mughal Emperor Muhammed
abolished by Akbar.Aurangzeb
Shah or Rustan Khan (1719-
called Shivaji a ‘mountain rat’
1748) and took away Shah
and gave him the title Raja
Jahan’s famous Peacock Throne
because of his guerilla tactics.
and Kohinoor Diamond.
• In 1660 he entrusted
Shaisthakhan to defeat Shivaji. Ahmedshah’s (1748 -1754)
Later in 1665 the treaty of His period saw the mighty invasion of
Purandar was signed between Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.
Maharaja Jai Singh of Amber
and Shivaji. Jaisingh was

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Amber and by forcing Ajit Singh
Akbar Shah II (1806 - 1837) of Marwar to submit to Mughal
He conferred the title ‘‘Raja’’ upon authority.
Ram Mohan Roy. • Bahadur shah’s policy towards
the Maratha sardars (chiefs)
Bahadurshah II (1837-1862) was that of half-hearted
conciliation. He granted them
• He was the last Mughal the sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
emperor. On 17TH May 1857 and he failed to grant them the
Bahadurshah II was declared chauth and thus to satisfy them
the independent Emperor of fully.
India by the Mutineers. • He also did not recognize Shahu
• He was surrendered to Lt as the rightful Maratha King. He
W.S.R. Hodson at Humayun’s thus let Tara Bai and Shahu
Tomb in Delhi. In 1859 he was tight for supremacy over the
deported to Rangoon in Maratha Kingdom.
December where he expired on • The result was that Shahu and
Nov. 7, 1862. The Tomb of the Maratha sardars remained
Bahadurshah II is in Yangon, dissatisfied and the Deccan
the capital of Myanmar. continued to be a prey to
• Bahadurshah II was also a disorder. The peace and order of
famous Urdu Poet. Deccan deteriorated as the
Bahadurshah II was also known Marathas fought themselves
as Bahadurshah Zafar. Zafar and with Mughal empire.
means gifted poet. • Bahadur Shah had tried to
conciliate the rebellious Sikhs
Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) by making peace with Guru
Gobind Singh and giving him a
• After Aurangzeb’s death, high mansab (rank), But after
Bahadur Shah emerged the death of the Guru, the Sikhs
victorious among the 3 once again raised the banner of
brothers. He followed a policy of revolt in the Punjab under the
compromise and conciliation, leadership of Banda Bahadur.
and there was evidence of the • Thus, the hostility between
reversal of some of the Sikhs and Mughals continued.
narrowminded policies and Bahadur Shah conciliated
measures adopted by Chatarsal, the Bundela chief,
Aurangzeb. He adopted a more who remained a loyal feudatory,
tolerant attitude towards the and the Jat chief Churaman,
Hindu chiefs and rajas. There who joined him in the campaign
was no destruction of temples in against Banda Bahadur.
his reign. • Due to the reckless grants of
• He tried to have a greater jagirs and promotions the
control over the Rajput states of financial condition of the
Amber and Marwar (Jodhpur) empire further deteriorated. He
by replacing Jai Singh by his tried to find solution to these
younger brother Vijai Singh at problems but his untimely

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death in 1712 opened new was given title of Mirza Raja
dimension in the history of Sawai and appointed governor
Mughal politics. of Malwa Ajit singh of Marwar
was awarded Title of Maharaja
Jahandar Shah : and appointed governor of
Gujarat.
• After the death of Bahadur Shah • In a nutshell their demands
the war of succession got new during the period of Bahadur
dimension in Mughal politics. Shah I was accepted. Maratha
Until now nobles only ruler was granted the chauth
supported the aspirants to the and sardeshmukhi of Deccan
throne, and now they with a condition that collection
themselves aspired for the would be done by Mughal
power and used princes as mere officials and then handed over
pawns to capture the seats of to Maratha officials.
authority.
• In the succeeding wars of He Tried to improve finances by
succession Jahandar Shah, won taking some steps –
because he was supported by
Zulfiqar Khan, the most  Checked the reckless growth of
powerful noble of the time. jagirs and offices.
Jahandar Shah was a weak and  Compelled the mansabdars (nobles)
degenerate prince who was to maintain their official quota of
wholly devoted to pleasure. troops.
• He lacked good manners and  Encouraged Ijarah or revenue
dignity and decency. Sailendra farming.
Sen describes him as "a
worthless debauch [who] Zulfiqaar khan :
became emperor after
liquidating his three brothers". • “Never underestimate the power
• Zulfiqar Khan, who had become of jealousy and the power of
his wazir made efforts towards envy to destroy. Never
improving the conditions of the underestimate that”- Oliver
empire in the fields of politics, Stone
finance, governance and • Many jealous nobles secretly
military. worked against Zulfiqar Khan.
• Zulfiqar Khan believed that it Worse still, the Emperor too did
was necessary to establish not give him his trust and
friendly relations with the cooperation in full measure. The
Rajput rajas and the Maratha Emperor's ears were poisoned
sardars and to conciliate the against Zulfiqar Khan by
Hindu chieftains in general in unscrupulous favorites.
order to strengthen his own • He was told that his wazir was
position at the Court and to save becoming too powerful and
the Empire. ambitious and might even
• He abolished Jaziya was overthrow the Emperor himself.
abolished. Jai Singh of amber The cowardly Emperor dared

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not dismiss the powerful wazir, of India. The Sayyid brothers
but he began to intrigue against made a rigorous effort to
him secretly. Nothing could control rebellions and to save
have been more destructive of the Empire from administrative
healthy administration. disintegration. They failed in
• Jahandar Shah‟s inglorious these tasks mainly because they
reign came to an early end in were faced with constant
January 1713 when he was political rivalry, quarrels, and
defeated at Agra Farrukh Siyar, conspiracies at the court.
his nephew. • The financial position of the
state deteriorated rapidly as
Farrukh Siyar (1713 - 1719) : zamindars and rebellious
elements refused to pay land
• He became Emperor by revenue, officials
defeating his uncle Jahandar misappropriated state revenues,
Shah at Agra in 1713. He was and central income declined
supported by the Abdullah because of the spread of
Khan and Husain All Khan revenue farming.
Baraha, who were therefore • The salaries of officials and
given the offices of wazir and soldiers could not be paid
Mir Bakshi respectively. regularly, and soldiers became
• Farrukh Siyar lacked the undisciplined and even
capacity to rule. He was coward, mutinous.
cruel, undependable, and • The Sayyid brothers killed
faithless. Moreover, he allowed Farrukh Siyar to ensure provide
himself to be influenced by good governance and to
worthless favorites and maintain their power clout in
flatterers. the empire, they also faced the
• The Sayyid brothers soon same end as that of Farrukh
acquired dominant control over Siyar.
the affairs of the state. This was • Many nobles were jealous of the
not acceptable to the Farrukh 'growing power’ of the Sayyid
Siyar, he repeatedly intrigued to brothers. The deposition and
overthrow the two brothers, but murder of Farrukh Siyar
he failed repeatedly. frightened many of them: if the
• In the end of 1719, the Sayyid Emperor could be killed, what
brothers deposed Farrukh Siyar safety was there for mere
and killed him. In Farrukh Siyar nobles?
place, they raised to the throne • Moreover, the murder of the
in quick succession two young Emperor created a wave of
princes' namely Rafi-ul Darjat public revulsion against the two
and Rafi ud-Daulah (cousins of brothers. They were looked
Farrukh Siyar), but they died of down upon as traitors. Many of
consumption. the nobles of Aurangzeb's reign
• The Sayyid brothers now made also disliked the Sayyid alliance
Muhammad Shah the Emperor with the Rajput and the

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Maratha chiefs and their liberal • Disgusted with the fickle-
policy towards the Hindus. mindedness and suspicious
nature of the Emperor and the
• Many nobles declared that the constant quarrels at the court,
Sayyids were following anti- Nizum-ul-Mulk, the most
Mughal and anti-Islamic powerful noble of the time,
policies. They thus tried to decided to follow his own
arouse the fanatical sections of ambition. Nizum-ul-Mulk
the Muslim nobility against the decided to leave the Emperor
Sayyid brothers. The anti- and his Empire to their fate and
Sayyid nobles were supported to strike out on his own Flight of
by Emperor Muhammad Shah loyalty and rise rebellions.
who wanted to free himself from • He relinquished his office in
the control of the two brothers. October 1724 and marched
• In 1720, Haider Khan killed south to find the state of
Hussain Ali khan on 9 October Hyderabad in the Deccan. "His
1720, the younger of the two departure was symbolic of the
brothers. Abdullah Khan tried flight of loyalty and virtue from
to fight, back but was defeated the Empire.After the withdrawal
near Agra. Thus, ended the of Nizum-ul-Mulk, many other
domination of the Mughal zamindars, rajas, and nawabs of
Empire by the Sayyid brothers many states raised the banner of
(they were known in Indian rebellion and independence. For
history as 'king makers'). example, Bengal, Hyderabad,
Avadh, Punjab, and Maratha.
Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) : • The Marathi sardars began their
northern expansion and overran
• Muhammad Shah's long reign Malwa, Gujarat and
of nearly 30 years (1719-1748) Bundelkhand. Then, in 1738-
was the last chance of 1739, Nadir Shah descended
revivingand saving the Empire. upon the plains of northern
But Muhammad Shah was not India, and the Empire lay
the man of the moment. prostrate.
• He was weak-minded and
frivolous and over-fond of a life Nadir Shah’s ransack :
of ease and luxury.
• Muhammad Shah neglected the • In 1738-39, Nadir Shah attacked
affairs of state. Instead of giving upon the plains of northern
full support toknowledgeable India. The visible weakness of
and abled wazir such as Nizam- the Mughal Empire made him
ul-Mulk, he fell under the evil to plunder Delhi and the
influence of corrupt and Emperor Muhammad Shah was
worthless flatterers and taken as prisoner.
intrigued against his own • The greedy invader Nadir Shah
ministers. He even shared in the took possession of the royal
bribes taken by his favorite treasury and other royal
courtiers. property, levied tribute on the

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leading nobles, and plundered the Third Battle of Panipat and
Delhi. Nadir Shah also carried thus gave a big blow to their
away the famous Koh-i-nur ambition of controlling the
diamond and the Jewel-studded Mughal Emperor and thereby
Peacock Throne of Shahjahan. dominating the country.
• Nadir Shah forced Muhammad • After defeating Mughal and
Shah to cede to him all the Maratha, Abdali did not, found
provinces of the Empire falling a new Afghan kingdom in India.
west of the river Indus. He and his successors could not
• Nadir Shah's Invasion inflicted even retain the Punjab which
immense damage on the they soon lost to the Sikh chiefs.
Mughal Empire. It caused an • As a result of the invasions of
irreparable loss of prestige and Nadir Shah Abdali and the
exposed the hidden weaknesses suicidal internal feuds of the
of the Empire to the Maratha Mughal nobility, the Mughal
Sardars and the foreign trading Empire had (by 1761) ceased to
companies. exist in practice as an all-India
• The loss of Kabul and the areas Empire.
to the west of the Indus once
again opened the Empire to the Battles fought at Panipat
threat of invasions from the
North-West. A vital line of • The area of Panipat occupies
defense had disappeared. one of the most prominent
positions in the history of India
Ahmed Shah Abdali and his as for as battles are considered.
plunders: This prominence is due to the
following reasons.
• After the death of Muhammad • The way to capture the power at
Shah in 1748, bitter struggles, Delhi passes through the battle
and even civil war broke out field of Panipat. Delhi is the
among unscrupulous and power power center through which the
hungry nobles. Furthermore, as India was ruled throughout
a result of the weakening of the history;hence the Panipat acted
north-western defenses, the as the axis to this center.
Empire was devastated and • Most of the invaders came from
plundered by the repeated the north-western region, for
invasions of Ahmed Shah them Panipat enroute to Delhi
Abdali, one of Nadir Shah's and positioned as a suitable
ablest generals, who had battle field.
succeeded in establishing his • Panipat is a plain, less sloped
authority over Afghanistan after area and had less population.
his master's death. This geographical feature gave
• Abdali repeatedly invaded and an advantage to the rulers to use
plundered northern India right tactical weapons and to employ
down to Delhi and Mathura sound war strategy.
between 1748 and 1767. Abdali • The area is drained by rivers
in 1761, defeated the Maratha in like Yamuna and Ganga, these

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rivers were used by the rulers as Company in return for an
strategic communication lines annual tribute of 2.6 million
for war supplies and escape. rupees to be paid by the
• The grand trunk roads build by company from the collected
Sher Shah Suri passes nearby revenue.
Panipat. The invaders entered • Mughals had ceased to exist in
India through the passes like 1759 itself but they were able to
Khyber and landed into the continue because of their
battle fields of Panipat. powerful hold on the minds of
• Shah Alam II, who ascended the people of India as symbolical
throne of Mughal Empire in unity of country.
1759, spent the initial years as • Shah Alam II left the British
an Emperor wandering from shelter in 1772 and returned to
place to place far away from his Delhi under the protective arm
capital, for he lived in mortal of the Marathas.
fear of his own war. • The British occupied Delhi in
• Shah Alam II was a man of 1803 and since that time to till
some ability and ample courage. 1857, when the Mughal dynasty
But the Empire was by now was finally extinguished, the
beyond redemption. In 1764, Mughal Emperors merely
Shah Alam II joined Mir Qasim served as a political front for the
of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula English.
of Avadh in declaring war upon
the English East India Causes of Decline of Mughal
Company. Empire :
• Defeated by the British at the
Battle of Buxar (October 1764), There were many causes which were
Shah Alam II lived for several responsible for the downfall of the
years at Allahabad as a Mughal Empire;some of them were as
pensioner of the East India follows:
Company. Granting of Diwani Political Cause:
Rights to English Company
• The Emperor had to sign the • Establishing a stable centralized
Treaty of Allahabad in the year administration throughout the
1765. The Treaty of Allahabad country was a practically
was signed on 12 August 1765, difficult task due to the
between the Mughal Emperor prevalent socio-economic
Shah Alam II, and Robert, Lord structure, political and
Clive, of the East India communication difficulties.
Company, as a result of the • Aurangzeb’s objective of
Battle of Buxar of 22 October unifying the entire country
1764. under one central political
• Shah Alam II was forced to authority was, though justifiable
grant the Diwani (right to in theory, not easy in practice.
collect revenue) of Bengal • His repeated invasions on
(which included Bihar and Marathas drained the very
Odisha) to the British East India resources of the empire and

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ruinedthe trade and commerce • The Mughal state in the days of
in the Deccan. Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan
• In the 18th century, Maratha’s was basically a secular state.Its
expansion in the north stability was essentially founded
weakened central authority still on the policy of noninterference
Further. Aurangzeb’s absence with the religious beliefs and
from the north for over 25 years customs of the people, fostering
and his failure to subdue the of friendly relations between
Marathas led to deterioration in Hindus and Muslims.
administration; this • Aurangzeb alienated the
undermined the prestige of the sympathy and support of the
Empire and its army. Hindus by committing all sorts
• Alliance with the Rajput rajas of atrocities on them. He
with the consequent military imposed Jizyah (tax on non-
support was one of the main Muslims) on all the Hindus in
pillars of Mughal strength in the the country.
past, but Aurangzeb's conflict • The jizyah was abolished within
with some of the Rajput states a few years of Aurangzeb’s
also had serious consequences. death. Amicable relations with
• At the beginning Aurangzeb the Rajput and other Hindu
himself had adhered to the nobles and chiefs were soon
Rajput alliance by raising restored.
JaswantSingh of Kamer and Jai • The Hindu and the Muslim
Singh of Amber to the highest of nobles, Zamindars, and chiefs
ranks. ruthlessly oppressed and
• But later due to his short- exploited the common people
sighted attempt reduce the irrespective of their religion.
strength of the Rajput rajas and
extend the imperial sway over Wars of succession:
their lands led to the
subsequent withdrawal of their • To quote Erskine, "The sword
loyalty from the Mughal throne. was the grand arbiter of right
• The strength of Aurangzeb’s and every son was prepared to
administration was challenged try his fortune against his
at its very nerve center around brothers."
Delhi by Satnam, the Jat, and • The absence of the law of
the Sikh uprisings. This is due primogeniture in the matter of
to the oppression by the Mughal succession to the throne. The
revenue officials on the result was that every Mughal
peasantry. Prince considered himself to be
equally fit to become the ruler
Religious Cause: and was prepared to fight out
his claim.
• The most important cause of the • After the death of Bahadur
downfall of the Mughal Empire Shah, the various claimants to
was the religious policy of the throne were merely used as
Aurangzeb. tools by the leaders of rival

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factions to promote their own recourse to force, fraud, and
personal interests. This is treachery.
evident in the acts of Zulfikar
Khan, Sayyid brothers (King • The mutual quarrels exhausted
makers) and after their death the Empire, affected its
Mir Mohammad Amin and Asaf cohesion, led to its
Jah Nizam-ul-Mulk acted as dismemberment, and, in the
king-makers. end, made it an easy prey to
• The wars of succession became foreign conquerors.
extremely fierce and destructive
during the 18th century and Deterioration and
resulted in great loss of life and Demoralization in the Mughal
property. Thousands of trained Army:
soldiers and hundreds of
capable military commanders • During the 18Th century, the
and efficient and tried officials Mughal army lacked discipline
were killed. Moreover, these and fighting morale. Lack of
civil wars loosened the finance made it difficult to
administrative fabric of the maintain a large number of
Empire. army. Its soldiers and officers
were not paid for many months,
Civil Wars and Rebellions: and, since they were mere
mercenaries, they were
• The eighteenth century also constantly disaffected and often
produced a large number of verged on a Mutiny.
capable nobles and • In the words of Irvine,
distinguished generals. Their "Excepting want of personal
personal ambitions were courage, every other faults in
unlimited, and they preferred to the list of military vices may be
carve out independent attributed to the degenerate
principalities for themselves Mughals; indiscipline, want of
rather than serve the Mughal cohesion, luxurious habits,
Emperors loyally and devotedly. inactivity and commissariat and
• The major weakness of the cumbrous equipment."
Mughal nobility during the 18th • The source of the weakness was
century was in their selfishness the composition of the army
and lack of devotion to the state which consisted chiefly of
and this, in turn, gave birth to contingents maintained by the
corruption in administration great nobles from the revenues
and mutual bickering. of assignments held by them for
• In order to increase emperors’ that purpose.
power, prestige, and income, • As the authority of the sovereign
the nobles formed groups and relaxed, the general tendency
factions against each other and among the great nobles was
even against the king. In their naturally to hold as their own
struggle for power, they took those assignments which
maintained their troops.

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military weakness of the Mughal
state.
Mughals Suffered from
Intellectual Bankruptcy: • The emergence of the British
challenge took away the last
• The Mughals suffered from hope of the revival of the crisis-
intellectual Bankruptcy. That ridden Empire.
was partly due to the lack of an
efficient system of education in What were the Consequences of
the country which alone could Decline of Mughal Empire?
produce leaders of thought.
• The result was that the Mughals • None of the Indian powers rose
failed to produce any political to claim the heritage of the
genius or leader who could Grand Mughals for they were
"teach the country a new strong enough to destroy the
philosophy of life and to kindle Empire but not strong enough
aspirations after a new heaven to unite it or to create anything
on earth. new in its place.
• They could not create a new
Rise of the Marathas: social order which could stand
up to the new enemy from the
• Another important factor which West. All of the powers which
contributed to the decline of the were against Mughals were
Mughal Empire was the rise of suffering from same weakness
the Marathas under the which Mughals suffered.
Peshwas. They consolidated • Degenerated state of Mughals
their position in Western India invited Europeans to knock at
and then started entertaining the gates of India. They had the
plans for a Hindupad Padshahi benefit of coming from societies
or a Greater Maharashtra which had evolved a superior
Empire. economic system and which
• The dream could be realised were more advanced in science
only at the cost of the Mughal and technology.
Empire. The gains of the • The centuries-old socio-
Marathas were the loss of the economic and political structure
Mughals. of the country was replaced by a
colonial structure.
Foreign Invasion: • The stagnation of Indian society
was broken and new forces of
• The invasion on India by Nadir change emerged.
Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali • Because the motives of
gave a serious blow to Europeans were colonial, they
thealready tottering Mughal brought extreme misery,
Empire. The I easy victory of national degradation, economic,
Nadir Shah and the repeated political, and cultural
invasions of Ahmad Shah backwardness.
Abdali exposed to the world the

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---------------------------------------------- Mughal supremacy to legitimize
their positions. While the
• After 17th century, Indian successions states had inherited
politics had undergone many the Mughal administration
major changes. With the methods, other states had
gradual weakening and decline adopted Mughal structure and
of the Mughal Empire, local and institutions including revenue
economic forces began to arise system in varying degrees.
and assert themselves. • The rulers of all the zones had
• These changes were rising of established law and order and
large number of independent tried to conciliate the local and
and semi-independent powers petty chiefs who were
such as Bengal, Avadh, challenging the higher
Hyderabad, Mysore and the authorities.
Maratha Kingdom on the debris • They had decentralized the
of Mughal Empire. political authority in Chiefs,
• These powers had challenged Jagirdars and Zamindars.
the British attempt at Politics of these states were non-
supremacy in India. communal or secular.
Succession States - Bengal,
Awadh and Hyderabad are Economy:
‘succession states’ because they • None of these states succeeded
arose as a result of the assertion in curbing the economic crisis
of autonomy by governors of started in the 17Th century. All
Mughal provinces. of them remained rent
• Rebellion States - Maratha, extracting states.
Afghan, Jat and Punjab states • Zamindars and Jagirdars,
were the product of rebellions whose number kept on
by local chieftains, zamindars increasing, kept fighting over
and peasants against Mughal income ofagriculture while the
authority. peasant’s suffering had
• There was a 3rd zone also which increased.
comprised of south-west coast, • States tried to promote foreign
south –east coast and north trade but they had not taken
eastern India where Mughal steps to modernize the
influence had not reached. industrial and commercial
structure.
Polity and Administration of the
States : South Indian States in 18th
Century :
• While the overall political and
administrative framework were • The rulers of the South Indian
same in these two states or zone states established law and order
but politics were different and viable economic and
because of local conditions. administrative states. The
• Most of the rulers had politics of South Indian states
acknowledged the nominal

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were invariably non-communal or secular. Jagirs and offices without
• The rulers of South Indian reference to Delhi.
states did not discriminate on • He followed a tolerant policy
religious grounds in public towards Hindus. Puran chand, a
appointment; civil or military; Hindu, was his dewan (financial
nor did the rebels against their officer).
authority pay much attention to • He made sure that big and
the religion of the rulers. powerful zamindars respected
• None of the South Indian states, his authority and kept the
however, succeeded in arresting Marathas at bay. He tried to rid
the economic crisis. The the revenue system of its
zamindars and jagirdars, whose corruption.
had number constantly • After the death of Asaf Jah (in
increased, continued to fight 1748), Hyderabad fell prey to
over a declining income from the same disruptive forces as
agriculture, while the condition were operating at Delhi.
of the peasantry continued to • The Carnatic was one of the
deteriorate. subahs of the Mughal Deccan
• While the South Indian states and as such came under the
prevented any breakdown of Nizam of Hyderabad's
internal trade and even tried to authority. But just as in practice
promote foreign trade, they did the Nizam had become
nothing to modernize the basic independent of Delhi, so also
industrial and commercial the Deputy Governor of the
structure of their states. Carnatic, known as the Nawab
of Carnatic, had freed himself
Hyderabad and the Carnatic: from the control of the Viceroy
of Deccan and made his office
• The state of Hyderabad was hereditary.
founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf
Jah in 1724. He was one of the Mysore:
leading nobles of the post-
Aurangzeb era. He had founded • Next to Hyderabad, the most
the Asaf Jahi dynasty. His important power that emerged
successors were called as in South India was Mysore
Nizams of Hyderabad. under Haidar Ali. The kingdom
• He founded the Hyderabad of Mysore had prescribed its
State which he ruled with a precarious independence ever
strong hand. He never openly since the end of the Vijayanagar
declared his independence from Empire.
the Central Government but in • Extensive kingdom bordered by
practice he acted like an the Krishna River in the north,
independent ruler. the Eastern Ghats in the east
• He waged wars, concluded and the Arabian Sea in the west.
peace, conferred titles, and gave Mysore preserved its
independence after the end of
the Vijayanagar Empire.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Early in the 18th century two Indian powers. He was
ministers Nanjaraj (the responsible for introducing
Sarvadhikan) and Devraj (the Mughal administrative and
Dulwai) had seized power in revenue system in his
Mysore reducing the King dominions.
Chikka Krishna Raj to a mere • He died in 1782 in the course of
puppet. the second Anglo-Mysore War
and was succeeded by his son
Haider Ali: Tipu Sultan.

• Haider Ali born in 1721, in an Tipu Sultan:

obscure family, started his
career as a petty officer in the • Sultan Tipu, who ruled Mysore
Mysore army. Though until his death at the hands of
uneducated, he possessed a the British in 1799, was a man
keen intellect and was a man of of complex character. He was,
great energy and daring and for one an innovator.
determination. He was also a • Tipu Sultan’s desire to change
brilliant commander and with the times was symbolized
shrewd diplomat. in the Introduction of a new
• Using the opportunities which calendar, a new system of
he learnt in wars between coinage, and new scales of
Mysore and Marathas, he weights and measures.
gradually rose in Mysore army. • Tipu Sultan’s personal library
He recognized the advantages of contained books on such diverse
western military training and subjects as religion, history,
applied it to the troops under military science, medicine, and
his own command. mathematics. He showed a keen
• He was the innovator of military interest in the French
use of the iron-cased Mysorean Revolution.
rockets. He established a • Tipu Sultan planted a 'Tree of
modern arsenal in Dindigul in Liberty' at Sringapatam and he
1755 with the help of French became a member of a Jacobin
experts. club.
• In 1761 - Overthrew Nanjaraj • His organizational capacity is
and established his authority borne out by the fact that in
over the Mysore state. Extended those days of general
his full control over the indiscipline among Indian
rebellious poligars (zamindars) armies his troops remained
and conquered the territories of disciplined and loyal to him to
Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara the last.
and Malabar.
• Though illiterate he was an Finance:
efficient administrator. When • Tipu Sultan tried to do away
he took over Mysore it was a with the custom of giving jagirs,
weak and divided state and soon and thus increased the state
made it one of the leading income. He also made an

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
attempt to reduce the hereditary • In 1799, while fighting the
possessions of the poligars. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu
• Tipu Sultan’s land revenue was Sultan died.
as high as that of other Economy under Tipu sultan and
contemporary rulers— it ranged Haider Ali:
up to 1/3rd of the gross
produce. But he checked the • Mysore flourished economically
collection of illegal ceases, and under Haidar Ali and Tipu,
he was liberal in granting especially when seen in contrast
remissions. with its immediate past or with
the rest of the country.
Military: • After defeating and killing Tipu
in 1799, the British were
• Tipu Sultan’s infantry was completely surprised to find
armed with muskets and that the Mysore peasants were
bayonets in fashion, which more prosperous than the
were, however manufactured in peasant in British occupied
Mysore. madras.
• Tipu Sultan made an effort to • Who was the Governor General
build a modern navy after 1796. during Tipu Sultan’s reign?
For this purpose, two - John Shore (1793 - 1798)
dockyards, the models of the • He wrote that “the peasantry of
ships being supplied. his dominions are protected,
• Tipu Sultan was recklessly brave and their labor encouraged and
and, as a commander was, rewarded.”
however, hasty in action and
unstable in nature. Modern Trade and Industry:

Statesmanship: • He also understood the

importance of economic
• In 18Th century, compared to strength as the foundation of
others, he recognized to the full military strength. So he tried to
extent the threat that introduce modern industries in
theEnglish posed to south India India by importing foreign
as well as to other Indian workmen as experts and by
powers. extending state support to many
• Tipu Sultan stood forth as a foe industries.
for the rising English power. • He sent embassies to France,
The English, in turn, too were Turkey, Iran and Pegu
his most dangerous enemy in Myanmar to develop foreign
India. trade. He also traded with
• Tipu Sultan gave money for the china.
construction of goddess Sarda • He even tried to set up a trading
in the Shringeri Temple in 1791. company on the pattern of
He regularly gave gifts to as well European companies and thus
to several other temples. sought to imitate their
commercial practices. He tried

14
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
to promote trade with Russia three big states of Cochin,
and Arabia by setting up state Travancore, and Calicut.
trading institutions in the port Absorption of Kerala into Mysore
towns. under Haider Ali:

Anglo-Mysore war • Haidar Ali began his invasion of

Kerala in 1766 and in the end
Kerala: annexed northern Kerala up to
Cochin, including the territories
• Kerala was divided in large of the Zamorin of Calicut.
number of feudal chiefs and
rajas in the beginning of the Different interests of Kings:
18th century. • Literature -The 18th century
saw a remarkable revival in
4 most important states were – Malayalam literature.
• Calicut • This was due in part to the rajas
• Chirakkal and chiefs of Kerala who were
• Cochin great patrons of literature.
• Travancore • Trivandrum, the capital of
Travancore, became in the
Martanda Verma: second half of the 18th century a
famous centre of Sanskrit
• The kingdom of Travancore rose scholarship.
into prominence after 1729
under King Martanda Varma, Rama Varma:
one of the leading statesmen of • Rama Varma, the successor of
the 18Th century. Martanda Varma, was himself a
• Martanda Varma organized a poet, a scholar, a musician,
strong army on the western arenowned actor, and a man of
model with the help of great culture. He conversed
European officers and armed it fluently in English, took a keen
with modern weapons. He also interest in European affairs. He
constructed a modern arsenal. regularly used to read
• Martanda Varma used his new newspapers and journals
army to expand northwards and published in London, Calcutta,
the boundaries of Travancore and Madras.
soon extended from
Kanyakumari to Cochin. North Indian States in 18th
• Martanda Varma undertook Century :
many irrigations works, built
roads and canals Awadh
forcommunication, and gave
active encouragement to foreign During the 139 years of Awadh reign
trade. following rulers ruled:
• By 1763, all the petty
principalities of Kerala had been 1. Burhanul-Mulk Nawab Sadat Khan
absorbed or subordinated by the 1719-1737 AD

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
2. Nawab Safdarjung - 1737-1753 AD forts, and defied the imperial
3. Nawab Shuja-ud-daula - 1753-1775 government.
AD • For years he had to wage war
4. Nawab Asaf-ud-daula - 1775-1797 upon them He succeeded in
AD suppressing lawlessness and
5. Nawab Wazir Ali Khan - 1797-1798 disciplining the big Zamindars
AD and thus, increasing the
6. Nawab Sadat Ali Khan - 1798-1814 financial resources of his
AD government.
7. Nawab Ghazi-ud-din Haider - 1814- • Most of the defeated zamindars
1819 AD were, however, not displaced.
8. Birjis Qadra - 1857-1858 AD They were usually confirmed in
their estates after they had
• Authority of Awadh rulers submitted and agreed to pay
extended up to Rohillakhand. A their dues (land revenue)
large number of Afghans from regularly.
the mountain ranges of North- • On this success Muhammad
West frontier, called the Shah was very pleased and
Rohillas, were settled there. given him the title of "Burhan-
• Rohilla chiefs were trying to ul- Mulk".
carve out their own
independent principalities in Fresh revenue settlement:
their own in the area. Nawabs of
Awadh organized a powerful • He had carried out a new
army which was composed of revenue settlement in 1723.
besides Muslims and Hindus, • He had levied equitable land
Naga sanyasis as well. revenue on peasants and
• The founder of the autonomous protected them from oppression
kingdom of Avadh was Saadat by the big zamindars.
Khan Burhanul-Mulk who was
appointed as Governor of Avadh Religious policy:
in 1722. He was an extremely • He did not discriminate
bold, energetic, ironwilled, and between Hindus and Muslims.
intelligent person. Many of his commanders and
• Mughal Emperor honorably high officials were Hindus He
awarded him the title Khan curbed refractory zamindars,
Bahadur for his steadfast chiefs, and nobles irrespective
services in campaign against of their religion.
Marathas in Deccan. He was
bold, energetic, iron-willed, and Army:
intelligent person. • His troops were well -paid, well-
• When he was appointed there armed, and well-trained
were many rebellious Administration:
Zamindars who refused to pay • His administration was
the land tax, organized their efficient. Before his death in
own private armies, erected 1739, he had become virtually
independent and had made the

16
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
province a hereditary Safdar Jung but also founders of
possession. He was succeeded Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh
by his nephew Safdar Jang. were also men of high personal
morality.
Safdar Jung : • Nearly all of them led simple
• Safdar Jung had succeeded his and austere life which proves
uncle Saadat Khan Burhan-ul- that not all the leading nobles of
Mulk in 1739. He was 18th century led extravagant
simultaneously appointed the and luxurious lives. It was only
wazir of the Empire in 1748 and in their public and political
granted in addition the province dealings that they resorted to
of Allahabad. fraud, intrigue and treachery.
• He gave long period of peace to
people of Awadh. He Religious policy:
suppressed rebellious • Policy of impartiality in the
Zamindars and made an employment of Hindus and
alliance with the Maratha Muslims. The highest post in his
sardars so that his dominion Government was held by a
was saved from their incursions. Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai.
• He won the loyalty of Rajputs • Different culture: Long period
and Shaikhzadas. He carried of peace and of economic
warfare against Rohelas and prosperity under the Nawabs
Bangash Pathans. resulted in the growth of a
• He secured Maratha military distinct Lucknow culture
help by paying a daily allowance around the Awadh court.
of rupees 25000 per day and jat • Lucknow, for long an important
support by paying rupees 15000 city of Awadh, and the seat of
a day. Later he entered into an the Awadh Nawabs after 1775,
agreement with Peshwa. soon rivaled Delhi in its
• According to agreement peshwa patronage of arts and literature.
was to help Mughal empire It also developed as an
against Ahmad Shah Abdali and important center of handicrafts.
protected from internal rebels
as Rajputs and Pathans. In The Rajput States:
return 50000 to be paid to • The principal Rajput states took
Peshwas, granted the chauth of advantage of the growing
Punjab, Sindh and several weakness of Mughal power to
districts of northern India, and virtually free them from central
made the Governor of Ajmer control.
and Agra. • At the same time, they
• Agreement failed as Peshwa increased their influence in the
sided with Safdar Jung’s rest of the Empire.
enemies who promised him • In the reign of Farrukh Siyar
governorship of Awadh and and Muhammad Shah the rulers
Allahabad. of Amber and Marwar were
• Maintained high standards of appointed governors of
personal morality. Not only important Mughal provinces

17
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
such as Agra, Gujarat, and Science
Malwa. • Jai Singh was above everything
• Continued to be as divided as a great astronomer. Five
before.Bigger states expanded observatories were built at
themselves at the cost of their Delhi,Mathura (in his Agra
weaker neighbors, Rajput and province), Benares, Ujjain
non-Rajput. Most of the larger (capital of his Malwa province),
Rajput slates were constantly and his own capital of Jaipur.
involved in petty quarrels and Only the one at Jaipur is still
civil wars. operational.
• The internal politics of these • Relying primarily on Indian
states were often characterized astronomy, these buildings were
by the same type of corruption, used to accurately predict
intrigue, and treachery as eclipses and other astronomical
prevailed at the Mughal court. events. The observational
Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed techniques and instruments
by his own son. used in his observatories were
also superior to those used by
Raja Sawai Jai Singh: the European Jesuit
• The most outstanding Rajput astronomers he invited to his
ruler of the 18th century was observatories.
Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber • Termed as the Jantar Mantar
(1681-1743). they consisted of the Ram
• Raja Sawai Jai Singh was a Yantra (a cylindrical building
distinguished statesman, law- with an open top and a pillar in
maker, and reformer. But most its center), the Jai Prakash (a
of all he is known as a man of concave hemisphere), the
science in an age when Indians Samrat Yantra (a huge
were oblivious of scientific equinoctial dial), the Digamsha
progress. Yantra (a pillar surrounded by
• He was the Rajput ruler of the two circular walls), and the
kingdom of Amber (later called Narivalaya Yantra (a cylindrical
Jaipur). He was given title of dial).
Sawai at the age of eleven by the • He drew up a set of tables,
Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb in entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to
the year 1699. "Sawai" means enable people to make
one and a quarter times astronomical observations.
superior to his contemporaries.
• He founded the city of Jaipur in Mathematics :
the territory taken from the • He had Euclid’s, “Elements of
Jats. He made it a great seat of Geometry”, translated into
science and Art. Jaipur was Sanskrit as also several works
built upon strictly scientific on trigonometry, and Napier’s
principles and according to a work on the construction and
regular plan. Its broad streets use of logarithms.
are intersected at right angles.

18
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Social who ruled from 1756 to 1763. He
• Jai Singh was also a social was an extremely able
reformer. He tried to enforce a administrator and soldier and a
law to reduce the lavish very wise statesman.
expenditure which a Rajput had • He extended his authority over
to incur on their daughter’s a large area which extended
wedding and which often led to from the Ganga in the East to
infanticide. Chambal in the South, the
• This remarkable prince ruled Subah of Agra in the West to the
Jaipur for nearly 44 years from Subah of Delhi in the North.
1699 to 1743. • His state included among others
the districts of Agra, Mathura,
The Jats Meerut, and Aligarh.
• The Jats, a caste of • A contemporary historian has
agriculturists, lived in the described him as follows:
region around Delhi, Agra and “Though he wore the Dress of a
Mathura. Oppression by farmer and could speak only his
Mughal officials drove the Jat own Brai dialect, he was the
peasants around Mathura to Plato of the Jat tribe.
revolt. • In prudence and skill, and
• They revolted under the ability to manage the revenue
leadership of their Jat and civil affairs he had no equal
zamindars in 1669 and then among the grandees of
again in 1688. Hindustan except Asaf Jah
• These revolts were crushed but Bahadur.”
the area remained disturbed. • After his death in 1763, the Jat
After the death of Aurangzeb, state declined and was split up
they created disturbances all among petty Zamindars most of
around Delhi. whom lived by plunder.
• Though originally a peasant
uprising, the Jat revolt, led by Bangash Pathans and Rohelas :
zamindars, soon became • Muhammad Khan Bangash, an
predatory. They plundered all Afghan adventurer, established
and sundry, the rich and the his control over the territory
poor, the jagirdars and the around Farrukhabad, between
peasants, the Hindus and the what are now Aligarh and
Muslims. Kanpur, during the reigns of
• They took active part in the Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad
Court intrigues at Delhi, often Shah.
changing sides to suit their own • Similarly, during the breakdown
advantage. The Jat state of of administration following
Bharatpur was set up by Nadir Shah’s invasion, Ali
Churaman and Badan Singh. Muhammad Khan carved out a
separate principality, known as
Suraj Mal Rohilkhand, at the foothills of
• The Jat power reached its the Himalayas between the
highest glory under Suraj Mai, Ganga in the south and the

19
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Kumaon hills in the north with • After Aurangzeb's death Guru
its capital at first at Aolan in Gobind Singh joined Bahadur
Bareilly and later at Rampur. Shah’s camp as a noble of the
The Rohelas clashed constantly rank of 5000 Zat and 5000
with Avadh, Delhi, and the Jats. sawar and accompanied him to
the Deccan where he was
The Sikhs: treacherously murdered by one
of his Pathan employees.
• Founded at the end of the 15th
century by Guru Nanak, the Banda Bahadur :
Sikh religion spread among the
Jat peasantry and other lower • After Guru Gobind Singh's
castes of Punjab. death the institution of
• The transformation of the Sikhs Guruship came to an end and
into a militant, fighting the leadership of the Sikhs
community was begun by passed to his trusted disciple
GuruHargobind (1606-1645). Banda Singh, who is more
widely known as Banda
Guru Gobind Singh Bahadur.
• Banda rallied together the Sikh
• Guru Gobind Singh Ji (1664- peasants of the Punjab and
1708), the 10th and the last carried on a vigorous though
Guru of Sikhs, had made Sikhs a unequal struggle against the
political and military force. Mughal army for eight years.
• He was known chiefly for his • He was captured in 1715 and put
creation of the Khālsā (Khalsa), to death. His death gave a set-
the military brotherhood of the back to the territorial ambitions
Sikhs (Sikhism) and of the Sikhs, and their power
introduction of Five Ks, the five declined.
articles of faith that Khalsa • After the Invasions of Nadir
Sikhs wear at all times. shah and Ahmad shah Abdali
• They are: Kesh (uncut hair), The invasions of Nadir Shah
Kangha (a wooden comb for the and Ahmad Shah Abdali and the
hair), Kara (an iron bracelet), consequent dislocation of
Kachera (100% cotton tieable Punjab administration gave the
undergarment (not an elastic Sikhs an opportunity to rise
one) and Kirpan (an iron dagger once again In the wake of the
large enough to defend marches of the invaders’ armies,
yourself). they plundered all and sundry
• The 6th Sikh Guru – Guru Har and gained wealth and military
Gobind Singh was his power.
grandfather and 9th Guru – • With the withdrawal of Abdali
Guru Teg Bahadur was his from the Punjab, they began to
father. He waged constant war fill the political vacuum.
against the armies of Aurangzeb Between 1765 and 1800 they
and the hill rajas. brought the Punjab and Jammu
under their control.

20
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Misls or Confederacies : • Later he conquered Kashmir,
Peshawar and Multan. The old
• The Sikhs were organised into 12 Sikh chiefs were transformed
misls or confederacies which into big zamindars and
operated in different parts of the jagirdars.
province. Although the misls were • The land revenue system during
unequal in strength, and each misl his period was same as it was
attempted to expand its territory under Mughals. Amount of land
and access to resources at the revenue was calculated on the
expense of others, they acted in basis of 50% of the gross
unison in relation to other states. Mughals.

• The misls held biannual Army:

meetings of their legislature, the
Sarbat Khalsa in Amritsar. They • With the help of European
were originally based on the instructors and along the
principle of equality, with all European lines he built
members having an equal voice powerful, disciplined and well
in deciding the affairs of a misl equipped army. His new army
and in electing its chief and included not only Sikhs but also
other officers. Gurkhas, Biharis, Oriyas,
• Gradually the democratic Pathans, Dogras, and Punjabi
character of the misls Muslims.
disappeared and powerful chiefs • To manufacture canon he set up
dominated them. The spirit of modern foundries at Lahore and
brotherhood and unity of the employed Muslims gunners to
khalsa also disappeared as these man them.
chiefs constantly quarreled with • It is said that he possessed the
one another and set themselves second best army in Asia, the
up as independent chieftains. first being the army of the
English East India Company.
The Punjab under Ranjit Singh : • His court He had great capacity
for choosing his ministers and
• At the end of the 18th century, officials. His court was studded
Ranjit Singh, chief of the with outstanding men.
Sukerchakia Misl rose into • He was tolerant and liberal in
prominence. A strong and religious matters. He patronized
courageous soldier, an efficient not only Sikh but also Muslim
administrator, and a skillful and Hindu holy men.
diplomat, he was a born leader • While a devout Sikh he was
of men. “known to step down from his
• He captured Lahore in 1799 and throne to wipe the dust off the
Amritsar in 1802. He brought feet of Muslim mendicants with
all Sikh chiefs of the Sutlej his long grey heard.”
under his control and • Many of his important ministers
established his own kingdom in and commanders were Muslims
the Punjab. and Hindus. The most

21
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
prominent and trusted of his Murshid Quli Khan :
ministers was Fakir Azizuddin,
while his Finance Minister was • Murshid Quli Khan was diwan
Dewan Dina Nath. of Bengal under Aurangzeb. He
• Political power was not used for had been effective ruler of
exclusive Sikh benefit. Sikh Bengal since 1700. Farrukh
peasant was oppressed by Sikh siyar made him the Governor of
chiefs as was that Hindu or Bengal in 1717.
Muslim peasant. Structure of • He soon freed himself from
the Punjab under Ranjit Singh central control though he sent
was similar to other states in regular tribute to the Emperor.
India in 18th century. • Shifted his capital to a town in
• His diplomacy When the British central Bengal which he
forbade Ranjit Singh in 1809 to renamed Murshidabad. He
cross the Sutlej and took the established peace by freeing
Sikh states east of the river Bengal of internal and external
under their protection, he kept danger.
quiet for he realized that his • Bengal was now free of
strength was no match for the uprisings by zamindars. There
British. were only three major uprisings
• Thus, by his diplomacy he during his rule.
temporarily saved his kingdom
from British encroachment. But i. 1ST - Sitaram Ray, Udai
he had not removed the threat Narayan and Ghulani
and so after his death, when Muhammad
successors were struggling for ii. 2ND - Shujat Khan
power, British took advantage of iii. 3rd - Najat Khan
it and conquered it.
After defeating them, Murshid Quli
The Bengal and its Nawabs : Khan gave their zamindaris to his
favourite, Ramjivan.
• Taking advantage of the
growing weakness of the central Economy in the administration :
authority, two men of
exceptional ability, Murshid • Reorganized the finances of
Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan, Bengal by transferring large
made Bengal virtually parts of Jagir lands into
independent. Eventhough khalisah (crown) lands by –
Murshid Quli Khan was made Fresh revenue settlement
Governor of Bengal as late as • Introducing the system of
1717, he had been its effective revenue-farming, he also
ruler since 1700, when he was granted agricultural loans
appointed its Dewan. (taccavi) to the poor cultivators
to relieve their distress and
enable them to pay land
revenue in time.

22
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• He was thus able to increase the Religious Policies of Nawabs :
resources but increased
economic pressure on the • Gave equal opportunities for
peasantbecause of revenue- employment to Hindus and
farming system. Revenue was Muslims. They filled the highest
collected with strictness. civil posts and many of the
• Another result of his reforms military posts with Bengalis,
was that many of the older most of whom were Hindus.
Zamindars were driven out and • In choosing revenue farmers
their place taken by upstart Murshid Quli Khan gave
revenue- farmers. preference to local zamindars
and mahajans (money-lenders)
Ali Vardi Khan who were mainly Hindus. Thus
he laid the foundations of a new
• Ali Vardi Khan was the Nawab landed aristocracy in Bengal.
of Bengal during 1740–1756. He
toppled the Nasiri Dynasty of Trade and Commerce:
the Nawabs and took powers of
the Nawab. • All the Nawabs knew that trade
• He is also one of the few Mughal- benefitted people and so they
era leaders known for his victory gave encouragement to all
during the Battle of Burdwan merchants, Indian or Foreign.
against the Maratha Empire. In Regular thanas and chowkies
1733- Assigned as the Naib were established so that roads
Nazim (Deputy Subahdar) of and rivers remain safe from
Bihar. thieves and robbers.
• A year later he was titled Shuja • They checked private trade by
ul-Mulk (Hero of the country), officials. They prevented abuses
Hassemm ud-Daula (Sword of in the customs administration.
the State) and Mahabat Jang They have maintained strict
(Horror in War) and the rank of control over the foreign trading
Paach Hazari Mansabdar (The companies and their servants
rank holder of 5000) by Nawab and prevented them from
Shuja ud-Din and returned to abusing their privileges
Azimabad. Servants of EIC were compelled
• On 10 April 1740 in the Battle of to obey laws and to pay same
Giria, he defeated and killed rent as paid by other merchants
Shuja ud-Din's successor, English and French were not
Sarfaraz Khan. Thus he took allowed to fortify their factories
control of Bengal and Bihar. at Calcutta and Chandernagore
• Defeated Rustam Jang (deputy by Ali Vardi Khan.
governor of Orissa) in 1740, in • They did not firmly put down
the battle of Phulwarion and so, the increasing tendency of the
Orissa also came under control English. After 1707 EIC had
of Alivardi Khan. started to use military force, or
to threaten its use, to get its
demands accepted.

23
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Nawabs were having the power • The Maratha Kingdom
to deal with the Company’s produced a number of brilliant
threats, but they continued to commanders and statesmen
underestimate the EIC power. needed for the task. But the
• They failed to see that the Maratha Sardars lacked unity,
English Company was no mere and they lacked the outlook and
company of traders but was the program, which were necessary
representative of the most for founding an all India
aggressive and expansionist empire.
colonialism of the time.
• If they would have known the Shivaji:
devastation caused by the
Western trading companies in • Shivaji (1627-1680) was a
Africa, South-East Asia, and Maratha aristocrat of the Bhosle
Latin America would have got clan who is considered to be the
alert and acted differently. founder of the Maratha Empire.
• They had neglected to build a • Shivaji led a resistance to free
strong army and paid a heavy the Marathi people from the
price for it. For example, the Sultanate of Bijapur from 1645
army of Murshid Quli Khan and establish Hindavi Swarajya
consisted of only 2000 cavalry (self-rule of Hindu people).
and 4000 infantry. • He created an independent
• Alivardi Khan was constantly Maratha kingdom with Raigad
troubled by the repeated as its capital and successfully
invasions of the Marathas and, fought against the Mughals to
in the end; he had to cede a defend his kingdom.
large part of Orissa to them. • He was crowned as Chhatrapati
• In 1756-1757 Siraj-ud-daula, the (sovereign) of the new Maratha
successor of Ali Vardi Khan, was kingdom in 1674. The state
defeated by EIC in Battle of Shivaji founded was a Maratha
Plasey and credit goes to kingdom comprising about 4.1%
absence of strong army. of the subcontinent but spread
• Failed to check the growing over large tracts. Sons of
corruption among their officials. Shivaji- Sambhaji and Rajaram.
Even judicial officials, the Qazis • Widow of Rajaram, Tarabai,
and muftis, were taking bribes. assumed control in the name of
• The most important challenge her son, Ramaraja (Shivaji II)
to the decaying Mughal power after the death of Rajaram. She
came from the Maratha led the Marathas against the
Kingdom, which was the most Mughals and by 1705 they had
powerful of the Succession crossed the Narmada River and
states. In fact, it alone possessed entered Malwa, then in Mughal
the strength to fill the political possession.
vacuum created by the
disintegration of the Mughal
Empire.

24
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Shahuji Bhonsle (1708–1749): advisory council of the Raja
Sivaji (reigned c. 1659–80).
• He was the grandson of Shivaji, • After Sivaji’s death, the council
also known as Chattrapati broke up and the office lost its
Shahu. He was Prisoner in primacy, but it was revived
hands of Aurangzeb since 1689 when Sivaji’s grandson Shahu
and was released in 1707 appointed Balaji Visvanāth
(Aurangzeb’s death) by Bahadur Bhat, a Chitpavan Brahman, as
Shah I. peshwa in 1714. Balaji ‘s son
• Why Civil war broke out Baji Rao I secured the
between Shahu and his aunt hereditary succession to the
Tarabai? Both wanted peshwaship.
supremacy over Maratha
kingdom. Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720):
• Tarabai had carried out an anti-
Mughal struggle at Kolhapur, • Balaji Vishwanath, a Brahmin,
since 1700 in name of her son started life as a petty revenue
Shivaji II after the death of her official and then rose step by
husband Rajaram. step as an official. He had
• As what happened in the helped Shahu to suppress his
Mughal Empire like the rise of enemies.
nobles in the Mughal politics, • He excelled in diplomacy and
the same thing started in won over many of the big
Maratha empire. Maratha Maratha Sardars. In 1713 –
Sardar started to take sides : Shahu made Balaji as Peshwa or
i. by bargaining they increased Mukhya Pradhan. He
their power and influence. consolidated his and Shahu’s
ii. even conspired against them hold over most of Maratha
with Mughal viceroys. sardars and Maharashtra except
region of Kolhapur (Rajaram’s
• This conflict aroused a new descendent ruled there)
system of Maratha government • He had increased Maratha
evolved under the leadership of power by taking advantage of
Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa internal conflicts of Mughal
of King Shahu. officials. Induced Zulfiqar Khan
• With this change began the to pay Chauth and
second period—the period of Sardeshmukhi of Deccan.
Peshwa domination in Maratha Agreement with Shahu in later
history in which the Maratha years. Allowed them to collect
state was transformed into an sardeshmukhi and chauth in 6
Empire. provinces of Deccan.
• Peshwa - the office of chief • In return Shahu agreed to place
minister among the Maratha a body of 15000 cavalry troops
people of India. The peshwa, at emperor service and annual
also known as the Mukhya tribute of 10 lakh rupees.
Pradhan, originally headed the Helped the Sayyid brothers in
overthrowing Farrukh Siyar.

25
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Collection of Chauth and • According to the British Army
Sardeshmukhi For the efficient officer Bernard Montgomery,
collection of the chauth and Bajirao was "possibly the finest
sardeshmukhi, he assigned cavalry general ever produced
separate areas to Maratha by India".
sardars who kept the greater • All his life Baji Rao worked to
part of the collection for their contain Nizam-ul-Muik's power
expenses. in the Deccan. In 1733 – he
• This system of assignment started a long campaign against
enabled the Peshwa to increase the Sidis of Janjira and expelled
his personal power through them from mainland.
patronage. Number of • Simultaneously, a campaign
ambitious sardars began to flock against the Portuguese was
to his side. started. Salsette and Bassein
• At Delhi, Balaji Vishwanath and were captured but the
the other Maratha Saradars Portuguese continued to hold
witnessed at first hand the their other possessions on the
weakness of the Empire and west coast.
were filled with the ambition of • Just in 20 years changed the
expansion in the North. character of Maratha state.
• Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720 Transformed kingdom of
and his 20-year old son Baji Rao Maharashtra into empire
I succeeded as Peshwa. In spite expanding in the north but
of his youth, Baji Rao I was a failed to lay strong foundation
bold and brilliant commander of it.
and an ambitious and clever • He constantly conquered new
statesman. territories, but little attention
paid to their administration.
Baji Rao I (1720 - 1740) : • The chief concern of the
successful sardars was with the
• He served as Peshwa (Prime collection of revenues.
Minister) to the 4th Maratha
Chhatrapati (King) Shahu Balaji Baji Rao (1740 - 1761) :
from1720 until his death. He
was a general of the Maratha • Baji Rao's 18-year old son Balaji
Empire in India. Also known by Baji Rao (also known as Nana
thenames Bajirao Ballal and Saheb) was the Peshwa from
Thorale (Marathi for Elder) 1740 to 1761. He was as able as
BajiraoHe is credited with his father though less energetic.
expanding the Maratha Empire, • King Shahu died in 1749 and by
especially in the north, his will left all management of
whichcontributed to its reaching state affairs in the Peshwa's
a zenith during his son's reign hands. Office of the Peshwa had
twenty years after his death. already became hereditary and
• In his brief military career the Peshwa was the de facto
spanning 20 years, Bajirao ruler of the state.
never lost a battle.

26
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Now he became the official head sardars. Both had made alliance
of the administration and, as a with Ahmad Shah Abdali
symbol of this fact, shifted the Peshwa had dispatched a
government to Poona, his powerful army under the
headquarters. nominal command of his son
• Empire extension by Balaji Baji VishwasRao, and actual
Rao Followed father’s footsteps command in hands of his cousin
& extended empire in different Sadashiv Rao Bhau to fight with
directions. Maratha control over AhmadShah.
Malwa, Gujarat, and • European style infantry and
Bundelkhand was consolidated. artillery under command of
Bengal was repeatedly invaded Ibrahim khan Gardi was part of
and, in 1751, the Bengal Nawab force. Battle started - 14 Jan
had to cede Orissa. 1761 in Panipat.
• In south – Mysore and minor • Result – Marathas were
principalities were forced to pay defeated. This battle proved
tribute. In 1760 – Nizam of very costly to Marathas as they
Hyderabad defeated at Udgir lost the cream of their army.
and had to cede territories Vishwas Rao, Sadashiv Rao and
yielding annual revenue of 28000 army men perished in
rupees 62 lakhs. the battle field.
• Marathas became power behind • Peshwa, who was marching
the Mughal throne. Reached north to render help to his
Delhi in 1752 and helped Imad- cousin, was stunned by the
ul-Mulk to become the wazir. tragic news. Already seriously
The new wazir was puppet in ill, his end was hastened, and he
their hands. died in June 1761.
• From Delhi they turned to the • It gave an opportunity to
Punjab and brought it under English to consolidate itself in
control after expelling the agent Bengal and South India. The
of Ahmad Shah Abdali. This waywas cleared for the rise of
brought them into conflict with British power.
the doughty warrior-king of
Afghanistan, who once again Madhav Rao (1761 – 1772) :
marched into India to settle
accounts with the Maratha • Madhav Rao I (or Pantpradhan
power. Shrimant Madhavrao (Ballal)
Peshwa I aka Thorle Madhav
Battle of Panipat: Rao Peshwa). He had succeeded
his father Balaji Baji Rao in 1761.
• Major conflict had started He is the 4th Peshwa of the
between Ahmad Shah Abdali Maratha Empire.
and Maratha for control of • During his tenure, the Maratha
NorthIndia. Najib-ud-daulah of Empire recovered from the
Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud- losses they suffered during the
daulah of Awadh had suffered at Panipat Campaign, a
thehands of the Maratha

27
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
phenomenon known as the but was soon deposed by the
"Maratha Resurrection". courtiers and knights of the
• He is considered one of the Maratha Empire.
greatest Peshwas in Maratha • In the greed of power
history, a talented soldier and Raghunath Rao tried to capture
statesmen. Just in 11 years he power with the help of British.
restored the lost prestige of This resulted in 1st Anglo-
Maratha Empire. He defeated Maratha war.
the Nizam, compelled Haidar • Peshwa power started declining.
Ali of Mysore to pay tribute, and There were continuous
reasserted control over conspiracies between supporter
NorthIndia by defeating the of Sawai Madhav and
Rohelas and subjugating the supporters of Raghunath Rao.
Rajput states and Jat chiefs. Sawai Madhav Rao died in 1795.
• In 1771, the Marathas brought • The British had by now decided
back to Delhi Emperor Shah to put on end to the Maratha
Alam who now became their challenge to their supremacy in
pensioner. Once again, India.
however, a blow fell on the • The British divided the mutually-
Marathas for Madhav Rao died warring Maratha
of consumption in 1772. Sardars through clever
diplomacy and then
Some facts overpowered them in separate
• Raghunath Rao (Balaji Baji battles during the second
Rao’s younger brother) Maratha War, 1803-1805, and
• Narayan Rao (younger brother the Third Maratha War, 1816-
of Madhav Rao) 1819.
• To Remember Balaji Baji Rao • While other Maratha mates
had 3 sons – Madhav Rao , were permitted to remain as
Narayan Rao and Rishwas Rao subsidiary states, the house of
• In 1773 – Narayan Rao was the Peshwas was extinguished.
killed on the orders of • Semi-independent States of
Raghunath Rao Maratha.

Sawai Madhav Rao (1774 – 1795): In meantime big Maratha sardars had
carved out semi- independent states in
He is also known as : north.
• Sawai Madhav Rao Peshwa • Gaekwad – Baroda
• Madhav rao II • Bhonsle – Nagpur
• Peshwa Madhav Rao II • Holkar – Indore
• Madhav Rao Narayan • Sindhia – Gwalior
• Administration – similar to
• He succeeded his father Mughal pattern.
Narayan Rao and Peshwa of • Separate army and nominal
Maratha Empire from infancy. allegiance to Peshwa.
• After Narayanrao's murder, • Started intriguing against
Raghunathrao became Peshwa Maratha Empire.

28
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Maratha chief similar to Mughal
Mahadji Sindhia : nobles in intriguing Remained
• Amongst the most important united in a loose union against
Maratha rulers in the North: common enemy.
Organized a powerful army with • Failed to encourage science and
French officers’ help and technology
established control over • Failed to take much interest in
Emperor Shah Alam in 1784. trade and industry.
• From the Emperor he secured • The Maratha sardars did not try
the appointment of the Peshwa to develop a new economy
as the Emperor’s Deputy (Natb- • Raising revenue from the
i-Munaib) on the condition that helpless peasantry
Mahadji would act on behalf of • For example, they too collected
the Peshwa. nearly half of agricultural
• But he spent his energies in produce as tax.
intriguing against Nana • They failed even to give sound
Phadnis. administration to the people
• Bitter enemy of Holkar of outside Maharashtra
Indore. • They could not inspire the
• He died in 1794. He and Nana Indian people with any higher
Phadnis, who died in 1800, degree of loyalty
were the last of the great • Their dominion too depended
soldiers and statesmen. on force and force alone.
• They failed to transform their
Baji Rao II (1796-1818): state into a modern state.

• Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Economic Conditions:

Rao succeeded Sawai Madhav
Rao. • India of the 18th century failed
• Challenge to British supremacy to make progress economically,
in India i.e. Marathas were socially, or culturally at apace,
overpowered in 2ND and which would have saved the
• 3rd Anglo Maratha wars country from collapse.
through clever diplomacy. • The increasing revenue
• House of Peshwas was demands of the state, the
extinguished while other oppression of the officials, the
Maratha states remained as greed and rapacity of the
subsidiary states. nobles, revenue-farmers, and
• The Maratha dream of zamindars, the marches and
controlling the Mughal Empire countermarches of the rival
and establishing their own armies, and the depredations of
Empire over large parts of the the numerous adventurers
country could not be realized. roaming the land during the
Why? first half of the 18th century
• Same decadent social order & made the life of the people quite
weakness as the Mughal Empire despicable.

29
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• India of those days, was also a Asia and Europe was earned on
land of contrasts. Extreme under the Mughals.
poverty existed side by side with • India imported:
extreme rich and luxury. On the • Pearls, raw silk, wool, dates,
one hand, there were the rich dried fruits, and rose water
and powerful nobles steeped in from the Persian Gulf region.
luxury and comfort; on the • Coffee, gold, drugs, and honey
other, backward, oppressed, from Arabia;
and impoverished peasants • Tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk
living at the bare subsistence from China;
level and having to bear all sorts • Gold, musk and woolen cloth
of injustices and inequities. from Tibet;
• Even so, the life of the Indian • Tin from Singapore;
masses was by and large better • Spices, perfumes, attack, and
at this time than it was after sugar from the Indonesian
over 100 years of British rule at islands;
the end of the 19TH century. • Ivory and drugs from Africa;
and
Agriculture • Woollen cloth, metals such as
• Indian agriculture during the copper, iron, and lead, and
18th century was technically paper from Europe.
backward and stagnant. • India's most important article of
Thetechniques of production export was cotton textiles,
had remained stationary for which were famous all over the
centuries. world for their excellence and
• The peasants tried to make up were in demand everywhere.
for technical backwardness by • India also exported raw silk and
working very hard. They, In silk fabrics, hardware, indigo,
fact, performed miracles of saltpeter, opium, rice, wheat,
production; moreover, they did sugar, pepper and other spices,
not usually suffer from precious stones, and drugs.
shortageof land. But, • Constant warfare and
unfortunately, they seldom disruption of law and order, in
reaped the fruits of their labor. many areas during the 18th
• Even though it was peasants’ century,
produce that supported the rest • banned the country's internal
of the society, their own reward trade and disrupted its foreign
was miserably inadequate. trade to some extent and in
some directions.
Trade • Many trading centers were
• Even though the Indian villages looted by the Indians as well as
were largely self-sufficient and by foreign invaders. Many of the
imported little from outside and trade routes were infested with
the means of communication organized bands of robbers, and
were backward, extensive trade traders and their caravans were
within the country and between regularly looted.
India and other countries of

30
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The road between the two • Surat, Ahmedabad, and Broach in
imperial cities, Delhi and Agra, Gujarat;
was made unsafe by the • Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh;
marauders. With the rise of • Burhanpur in Maharashtra;
autonomous provincial regimes • Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and
and innumerable local chiefs, Agra in U.P.;
the number of custom houses or • Multan and Lahore in Punjab;
chowkies grew by leaps and • Masulipatam, Aurangabad,
bounds. Chicacole, and Vishakhapatnam in
• Every petty or large ruler tried Andhra
to increase his income by • Bangalore in Mysore; and
imposing heavy customs duties • Coimbatore and Madurai in
on goods entering or passing Madras.
though his territories. • Kashmir was a center of woolen
• The impoverishment of the manufactures. Ship-building
nobles, who were the largest industry flourished in
consumers of luxury products in Maharashtra, Andhra, and
which trade was conducted, also Bengal.
injured internal trade.
Social Conditions
Many prosperous cities, centers • Social life and culture in the
of flourishing industry, were 18th century were marked by
sacked and devastated. stagnation and dependence on
• Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah; the past.
• Lahore, Delhi, and Mathura by • There was, of course, no
Ahmad Shah Abdali; uniformity of culture and social
• Agra by the Jats; patterns all over the country.
• Surat and other cities of Gujarat and Nor did all Hindus and all
the Deccan by Maratha chiefs; Muslims form two distinct
• Sarhind by the Sikhs, and so on. societies.
• People were divided by religion,
• The decline of internal and region, tribe, language, and
foreign trade also hit the caste.
industries hard in some parts of • Moreover, the social life and
the country. Nevertheless, some culture of the upper classes,
industries in other parts of the who formed a tiny minority of
country gained as a result of the total population, was in
expansion in trade with Europe many respects different from
due to the activities of the the life and culture of the lower
European trading companies. classes.

The important centers of textile Hindu

industry were: • Caste was the central feature of
the social life of the Hindus.
• Dacca and Murshidabad in Bengal; • Apart from the four vanes,
• Patna in Bihar; Hindus were divided into
numerous castes (Jatis), which

31
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
differed in their nature from • A large number of Hindus
place to place. converted to Islam carried their
• The caste system rigidly divided caste into the new religion and
people and permanently fixed observed its distinctions,
their place in the social scale. though not as rigidly as before.
• The higher castes, headed by • Moreover, the sharif Muslims
the Brahmins, monopolized all consisting of nobles, scholars,
social prestige and privileges. priests, and army officers,
• Caste rules were extremely looked down upon the ajlaf
rigid. Inter-caste marriages Muslims or the lower class
were forbidden. There were Muslims in a manner similar to
restrictions on inter-dining thatadopted by the higher caste
among members of different Hindus towards the lower caste
castes. Hindus.
• In some cases, persons
belonging to higher castes Family System and status of
would not take food touched by Women :
persons of the lower castes.
• Castes often determined' the • Primarily patriarchal – like our
choice of ' profession, though family is headed by father
exceptions did occur. Caste (male) and inherited by male.
regulations were strictly Kerala exception – matrilineal.
enforced by caste councils and Other than Kerala females were
panchayats and caste chiefs under complete control of
through fines, penances males.
(prayaschitya) and expulsion • Females were expected to
from the caste. remain wives and mothers
• Caste was a major divisive force though they were respected and
and element of disintegration in honoured in that role. Even
India of 18Th century. during war women were
respected.
Muslim: • A European traveller, Abbe J.A.
• Muslims were no less divided by Dubois, commented, at the
considerations of caste, race, beginning of the 19Th century:
tribe, and status, even though “A Hindu woman can go
their religion enjoined social anywhere alone, even in the
equality. most crowded places, and she
• The Shia and Sunni (two sects need not fear the impertinent
of Muslim religion) nobles were looks and jokes of idle loungers
sometimes at loggerheads on ….A house inhabited solely by
account of their religious women is a sanctuary which the
differences. most shameless libertine would
• The Irani, Afghan, Turani, and not dream of violating.”
Hindustani Muslim nobles, and • But women possessed very little
officials often stood apart from individuality though there were
each other. exceptions like Ahilya Bai
(administered Indore (1766-

32
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
96)) and others who worked in She was expected to renounce
politics. all the pleasures and serve
• Higher classes women – not selflessly the members of her
supposed to work outside home. husband’s family.
Purdah (veil) practiced by them • Raja Sawai Singh of Amber and
in north, but not in south. Maratha General Parshuram
• While lower classes women Bhau were touched by the
have to work in fields to hardship of widows and they
supplement family income. tried to promote widow
remarriage but failed.
Marriage :
Cultural life :
• All marriages were arranged by • Culturally India was exhausted
the family heads. Normally men during 18th century. Cultural
had only one wife, but polygyny continuity was kept but it
was also allowed. While women remained traditionalist.
were expected to marry only Cultural activities were financed
once in a lifetime by royal courts, rulers and
• Child marriage : Custom of nobles and decline of these
early marriages existed all over institutions led to decline of
the country. those branches of arts which
• Child marriage was also depended them on.
prevalent. • Mughal architecture and
• Dowry : Prevailed in upper painters migrated to provincial
classes, Especially in Bengal and courts after decline of Mughal
Rajputana. Empire and revealed a new
• Maharastra – curbed because of taste.
the action taken by Peshwas • Imambara of Lucknow and
Sati and widow Right of a Jaipur – architecture
Hindu widow burning herself • Kangra and Rajput schools –
along with the body of her dead painting
husband.
• Mostly prevalent – Rajputana, Painting :
Bengal and Northern India Only • Kanagara Painting : Pictorial art
by Families of rajas, chiefs, big of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh.
zamindars and upper castes In Main centre of Kangra paintings
south – uncommon Widows in are Guler, Basohli, Chamba,
higher classes could not Nurpur, Bilaspur and Kangra.
remarry though in some regions • Later on this style also reached
and in some castes, remarriage Mandi, Suket, Kulu, Arki,
common in Non-Brahmin in Nalagarh and Tehri Garhwal to
Maharastra, jats and hill region be collectively known as Pahari
of northern India Condition of painting Pahari painting, as the
Hindu widow was pitiable. name suggests, were paintings
Why? executed in the hilly regions of
• Lot of restrictions on her India,in the sub-Himalayan
clothing, diet, movements etc. state of Himachal Pradesh.

33
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Kangra paintings belong to the has remarkable architecture and
school of Pahari paintings that mural paintings.
were patronized by the Rajput • Assam - literature developed
rulers between the 17th and under the patronage of the
19th centuries. Ahom kings.
• Krishna playing a flute, 1790- • Dayaram: Dayaram, the great
1800 Rajput period. lyricists of Gujarat, wrote
during the second half of the
Poetry 18th century. He was a Gujarati
• It was in most of the languages. poet of medieval Gujarati
Most of the poem’s content literature.
reflected the impoverishment of • He was known for his literary
the spiritual life of its patrons, form called Garbi in Gujarat. He
the feudal nobles and kings. was a follower of Pushtimarg of
• Tayaumanavar – exponent of Hindu Vaishnavism.
sitar poetry in Tamil Protested • Dayaram, along with Narsinh
against the abuses of temple Mehta and Meera, is considered
rules and caste system. as major contributor during
• Literary Bhakti Movement in Gujarati
• Urdu literature.
• Urdu language and Urdu poetry • Dayaram was follower of
was wide spread. Gradually it "Nirgun bhakti sampraday"
became medium of social (pushti sampraday) in Gujarat.
intercourse among upper So he gave many Garbi
classes of northern India. describing Krishna as human-
• It had produced brilliant poet’s being.
like Mir, Sauda, Nazir et al. • Nirgun brahma means GOD
Shah Abdul Latif composed his without attributes Warris Shah
famous collection of poems, composed Heer Ranjha, the
Risalo in Sindhi. famous romantic epic in Punjab.
• Sachal and Sami were the other Other romantic epics are Mirza
great Sindhi poets of the Sahiba and Sohni Mahiwal.
century. • For Sindhi literature, the 18th
century was a period of
Malayalam enormous achievement. Shah
• Malayalam literature was under Abdul Latif composed his
the patronage of the Travancore famous collection of poems,
ruler Martanda Varma. Risalo in Sindhi. Sachal and
• Kunchan Nambiar – one of the Sami were the other great
greatest poets in Kerala. Sindhi poets of the century.
• Development of Kathakali,
literature, drama and dance also Science
taken during this time. • It was one of the main
• Padmanabhapuram palace weaknesses of Indian Culture
(Tamilnadu) which was during this century. In 18th
constructed during 18th century century India remained far

34
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
behind the West in science and great proportion of the
technology. inhabitants of the country.”
• From last 200 years, Europeans • Relation between Hindus and
were experiencing science and Muslim There was secular
economic revolution leading to politics and religious tolerance
inventions and discoveries. in the country The Hindu -
They also seen revolution in Muslim culture kept on evolving
philosophy, polity etc. Hindu writers wrote in Persian
• In compare to Europe, Indians while Muslim wrote in Hindi,
who had once contributed Bengali and other languages
significantly during the early often dealing with subjects of
ages in mathematics and Hindu social life and religion,
science were now neglecting such as Radha and Krishna, Sita
science for centuries. and Ram, and Nal and
• Indians were traditional and Damyanti.
superstitious. They were not • The development of Urdu
aware of achievements of West. language and literature
• Indian rulers had not adopted provided a new meeting ground
the new techniques and between Hindus and Muslims.
technology in military. Only few • In religious sphere the mutual
like Haider Ali, Sindhia had influence and respect kept on
shown interest in them. increasing One of the biggest
factors for it was the
Values : development of Bhakti
movement among Hindus and
• Nobles were so much blinded in Sufisim in Muslims.
the greed of luxury and power • Many Hindus worshipped
that they ignored virtues of Muslim saints and many
loyalty, gratitude and Muslims worshipped Hindu
faithfulness. Most of them GODS. They used to visit each
corrupted. They took bribes in other’s sacred places or
office. pilgrimages.
• This had a deep and harmful • The two participated in each
effect on population’s moral but other’s festival like Hindu’s
to the surprise the common Holi, Diwali and Muslim’s
people were having no such Muharram. It must be noted
traits. that departure in social and
• Even British officials praised cultural life was because of
this. John Malcolm remarked in region or areas and religious
1821: “I do not know, the affiliation had played a very
example of any great little role in that.
population, in similar
circumstances, preserving A Brief Description :
through such a period of
changes and tyrannical rule, so • In 1498, Vasco de Gama, a
much virtue and so many Portuguese voyager landed on
qualities as are to be found in a Indian soil. This was the

35
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
European discovery of India. habits. Owing to the rivalry of
Well in order to understand, we European powers, India became
can put it this way that it was the actual theatre of conflicts by
our discovery of white men too. the middle of the 18th century.
• That was the day, when we were • Vasco De Gama: Died on
swayed by the fairness and Christmas Eve in 1524 in India,
opened our doors to Europeans. of Malaria.
This finally lead to the discovery
of fairness creams.. But this was Routes Taken by Vasco De Gama :
much later.
• Soon, under the leadership of • Soon English, Dutch and French
Portuguese General, also started trading with India
Albuquerque, Portuguese to have their share of profits.
captured Goa and became the • After the Portuguese, the Dutch
center of Portuguese power in also wanted to have their share
India. Europeans realized that in the trade with India. In 1602,
India was indeed ‘Sone ki the Dutch East India Company
Chidiya’ (Golden Bird). They was established. The rising
were stunned by seeing the Dutch power was looked as a
Indian prosperity. threat by the British and a truce
• The factors of the emergence of was concluded between them in
nation states, renaissance and 1619 but it did not last long. By
reformation, agricultural and 1795, the British expelled the
industrial revolution, new Dutch from India totally.
economic doctrine of • You need to remember that this
mercantilism, competition trade was highly beneficial for
between nation states for India. India’s balance of trade
breaking the mercantile was positive. And Indian
monopoly of the merchants of exports of spices and textiles
Venice and Geneva over sea- had captured the world market.
borne trade, and a great • Indian manufacturers and
advance in navigational artisans gained huge profits.
technologies like compassgave • India became an arena of
strong impetus for geographical European politics and to gain
discoveries leading to the supremacy in India, these forces
finding of new worlds and new frequently fought. This led to
sea routes. the famous Carnatic Wars
• As a consequence of the above fought between the Dutch and
factors, a new route to the east the English in India. There were
via the Cape of Good Hope was three wars. The third war was
discovered. This led to the conclusively won by the English
European monopoly over the which lead to almost monopoly
seas and the advent of of British in India.
Europeans into India in search • Meanwhile the central Mughal
of trade and commerce in power started to decay and
spices, which were essential many feudal lords and Nawabs
requirements of their food under Mughals declared

36
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
themselves independent or at Egypt and front there by sea to
least started behaving like one. Venice and Genoa.
• To gain power they started • 3rd route - through the passes
taking European help to settle of the North-West frontier of
local quarrels. They used to hire India, across Central Asia, and
European troops in local battles. Russia to the Baltic.
• A European troop doesn’t mean • The Asian part of the trade was
that only European soldiers carried on mostly by Arab
were fighting. European troops merchants and sailors. The
had majority of Indian recruits Mediterranean and European
who were trained on European part was the virtual monopoly
style. of the Italians.
• Soon it was realized that Indian • Goods from Asia to Europe
Battalions were no match for a passed through many states.
handful of trained and Every state levied tolls and
disciplined European soldiers. duties while every merchant
Every local ruler wanted made a substantial profit.
European soldiers to fight on • Obstacles in trade - pirates and
his side and was ready to pay natural calamities on the way.
whatever price the company • Between the middle of the 16TH
demanded. From this the century and the middle of the
concept of ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ 18th century India’s overseas
originated. trade steadily expanded. This
• Many historical records tell that was due to the trading activities
it was introduced by General of the various European
Dupleix of France but in its final companies which came to India
form it was shaped by Lord during this period. India had
Wellesley. Many books tell that commercial relations with the
it was introduced by Lord western countries from time
Wellesley. Whatever be the case, immemorial.
for exam we will follow Lord • But from the seventh century
Wellesley. A.D. her sea-borne trade passed
• Trade between Europe and into the hands of the Arabs, who
India and South-East Asia dominated the Indian Ocean
India’s trade relations with and the Red sea. It was from
Europe go back to the ancient them that the
days of the Greeks. enterprisingmerchants of
• Several routes were used to Venice and Genoa purchased
trade between Europe and India Indian goods.
and South-East Asia. • This monopoly of Indian trade
• 1st Route - via the sea along the by the Arabs, and the Venetians
Persian Gulf, and from there was sought to be broken by
overland through Iraq and direct trade with India by the
Turkey, and then again by sea to Portuguese.
Venice and Genoa. • Though there were so many
• 2ND route - via the Red Sea and obstacles in the trade but still
then overland to Alexandria in

37
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
merchants traded and made spice islands of Indonesia was
high profit. known as East Indies.
• Trade remained highly • To break the Arab and Venetian
profitable mostly due to the • trade monopolies
demand of Europe for Eastern • To bypass Turkish hostility
spices which fetched high prices • To open direct trade relations
in European markets. with the East.
• The Europeans needed spices • Trade in 16 to 18th centuries
because they lived on salted and and era of geographical
peppered meat during the discoveries The geographical
winter months, when there was discoveries of the last quarter of
little grass to feed the cattle, the 15Th century deeply affected
and only a liberal use of spices the commercial relations of the
could make this meat palatable. different countries of the world
• Consequently, European food and produced far-reaching
was as highly spiced as Indian consequences. The discovery of
food till the 17th century. a new all-sea route from Europe
• After the Ottoman conquest of to India via Cape of Good Hope
Asia Minor and the capture of by Vasco da Gama had far-
Constantinople in 1453, the old reaching repercussions on the
trading routes between the East civilized world.
and the West came under • The arrival of the Portuguese in
Turkish control. India was followed by the
• The merchants of Venice and advent of other European
Genoa monopolized the trade communities and soon India’s
between Europe and Asia and coastal and maritime trade was
refused to let the new nation monopolized by the Europeans.
states of Western Europe, The European merchants who
particularly Spain and Portugal, came to India during this period
having any share in the trade differed from the earlier foreign
through these old routes. merchants and had the political
and military support of their
Why west Europeans respective governments.
started finding safer Sea • Portugal and Spain were the 1st
routes for India and whose seamen, sponsored and
Indonesia? controlled by their
governments, began a great era
• Here the trade couldn’t be given of geographical discoveries.
up because of huge demands • In 1494 - Columbus of Spain
and profits and also fabulous wanted to reach to India and
wealth of India. discovered America instead.
• During this time Europe was • In 1498 - Vasco da Gama of
facing shortage of gold and it Portugal discovered a new sea
was essential as a medium of route from Europe to ndia.
exchange if trade was to grow • This route was all sea route. He
unhampered. During that time sailed round Africa via the Cape

38
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
of Good Hope and reached (1505-09) who defeated the
Calicut. combined alliance of the Sultans
• He returned with a cargo which of Gujarat, Bijapur and the
sold for 60 times the cost of his Egyptians in 1509 in a naval
voyage. battle near Diu.
• These discoveries started a new • It was Alfonso de Albuquerque
chapter in the history of the who laid the real foundation of
world. Portuguese power in India. He
• 17th and 18th centuries - first came to India in 1503 as
enormous increase in world the commander of a squadron
trade. and was appointed Governor of
• The New continent of America Portuguese affairs in India in
was opened to Europe. 1509.
• It was rich in precious metals • Alfonso de Albuquerque
like gold and silver. By using captured Goa in 1510.
this gold and silver in Europe, Portuguese has established their
Europe became most advanced domination over the entire
nation in trade, industry and Asian coast (from Hormuz to
science. Indonesia).
• It was also inexhaustible market • This means they seized Indian
for European markets. territories also & safeguarded
• Asia – Europe relations were their trade monopoly from
completely transformed. European rivals.
• Piracy, plunder, inhuman
The Portuguese : cruelties, and lawlessness were
part of Portuguese. They
• The Portuguese under the indulged in forcible conversion
leadership of Vasco da Gama “offering people the alternative
landed at Calicut on the 17th of Christianity or sword.
May, 1498 and were received They survived for a century because
warmly by the Hindu ruler of • Enjoyed control over the high
Calicut bearing the hereditary seas
title of Zamorin. • Their soldiers and
• The arrival of Pedro Alvarez administrators maintained
Cabral in India in 1500 A.D. and strict discipline
the second trip of Vasco da • They did not have to face the
Gama in 1502 led to the might of the Mughal Empire as
establishment of trading South india was outside Mughal
stations at Calicut, Cochin and influence.
Cannanore. • Portuguese clashed with the
• Cochin was the early capital of Mughal power in Bengal in 1631
the Portuguese in India. As per and were driven out of
the new policy adopted in 1505, theirsettlement at Hugli.
by which a Governor was to be • The Portuguese and the Spanish
appointed on a three-year term. had left the English and the
Francisco de Almeida was the Dutch far behind during the
first Portuguese Governor

39
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
15th century and the first half of The Dutch :
the 16TH century.
• But, in the latter half of the 16TH • Dutch used to purchase eastern
century, England and Holland, produce from Portugal & sold it
and later France, all growing in northern Europe. Touch in
commercial and naval, powers, with Portugal & greater profits
waged a fierce struggle against help them to build better ships,
the Spanish and Portuguese scientific sailing techniques and
monopoly of world trade. efficient business
• Portuguese hold over the • Dutch revolted against Spanish
Arabian Sea had been weakened because of their domination on
by the English and their Netherlands, Dutch’s homeland,
influence in Gujarat had and merging of Portugal with
become negligible. Spain
• In 1602 – Dutch East India
The reason for the decline of Company was formed and
Portuguese : parliament gave it a Charter
empowering it to make war,
• Portugal was, however, conclude treaties, acquire
incapable of maintaining for territories and build fortresses.
long its trade monopoly or its • Dutch were mainly interested in
dominion in the East because spices, produced by Indonesia.
of: Soon they established
• Its population was less than a themselves in Malay straits and
million; Indonesia by turning out
• Its court was autocratic and Portuguese.
decadent; • They had established trading
• Its merchants enjoyed much depots at Surat, Broach,
less power and prestige than its Cambay, and Ahmedabad in
landed aristocrats; Gujarat in West India, Cochin in
• It lagged behind in the Kerala, Nagapatam in Madras,
development of shipping, and Masulipatnam in Andhra,
• It followed a polity of religious Chinsura in Bengal, Patna in
intolerance. Bihar, and Agra in Uttar
• It became a Spanish Pradesh.
dependency in 1530. • They exported indigo, raw silk,
• Rise of English and Dutch cotton textiles, saltpetre, and
commercial aspirations in India. opium from India. Similar to
• In 1588, the English defeated Portuguese they were cruel and
the Spanish fleet called the exploiter for Indians.
Armada and shattered Spanish • English defeated them in the
naval supremacy forever. battle of Bidara in 1759.
• More attention of Portuguese
towards West.

40
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
British Entry in Trade : • British and Portuguese fought a
naval war in 1620 resulted in
• It was the commercial trade that English victory. The hostility
attracted English taking between two ended in 1630. In
inspiration from Portuguese. 1662 Portugal gave Island of
• A company of group of Bombay in dowry to English in
merchants called merchant marriage of Portugal’s princess
adventurers was formed to with English King Charles II.
trade with east. In 1600 Queen • This resulted in loss of all the
Elizabeth granted East India possessions of Portuguese in
Company (EIC) a royal charter India except Goa and Daman
and exclusive privilege to trade. and Diu.
• In 1608, company decided to
open a “factory” at Surat and Dutch and British Fight
sent Captain William Hawkins
to receive royal favor from • The two had mistrust in
Mughal emperor Jahangir. relations over division of spice
• In 1613, a permanent factory of trade of Indonesian islands. The
EIC was established in Surat. war between the two during
• At royal court Portuguese were 1654-1667 resulted in English
intriguing against the English. giving up all claims to Indonesia
The English wanted to get rid of while Dutch agreed to leave
them and so they defeated alone the English settlements in
Portuguese naval power two India.
times near Surat. • The English, however,
• This convinced Mughals that continued their efforts to drive
English naval power will deter out the Dutch from the Indian
Portuguese in case of danger trade and by 1795, they had
from Portuguese. Company was expelled the Dutch from their
given royal Farman to open last possession in India.
factories at several palaces. • The English East India
• In 1615 English Ambassador Sir Company had very humble
Thomas Roe succeeded in beginnings in India. Surat was
getting an imperial Farman to the center of its trade till 1687.
trade and establishes factories • Throughout the trading period,
all over Mughal Empire. the English refrained
• In 1616, EIC established its first petitioners before the Mughal
factory in the South in authorities. By 1623, they had
Masulipatnam. established factories at Surat,
• To get Farman they exerted Broach, Ahmedabad, Agra, and
pressure on Mughals, taken Masulipatam.
advantage of India’s naval
weakness and harassed Indian
traders and shipping to red sea
and mecca. Roe’s success
angered Portuguese.

41
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
The Growth of the EIC trade & • It soon opened factories at
influence (1600-1714): Patna, Balasore, Dacca, and
other places in Bengal and
• Initially they were very humble Bihar.
and remained as petitioners • Englishmen’s easy success in
before Mughal authorities. They trade and in establishing
established factories at Surat, independent and fortified
Broach, Ahmedabad, Agra, and settlements at Madras and at
Masulipatnam. Bombay, and the preoccupation
• They always tried to combine of Aurangzeb with the anti-
trade and diplomacy with war. Maratha campaigns led the
Mughal Empire was still in vigor English to abandon the role of
and any attempt by British to humble petitioners.
threat its authority was • Why company was dreaming of
punished. establishing political power in
• While in south they faced less India?
resistance because of number of
petty & weak rulers. Soon So that they can compel the Mughals
Madras became their activity to allow them a free hand in trade.
center. They took it on lease • To force Indians to sell cheap and
from a local Raja in 1639. buy dear.
• They built a small fort around • To keep the rival European traders
their factory called Fort St. at bay.
George From the very beginning • To make their trade independent of
this Company of profit- seeking the policies of the Indian powers.
merchants was also determined • To appropriate Indian revenue and
to make Indians pay for the conquer country with its own
conquest of their own country. resources.
• In 1662 Portugal gave Island of • Hostilities between the English
Bombay in dowry to English in and the Mughal Emperor broke
marriage of Portugal’s princess out in 1686, after the former
with English King Charles II. had sacked Hugli and declared
Island of Bombay was fortified war on the Emperor. But the
immediately. English had seriously
• Surat was superseded because – miscalculated the situation and
• Island of Bombay was found to be underestimated Mughal
large and easy to defend port. strength.
• Maratha power threatening English • Result of this misadventure was
trade in main land. – English lost. They were driven
out from their factories.
• In Eastern India, the English • Factories at Surat,
Company had opened its first Masulipatnam and
factories in Orissa in 1633. Vishakhapatnam were seized.
English Company was given Fort at Bombay was besieged.
permission to trade at Hugli in • Reason for loss –
Bengal. underestimated the power of
Mughal empire. English realized

42
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
that they have underestimated • They exercised strict control
Mughal power and so once over the English traders and
again became humble. prevented them from misusing
• They apologized for their their privileges. Nor did they
mistake and expressed their allow them to strengthen
willingness to trade under the fortifications at Calcutta or to
protection of the Indian rulers. rule the city independently.
• Once again started the flattery Here the East India Company
and humble entreaties- Mughal remained a mere zamindar of
authorities had no idea about the Nawab British settlements
evil intentions of those harmless in Madras, Bombay, and
looking foreign traders. Calcutta became the nuclei of
• They thought that trade will flourishing cities.
enrich the state treasury and • Large numbers of Indian
benefit Indian artisans and merchants and bankers were
merchants. And so they readily attracted to these cities due to
pardoned them. Partly because of new
• English, though weak on land, commercial opportunities
were, because of their naval available in these cities and
supremacy, capable of partly to the unstable conditions
completely ruining Indian trade outside cities, caused by the
and shipping to Iran, West Asia, break-up of the Mughal Empire.
Northern and Eastern Africa, • By the middle of the 18th
and East Asia. century, the population of
• Aurangzeb therefore permitted Madras had increased to
them to resume trade on 300,000, of Calcutta to
payment of Rs. 150,000 as 200,000 and of Bombay to
compensation. 70,000.
• All the 3 cities had English
Emergence of Big Cities : fortified settlements and
immediate access to sea. In case
• In 1698 – The Company of conflict with any Indian
acquired the zamindari of the authority they can escape from
three villages Sutanati, Kalikata, sea. In case of political turmoil
and Govindpur where it built in country, they can use these
Fort William around its factory. cities as springboards for
These villages soon grew into a conquest of India.
city known as Calcutta. • Demand for Indian products in
• In 1717 – Farrukh Siyar England.
confirmed the privileges • Commercially company was
granted in 1691 Farman and flourishing. Demand for Indian
extended them to Deccan and products was increasing day by
Gujarat . day. Imports increased from £
• During 1st half of the 18th 500,000 in 1708 to £ 1,795,000
century Bengal was ruled by in 1740.
strong Nawabs such as Murshid
Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan.

43
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• This increase was record high, and Pondicherry on the East
although the English Coast.
Government forbade the use of • The French Company had some
Indian cotton and silk textiles in other factories at several ports
England to protect the English on the East and the West coasts.
textile industry and to prevent It had also acquired control over
export of silver from England to the islands of Mauritius and
India. Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
• Thus, at a time when the • The French East India Company
English were pleading for free was heavily dependent on the
trade in India they were French Government, which
restricting freedom of trade in helped it by giving it treasury
their own country and denying grants, subsidies, and loan, etc.
access to Indian manufactures. • The French East India Company
• The Anglo-French Struggle in was largely controlled by the
South India. In Southern India, Government, which appointed
however, conditions were its directors after 1723.
gradually becoming favorable to • The French state of the time was
foreignadventurers, as the autocratic, semi-feudal, and
central authority had unpopular and sniffled from
disappeared there after the corruption, inefficiency, and
death of Aurangzeb (1707) and instability.
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1748). • Instead of being forward-
• The Maratha chiefs regularly looking, it was decadent, bound
invaded Hyderabad and the rest by tradition, and in general
of the South for collecting unsuited to the times. Control
Chauth (tax). by such a state could not but be
• The absence of central power injurious to the interests of the
gave the foreigners an Company.
opportunity to expand their • Im 1742, war broke out in
political influence and control Europe between France and
over the affairs of the South England. One of the major
Indian states. causes of the war was rivalry
• For nearly 20 years from 1744 over colonies in America.
to 1763, the French and the Another was their trade rivalry
English were to wage a bitter in India. Thisrivalry was
warfor control over the trade, intensified by the knowledge
wealth, and territory of India. that the Mughal Empire was
• The French East India Company disintegrating and so the prize
was founded in 1664. It made of trade or territory was likely to
rapid progress and it was be much bigger than in the past.
reorganized in the 1720's and • Anglo-French conflict in India
soon began to catch up with the lasted for nearly 20 years and
English Company. led to the establishment of
• It was firmly established at British power in India. French
Chandernagore near Calcutta and English fought 3 wars in
India called as Carnatic Wars.

44
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• India was theatre of these wars. soldiers at St. Thome on river
All this started with Austrian Adyar under Mahfuz Khan).
war of succession & ended with • The Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle
7 years’ war (both in Europe but (1748) brought the Austrian war
at same time Carnatic wars was of succession to a conclusion.
going in India). • Under the terms of this treaty
Madras was handed back to
First Carnatic War (1746 -1748) : English.
• Result (French versus English)
• This war was extension of Anglo- – Draw The war had ended but
French war in Europe (Austrian not the rivalry in trade and over
war of succession - 1740). This the possessions in India. This
war is memorable for the battle war had shown the weakness of
of St. Thome fought between Indian government and armies
French and Indian forces of and so both English and French
nawab of Carnatic, Anwar-ud- EICs wanted to expand
din. territories.
• In 1745, the English navy
captured French ships off the After this war Dupleix had learned
South-East coast of India and some lessons and evolved a strategy:
threatened Pondicherry.
• Dupleix, the French Governor- • 1st – INTERVENE – intervene
General at Pondicherry at this in mutual quarrels of Indian
time, retaliated and occupied princes.
Madras in 1746. • 2ND – SUPPORT IN FIGHT
• The British appealed to the FOR ONE SIDE.
Nawab of Carnatic, in whose • 3rd – GET FAVOR – Get favour
territory Madras was situated, in their own side in commercial,
to save their settlement from money, territories.
the French. • 4th – USE LOCAL ARMIES
• Anwar-ud-din as overlord of the AND RESOURCES - use local
Carnatic had ordered the armies and resources to serve
European companies to desist French interest and expel the
from commencing hostilities English from India.
within its territories and • Barrier to the success of this
disturbing the peace of the strategy could have been the
country. refusal by Indian rulers. But
• Reason of battle – custody of absence of patriotism and for
Madras Nawab wanted custody selfish ambitions and gains they
of madras but Dupleix was not permitted foreign intervention
keeping his promise of handing This strategy was executed by
over to nawab. Dupleix in 2nd Carnatic war
• Dupleix defeated nawab’s army (1749-54).
(Captain paradise defeated
10000 soldiers with just 230
European and 700 Indian

45
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Second Carnatic War (1749-54) : the Nizam from enemies, it was
really aimed at maintaining
• Reasons – Political ambitions of French influence at his court.
Dupleix. Disputed succession to • When Muzaffar Jung was
thrones of Hyderabad & accidentally killed, his son,
Carnatic. Salabat Jang was succeeded to
• In 1748, a situation arose in the throneby Bussy.
Carnatic and Hyderabad which • The French had started out by
gave full scope to Dupleix’s trying to win Indian states as
talents for intrigue. friends; they had ended by
• In the Carnatic, Chanda Sahib making them clients or
began to conspire against the satellites.
Nawab, Anwaruddin. In • English had not remained silent
Hyderabad the death of Asaf spectator. After the death of
Jang, Nizam-uI-Mulk, was Nasir Jung they decided to
followed by civil war between throw their entire strength
his son Nasir Jang and his behind Muhammad Ali. Robert
grandson Muzaffar Jang Clive, a clerk proposed that a
(nephew of Nasir Jang). surprise attack be made on
• Dupleix supported Muzaffar Arcot {Arcot – near Vellore
Jang and Chanda sahib. Now (Tamil Nadu)}, the capital of the
British inevitably found Carnatic, in a bid to divert
themselves with Nazir Jang and pressure on Trichinopoly.
Anwar-ud-din Combined armies • He rightly calculated that
of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda sahib Chanda sahib must rush to save
and French defeated & killed his capital. The plan was well
Anwar-uddin at Battle of Ambur conceived. Robert Clive with a
near Vellore. Anwar’s son fled to force of only 210 men stormed
Trichinopoly. Chanda sahib and captured Arcot in August
became nawab of Carnatic in 1751. A large force of 4000 men
1751. diverted by Chanda Sahib from
• He rewarded French with a Trichinpoly to Arcot failed to
grant of 80 villages around retake the town.
Pondicherry. Nasir Jang lost his • The French forces were
life in encounter of December repeatedly defeated. Chanda
1750. Muzaffar Jang became Sahib was soon captured and
Deccan’s subhadar. killed. Result – British victory.
• He rewarded French with
territories near Pondicherry as Third Carnatic war (1758-63)
well as the famous town of
Masulipatam. Masulipatam is • Reasons – Again extension or
now Machilipatnam in Andhra echo of struggle in Europe (7
Pradesh Dupleix stationed his years’ war).
best officer, Bussy, at • Counte de Lally (French
Hyderabad with a French army. commander) came to India
While the ostensible purpose of (meantime British defeated
this arrangement was to protect Siraj-uddaula and captured

46
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Bengal in 1757). British got • Third - It was proved that the
jackpot (lot of resources, Indian soldier trained and
money) armed in the European manner
• What happened in war? : Count made as good a soldier as the
de Lally captured St. David in European.
1758 & also attacked Tanjore. • And since the Indian soldier too
Next, he wanted to siege lacked a feeling of nationalism,
Madras but because of presence he could be hired and employed
of British naval power he had to by anyone who was willing to
abandon this & he summoned pay him well. The English now
Bussy from Hyderabad. set out to create a powerful
• This was a very big mistake of army consisting of Indian
Lally because it had weakened soldiers, called sepoys, and
French position in that capital. officered by Englishmen.
• English beat French fleet and
compelled D’ Ache to retire British Occupation of Bengal
from Indian waters and final
blow to French was given by sir • The Company had secured
Eyre Coote at Wandiswash valuable privileges in 1717 under
(1760). a Royal Farman by the Mughal
• Result - The 3rd and final round Emperor Farrukh Siyar, which
of the struggle proved decisive. had granted the Company the
Mahe and Jinji were lost by freedom to export and import
French to English. their goods in Bengal without
• Pondicherry and some other paying taxes and the right to
French settlements were issue passes or Dastaks for the
returned to French by the movement of such goods.
Treaty of Paris (1763) but these • DASTAK – Dastak was a Trade
were to be never fortified. permit.
• Dastak, in 18Th-century Bengal,
What are the lessons learnt by English a permit exempting European
after the struggle with French and traders, mostly of the British
Indian rulers? East India Company, from
• First - That in the absence of paying customs or transit duties
nationalism in the country, they on their private trade. The name
could advance their political came from the Persian word for
schemes by taking advantage of “pass.”
the mutual quarrels of the • The Indian merchants and
Indian rulers. company’s servant were equal in
• Second - The Western trained paying taxes. This Farman was a
infantry, European or Indian, perpetual source of conflict
armed with modern weapons between the Company and the
and backed by artillery could Nawab’s of Bengal.
defeat the old style Indian
armies with ease in pitched
battles.

47
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
How? but not as masters. He ordered both
• First - it meant loss of revenue the English and the French to
to the Bengal Government. demolish their fortifications at
• Second- the power to issue Calcutta and Chandernagore and to
Dastak for the Company’s goods desist from fighting each other.
were misused by the Company’s • White the French Company
servants to evade taxes on their obeyed his order, the English
private trade. Company refused to do so, for
• All the Nawabs of Bengal, from its ambition had been whetted
Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi and its confidence enhanced by
Khan, had objected to the its victories in the Carnatic.
English interpretation of the • Siraj-ud-Daulah had the
Farman of 1717. statesmanship to see the long-
• The nawab Ali Vardi Khan term implications of the English
linked the Europeans to bees designs. He decided to make
who would make him honey if them obey the laws of the land.
left in peace but would sting an Fort William was besieged in
intruder to death. Alivardi Khan 1756.
was succeeded by his grandson • Siraj had acted in undue haste
Siraj-ud-daula. and with inadequate
• He had rival claimants to the preparation. Fort William was
throne like Shauakat Jung and occupied on 20 June 1756 and
Ghasiti Begum. Company was then he retired to his capital to
supporting these rivals against celebrate his victory.
Nawab. Nawab had warned • And 146 British prisoners
company several times, but this including their commander
only evoked evasive replies. John Zepheria Holwell and four
women were locked in a small
Black Hole Tragedy room in fort William. 123 of
• English had started to mount them died inside due to
guns on walls of fort William. suffocation. This incident is
They gave offence to Nawab by known as Black-hole tragedy.
giving a helping hand to his
rivals to claim throne. Battle of Plassey
• Finding his authority flouted in • In due time the news of
his own dominions, Siraj capitulation of Calcutta reached
launched the offensive against Madras. The authorities
English. immediately sent their armies
• Moreover, he feared that if he to Calcutta.
permitted the English and the • In the meantime, they
French to fight each other on organized a web of intrigue and
the soil of Bengal, he too would treachery with the leading men
meet the fate of the Carnatic of the Nawab’s court.
Nawabs. Chief among these were
Mir Jafar - the Mir Bakshi
In other words, Siraj, was willing to let • Manik Chand - the Officer-in-
the Europeans remain, as merchant Charge of Calcutta

48
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Amichand - a rich merchant
• Jagat Seth - the biggest banker • Battle of Plassey was “a night of
of Bengal eternal gloom for India”.
• Khadim Khan - he commanded • The Battle of Plassey was a
a large number of the Nawab’s decisive victory of the British
troops. East India Company over the
• Colonel Clive commanded the Nawab of Bengal and his French
expedition sent by Madras. He allies on 23 June 1757. The
re-conquered Calcutta in the battle consolidated the
beginning of 1757 and Company's presence in Bengal,
compelled the Nawab to which later expanded to cover
concede all the demands of the much of India over the next
English. hundred years.
• Treaty of Alinagar- restored the • Rewards by Mir Jafar to English
English their former privileges EIC.
of trade, grant permission to • Mir Jafar succeed to throne
fortify Calcutta and promising with the help of English and so
compensation for the losses he rewarded them with trade
suffered by the English. rights, compensation, large
• But English wanted more and sums as ‘gifts’ or bribes.
they started intriguing with • The Company was granted
Mira Jafar and others against undisputed right to free trade in
Nawab. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It also
• English kept a set of impossible received the zamindari of the 24
demands in front of Nawab and Parganas near Calcutta. Mir
it became necessary to fight to Jafar paid a sum of Rs
finish. 17,700,000 as compensation for
• In 23 June 1757 – rivals faced the attack on Calcutta to the
each other in battlefield of Company and the traders of the
Plassey. It was fought on the city.
banks of Bhagirathi River.
• Battle of Plassey was a battle Importance of Battle of Plassey:
only in name. In reality it was a
conspiracy against Nawab by • The battle of Plassey was of
enemies to fulfill their selfish immense historical importance
motives. as it had benefitted the British
• An advanced party of Nawab’s in lot of ways.
army was led by Mir Mudan and • It paved the way for the British
Mohan Lal forced Clive to mastery of Bengal and
withdraw his forces behind the eventually of the 'whole of
trees. English killed Mir Mudan. India’. The rich revenues of
• Siraj summoned his army Bengal enabled them to
officers and sought their advice. organize a strong army.
Mir Jafar found the fears of • Control over Bengal played a
nawab and told him to retire decisive role in the Anglo-
from battlefield leaving the French struggle. Enabled the
operations to his Generals. Company and its servants to

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
amass untold wealth at the cost totalling 29 lakhs of rupees to
of the helpless people of Bengal. the high English officials.
• Mir Jafar was Milch cow for • Mir Qasim and EIC Nawab
English. Company was no belied English hopes and
longer just trader, now it started became threat to their position
control over provinces. Wealth and designs in Bengal. He was
of Bengal was drained. an able, efficient, and strong
• Deposition of Mir Jafar ruler, determined to free
himself from foreign control He
• Soon Mir Jafar repented the believed that since he had paid
bargain. He realized it was impossible the Company adequately for
to meet Englishdemands forever. His putting him on the throne, they
treasury was emptied. should now leave him alone to
• Soon English officials began to govern Bengal. He realized full
criticize the Nawab for his incapacity treasury and an efficient army
in fulfilling their expectations. were essential to maintain his
• They forced him to abdicate throne independence.
in favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim.
o He was charged with anti-English • He took some measures to assert his
activities, intriguing with Dutch. independence- prevented public
o In reality his main crime was disorder.
poverty. • To increase his income, he removed
corruption from revenue
Treaty with Mir Qasim administration.
(September. 1760): • Raised a modern and disciplined
army along European lines.
• Mir Qasim found it as an • He attempted to check the
opportunity and claimed for misuse of the Farman of 1717 by
Nawabship. He promised the Company’s servants. These
English to take measures abuses ruined the honest Indian
immediately to relive the traders through unfair
financial distress of company. competition and deprived the
Finding his palace surrounded Nawab of a very important
by the company’s army, Mir source of revenue.
Jaffar decided to resign in favor • The Company and its servants
of Mir Qasim. got intoxicated by their new-
• Mir Jaffar was paid back in his found power and they began to
own coin. He had betrayed oppress and ill-treat the officials
Siraj. now he was betrayed by of the Nawab and, the poor
Mir Qasim. people pf Bengal.
• On becoming nawab of Bengal • They compelled the Indian
Mir Qasim heavily bribed the artisans, peasants, and
‘King makers’. He granted the merchants to sell their goods
Company the Zamindari of the cheap and to buy dear from
districts of Burdwan, them. People who refused were
Midnapore, and Chittagong, often flogged or imprisoned.
and gave handsome presents

50
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• These years were “the period of pay for the services of troops. In
open and unashamed plunder.” nutshell, nawab became
The prosperity for which Bengal dependent on company.
was renowned was being • Nawab was living with a wrong
gradually destroyed. He took belief that a trading body,
the drastic step of abolishing all company, was a transitory
duties on internal trade, thus power and Mughal and Afghans
giving his own subjects a were his real enemies.
concession that the English had • Clive had gradually started to
seized by force. transfer the authority of
• But alien merchants don’t want Government from the Nawab to
equality, they demanded re- the Company. Clive restored
imposition of tax on Indian Mir Jafar in 1763 and collected
merchants. English didn’t like huge sums In 1765 after Mir
his activities. Jafar’s death, his second son,
Nizam-ud-daulah, was placed
Battle of Buxar by Clive on throne, A treaty was
• Conflict started again- Truth signed with new nawab.
was no two masters could exist • According to treaty, Nawab was
together. to disband most of his army and
• Nawab believed himself as to administer Bengal through a
independent ruler while English Deputy Subahdar who was to be
wanted him to act as their nominated by the Company and
puppet. who could not be dismissed
• Mir Qasim was defeated in a without its approval.
series of battle in 1763. He • The Company thus gained
formed alliance with Shuja-ud- supreme control over the
Daulah, the Nawab of Avadh, administration (or nizamat) of
and Shah Alam II, the fugitive Bengal.
Mughal Emperor.
• The three allies met with How battle of Buxar had made
English at Buxar on 22 October British a masters of Bengal,
1764 and were thoroughly Bihar and Orissa?
defeated. One of the most • Company had obtained the
decisive battles of Indian Diwani (right to collect to
history because it demonstrated revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and
the superiority of English arms Orissa from titular head of
over combined armies of two Mughal Empire.
major Indian provinces.
• Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud- Dual System of Administration of
daulah was made to pay war Bengal :
indemnity of 5 million rupees to
the Company. • The real master of Bengal was
• Nawab and English became company from 1765.
alliance. According to alliance • Bengal’s defense was in hands of
company will help nawab in any EIC army.
outside attack but nawab had to • Political power was in hands of EIC.

51
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Revenue power – EIC is Diwan so rains, its effects were
collected revenue. heightened by the Company’s
• Police and judicial power - EIC policies.
appointed the Deputy Subahdar.
The battle of Plassey:
Dual or double government –
from 1765 to 1772 there was dual • The battle of Plassey marked the
government in Bengal because there British Conquest of India. Later
were 2 separate authorities. The under the governorship of Lord
British controlled the army and the Wellesley, Lord Hastings, Lord
revenue while the nawab was supposed Dalhousie, etc. the expansion of
to look after the administration. the British Empire in India took
place.
• EIC – had authority but no
responsibility. They controlled Expansion under Lord Wellesley
the finances of the province and (1798 - 1805)
its army directly and its • Lord Wellesley (as Governor
administration indirectly. General) came to India in 1798
• Nawab – The Nawab and his at a time when the British were
officials had the responsibility locked in a life and death
of administration but not the struggle with France all over the
power to discharge it. world.
• Now the Bengal was completely • Lord Wellesley remained
under the control of company. Governor General of Fort
So, it’s servant and company Williams from 1798 to 1805.
itself started to plunder the During his tenure, the Fourth
Bengal. and last Anglo-Mysore war was
• Company authorities used the fought and Tipu was killed in
collected revenue to purchase this war.
the Indian goods and sold them • The Second Anglo Maratha war
abroad. It was known as also happened in which
company’s investment and it Bhonsle, Scindia and Holkar
was part of its profit. were defeated.
• Government also shared in this • Wellesley followed the policy of
profit. “subsidiary alliance”, which was
• Company had completely accepted by the rulers of
drained the Bengal. In years - Mysore, Jodhpur, Jaipur,
1766 - 68 5.7 million pound was Bundi, Macheri, Bharatpur,
drained from Bengal. Dual Oudh, Tanjore, Berar, Peshwa
government and drain of wealth and Nizam of Hyderabad.
gifted an impoverished and • The Censorship of Press Act,
exhausted province. 1799 was also brought under his
• In 1770, Bengal suffered from tenure and Fort William College
one of the most terrible famines was established in 1800 to train
known in human history. civil servants.
• Lakhs of people died. Though
the famine was due to failure of

52
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• After Warren Hastings & • Lord Wellesley: Known as the
Cornwallis, Wellesley was next Akbar of East India Company.
governor general of India. • He also called himself ‘The
Under his period a large-scale Bengal Tiger
expansion of British rule took • The predecessors of Wellesley
place. Before him British were concluded alliances with Indian
following policy of consolidation princes like the Nawab of
of resources and gains. Awadh and the Nizam of
• Territorial expansion was made Hyderabad. They received
when it was safe & without subsidies from the Indian rulers
antagonizing major Indian for the maintenance of British
powers. Wellesley believed that troops, which were used for the
time had ripe to bring as many protection of respective Indian
Indian states as possible under states. Wellesley enlarged and
British control. consolidated the already
• In 1797, two major Indian existing system.
powers, Mysore and Marathas
were declined. Business class in Main Features of Subsidiary
British and company was also in Alliance :
favor of this policy as more
Indian portion under British • Any Indian ruler who entered
control, more markets for into the subsidiary alliance with
British. the British had to maintain a
• To achieve his political aims contingent of British troops in
Wellesley relied on three his territory. It was commanded
methods: The system of by a British officer. The Indian
Subsidiary Alliances, outright state was called ‘the protected
wars, and assumption of the state’ and the British hereinafter
territories of previously' were referred to as ‘the
subordinated rulers. paramount power’. It was the
• Helping Indian states by paid duty of the British to safeguard
British force was old technic. that state from external
Wellesley shaped it and used to ggression and to help its ruler
subordinate Indian states under maintain internal peace. The
paramount authority of the protected state should give
Company. some money or give part of its
territory to the British to
Subsidiary Alliance support the subsidiary force.
• Wellesley came to India with a • The protected state should cut
determination to launch a off its connection with
forward policy in order to make European powers other than the
‘the British Empire in India’ English and with the French in
into ‘the British Empire of particular. The state was also
India’. The system that he forbidden to have any political
adopted to achieve his object is contact even with other Indian
known as the ‘Subsidiary powers without the permission
Alliance’. of the British.

53
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
seeking lives. As a result
• The ruler of the protected state misgovernment followed.
should keep a British Resident • In course of time, the anarchy
at his court and disband his own and misrule in several states
army. He should not employ had resulted in their annexation
Europeans in his service by the British. Thus, the
without the sanction of the subsidiary system proved to be
paramount power. a preparation for annexation.
• Furthermore, the British
• The paramount power should collected very heavy subsidies
not interfere in the internal from the protected princes and
affairs of the protected state. this had adversely affected their
economy.
• The position of the British was
strengthened against its Indian and Subsidiary alliance disadvantages to
non-Indian enemies. Indian states –
• Under the system, expansion of
British power became easy. They lost the –

Thus, Wellesley’s diplomacy made the • right of self-defense

British the paramount power in India. • right of maintaining diplomatic
relations
• right of employing foreign experts
Negative impact of the Subsidiary • right of settling its disputes with its
System on Indian Princes : neighbors
• all vestiges of sovereignty in external
• The immediate effect of the matters
establishment of subsidiary • became increasingly subservient to
forces was the introduction of the British Resident
anarchy because of the • interference by resident in the day
unemployment of thousands of to day administration of the state
soldiers sent away by the Indian • Give rise to internal decay of the
princes. protected state.
• The freebooting activities of • cost of the subsidiary force provided
disbanded soldiers were felt by the British was very high
much in central India where the • sometimes beyond the paying
menace of Pindaris affected the capacity of the state
people. • payments were arbitrarily fixed
• Further, the subsidiary system • disbandment of the armies of the
had a demoralizing effect on the protected states led to unemployment
princes of the protected states. problems
Safeguarded against external • As Lakhs of soldiers and officers
danger and internal revolt, they were deprived of their hereditary
neglected their administrative livelihood, spreading misery and
responsibilities. They preferred degradation in the country.
to lead easy-going and pleasure • Law and order problem because
Many of disbanded soldiers joined the

54
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
roaming bands of Pindarees which
ravaged people. Mysore
• Rulers had no incentive to become
good rulers because they tended to • Tipu loved his independence
neglect the interests of their people and so he never agreed to
and to oppress them as they no longer subsidiary alliance. He worked
feared them. hard to strengthen forces
against British.
Subsidiary alliances advantages • He entered into negotiations for
to British India an alliance with Revolutionary
France and sent missions to
• They can maintain a large army at Afghanistan, Arabia and Turkey
the cost of the Indian states. to forge an anti-British alliance.
• This enabled them to fight wars far • Fourth Anglo Mysore war - In
away from their own territories. 1799 British defeated Tipu but
• Since any war would occur In the still he had not signed the
territories either of the British ally or treaty. He proudly declared that
of the British it was “better to die like a
enemy. soldier than to live a miserable
• Controlled the defense and foreign dependent on the infidels, in the
relations of the protected ally and had list of their pensioned, rajas and
a power army stationed in ally land nabobs.”
and could, therefore, at a time of their • He died a hero’s death on 4 May
choosing, overthrow ruler and annex 1799 while defending his capital
his territories by declaring him to be Seringapatam. After his death
“inefficient‟. half of his dominions were
divided between British and
The system of Subsidiary Alliances was their ally Nizam. (see map
“a system of fattening allies as we below).
fatten oxen, till they were worthy of • The Reduced kingdom was
being devoured.” restored to the descendants of
original Rajas from whom
Subsidiary Alliance and Indian Haider Ali had seized the power.
States • A special treaty of subsidiary
alliance was signed with new
Hyderabad Rajas. According to treaty
governor general can take over
• Treaty of subsidiary alliance was the state in case of necessity.
signed with Hyderabad in 1801. Mysore was, in fact, made a
• The pay for army was so high that complete dependency of the
Nawab had to surrender half of his Company.
kingdom.
• His own army was disbanded. Carnatic
• British had right to station the army • In 1801, Wellesley forced a new
anywhere in state. treaty upon the puppet nawab
of Carnatic. According to treaty
he had to cede half of kingdom

55
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
to company in return for episode and Gaekwad gave a
pension. helping hand to British.
• The Madras Presidency as it • In 1803 Wellesley defeated
existed till, 1947 was now combined armies of Sindhia and
created, by attaching the Bhonsle at Assaye. Both signed
Carnatic to territories seized Subsidiary Alliance Treaty.
from Mysore, including the
Malabar. As a result of treaty :
• Similarly, the territories of the • Part of territory ceded to British
rulers of Tanjore and Surat were • Admitted British resident
taken over and their rulers • Promised will not employ any
pensioned off. European without British approval.
The Peshwa had become puppet in
Marathas British hands.

• It was the only major power Now Wellesley turned to Holkar. But
which was not under British Yeshwant Rao Holkar gave a firm
control. Wellesley began resistance to Wellesley Holkar’s ally,
aggressive interference in their the Raja of Bharatpur, inflicted heavy
internal affairs. During this time losses on Lord Lake. Sindhia also gave
Maratha empire was a thought of forgetting the fratricidal
confederacy of 5 big chiefs : strife and joining Holkar.
• Peshwa – Poona
• Gaekwad – Baroda Wellesley had been called back because
• Bhonsle – Nagpur of –
• Holkar – Indore • Profits of shareholders of EIC
• Sindhia – Gwalior decline because of company’s costly
wars.
• Peshwa was nominal head of • Company debt had also increased.
confederacy. They were busy in • Britain finance were exhausted.
fighting among themselves and • British statesmen and company
not seen the foreign threat. directors felt that now it’s time to stop
• Wellesley had offered subsidiary further expansion & digest and
alliance to Peshwa and Sindhia consolidate recent gains in India.
but Peshwa had declined Peace was signed with Holkars in 1806
because of far-sightedness of by the Treaty of Raighat, giving back
Nana Phadnis. Holkar greater part of his territories.
• In 1802, Holkar had defeated
the combined armies of Peshwa Expansion under Lord Hastings
and Sindhia, cowardly Peshwa (1813 - 22)
Baji Rao II signed the
subsidiary alliance at Bassein. • Marquess of Hastings (Lord
• The Marathas had not united Hastings) was appointed
even against the common Governor-General of India on
enemy. Sindhia and Bhonsle November 11, 1812. His tenure
were fighting with British while in India as Governor-General
Holkar was watching the was a notable one, as he won

56
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
two wars namely the Gurkha • By 1818 the entire India except
War (1814–1816) and the Punjab and Sikh states was
Maratha War (1818). under control of British. It was
• Even after defeat at second partly controlled by British
Anglo-Maratha war, Marathas directly and rest by Indian
had not lost the hope and they rulers under paramount power
had made a last try to regain the of British.
independence and old prestige • The British protected states had
in 1817. virtually no armed forces of
• Peshwa led and tried to their own, nor did they have any
organize a united front with the independent foreign relations.
Maratha chiefs. Peshwa However, they were
attacked British residency at autonomous in their internal
Poona in November 1817. Appa affairs, but even in this respect,
Sahib of Nagpur attacked they acknowledged British
residency at Nagpur. Madhav authority wielded through a
Rao Holkar made preparations Resident.
for war.
• Governor General, Lord The Consolidation of British
Hastings retaliated vigorously. Power (1818 - 57)
As a result of this Sindhia –
compelled to accept suzerainty. • To consolidate its power, the
• Peshwa – dethroned and British completed the task of
pensioned off at Bithur near conquering the whole of India
Kanpur. Territories annexed from 1818 to 1857.
and enlarged the presidency of
Bombay brought into existence. Conquest of Sindh
• Holkar and Bhonsle – accepted • It was result of Anglo – Russian
subsidiary forces. rivalry and fear of British that
• For satisfaction of Maratha Russia might attack India
pride, the small Kingdom of through Afghanistan or Persia.
Satara was founded out of the • To counter this British
Peshwa’s lands and given, to the government decided to increase
descendant of Chatrapati its control over Afghanistan or
Shivaji. Like descendants of Persia. British believed that for
Mysore rajas, they were made successful execution of above
completely dependent to plan, Sindh must be brought
British. under its control.
• Sindhia and Holkar dominated • The commercial possibilities of
Rajputana states for several the river Sindh were an
years and after their downfall additional attraction. In 1832
they were not capable enough to William Bentinck sent his
reassert their independence and representative to sign a new
easily accepted British commercial treaty with Amirs
supremacy. (chiefs of Sind).

57
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• A free passage for English Broad foot in Ludhiana
travelers and merchant through repeatedly indulged in hostile
Sind, and the use of the Indus actions and gave provocations.
for commercial pursuits; no
vessel of war to come by the said • There were lots of corrupt chiefs
river. in Punjab, who know that soon
• In 1839, a subsidiary treaty was they will lose their position
signed with Amirs. This treaty because army will not able to
was accepted by Amirs under stand against British.
threat of superior forces. • So, they thought of saving
themselves by embroiling army
The terms of treaty were similar with British.
to subsidiary alliance: • In 1845, British started
• Troops were to be stationed at preparing to march towards
Shikarpur and Bukkar. Punjab. The Punjab Army, now
• No foreign affairs without asking convinced that the British were
British. determined to occupy the
• Paying maintenance for force. Punjab, took counter measures.
War started on 13 December
In spite of previous assurances that its 1845.
territorial integrity would be respected, • The Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs
Sindh was annexed in 1843 by Charles forget their internal conflicts
Napier. and united against common
enemy. Punjab army fought
“We have no right to seize Sind, yet we heroically. But some leaders like
shall do so, and a very advantageous, Prime minister, Raja lala Singh,
useful humane piece of rascality it will and commander-in-chief,
be.” missar Tej Singh had betrayed
Punjab.
The Conquest of Punjab • Punjab Army was forced to
concede defeat and to sign the
• ‘Punjab’ is made up two words- humiliating Treaty of Lahore on
‘Punj’ meaning five and ‘ab’ 8 March 1846. Jalandhar doab
meaning water. Political was annexed and Jammu and
instability and rapid changes of Kashmir was sold to raja Gulab
government followed in Punjab Singh Dogra.
after the death of Maharaja • Punjab army reduced, and
Ranjit Singh in June 1839. strong British force stationed at
• Though power fell into patriotic Lahore. In December 1846,
leaders, but army was not well Treaty of Bhyrowal was signed.
disciplined and so British • It had given full authority to
thought of seizing this British resident at Lahore over
opportunity and looking all matters in state. Troops can
greedily towards Punjab. be stationed in any part of the
• British had signed a treaty of Punjab.
perpetual friendship with Ranjit
Singh in 1809. British agent,

58
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• But British officials were still • He believed that British
unsatisfied. They wanted to administration was far superior
impose direct British rule over to the corrupt and oppressive
the Punjab. administration of the native
• Lord Dalhousie was waiting for rulers. In reality motive of this
opportunity to subsume the last policy was the expansion of
independent state into British British exports to India.
Empire. This opportunity was • He implemented his policy of
given by local revolts. Revolts annexation by the Doctrine of
were led by Mulraj at Multan Lapse.
and Chatter Singh Attanwala • Doctrine of Lapse - when the
near Lahore. Lord Dalhousie ruler of a protected state died
can’t afford to lose, and he without a natural heir, his state
annexed the Punjab. was not to pass to an adopted
heir as sanctioned by the age-
Dalhousie and the Policy of old tradition of the country.
Annexation (1848 - 56): • Instead, it was to be annexed to
the British dominions unless the
• Lord Dalhousie (Real name adoption had been clearly
James Andrew Ramsay) served approved earlier by the British
as Governor General of India authorities.
from 1848 to 1856. During this
period, Second Anglo-Sikh War States annexed under Doctrine of
(1849) was fought in which the lapse
Sikhs were defeated again, and • • Satara – 1848
Dalhousie was successful in • • Jaitpur & Sambhalpur –
annexing the whole of Punjab to 1849
the British administration. • • Nagpur and Jhansi – 1854
• He annexed many states by • • Tanjore and Arcot – 1855
doctrine of lapse. During his • • Udaipur (chattisgarh) and
tenure, first railway line oudh - 1856
between Bombay and Thane • He refused to recognize the
was opened in 1853 and in the titles of many ex-rulers or to pay
same year Calcutta and Agra their pensions. Titles of the
were connected by telegraph. Nawabs of Carnatic and of Surat
His other reforms include and the Raja of Tanjore were
setting up of P.W.D. and extinguished.
passing of the Widow • Refused to extend pay or
Remarriage Act (1856). pension to adopted son of Baji
• Lord Dalhousie came to India as Rao II, Nana Saheb, after death
the Governor-General in 1848. of Baji Rao II.
He was from the beginning • He wanted to annex the
determined to extend direct kingdom of Awadh, but there
British rule over as large area as were some difficulties.
possible. • Nawabs of Awadh had been British
allies since the Battle of Buxar.

59
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Most obedient to the British over machinery of GoI was to serve
the years. the above objectives.
• Nawab of Awadh had many heirs 4. Main emphasis was on
and could not therefore be covered by maintenance of law and order,
the Doctrine of Lapse. so trade and exploitation of
resources can be carried out
• So, some other pretext had to be with without disturbance.
found for depriving him of his
dominions. Finally, Lord The Structure of the Government
Dalhousie hit upon the idea of • After acquiring control over
alleviating the plight of the Bengal in 1765, EIC had little
people of Awadh. He accused intention of making any
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of mis- innovations in its
governance and of refusing to administration. Their only
introduce reforms. desire was to carry on their
• His state was therefore annexed profitable trade and to collect
in 1856. There is no doubt that taxes.
Nawabs of Awadh didn’t care • During 1765 to 1772, there was
about administration and it was Dual Government in Bengal.
painful for people. But The Indian officials had
Dalhousie’s philanthropic responsibility but no power
feelings were just excuse. while the Company’s officials
• In reality Awadh had immense had power but no responsibility.
potential as a market for • Similarity between two officials
Manchester goods. Berar was – both were venal and
province from Nizam was also corrupt men.
taken away on similar pretext. • In 1772 the Company ended the
Dual Government and
British Administrative Policy undertook to administer Bengal
directly through its own
• British had acquired the vast servants.
empire of India. Now they • EIC was a commercial body
needed to devise suitable designed to trade with the East,
methods of government to but it had acquired political
control and administer it. power over millions of people in
• During 1757-1857 the India. This anomalous state of
administrative policies changed affairs posed many problems for
frequently. the British Government.
Policies’ main objectives were • It was closely interwoven with
1. To make profit to Company. party and parliamentary
2. To enhance the profitability of rivalries in Britain, the political
its Indian possessions to Britain ambitions of English statesmen,
3. To maintain and strengthen the and the commercial greed of
British hold over India All other English merchants.
purposes were subordinated to
these aims. The administrative

60
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Opposition of Company by
Merchants • If company was not controlled,
the Company as master of India
• Company and its officials were would soon come to control
making a lot of profits. Many British administration and be in
sections of the society and a position to destroy the
merchants who were kept out of liberties of the British people.
the east started to attack the
monopoly of company. Opposition of Company by
• Everyone wanted a share in the Economists
profitable trade and riches of
India which company and its • Rising school of economists
servants were enjoying alone. representing free trade
• The administration of company manufacturing capitalism also
in Bengal was attacked. Officials attacked the exclusive privileges
of company who returned to of company.
Britain were special targets. • Control over Company by
• They were called as “nabobs” Parliament. Thus,
and ridiculed in press and on reorganization of the relations
stage. Boycotted by aristocracy. between the British state and
• They were condemned as the the Company’sauthorities
exploiters and oppressors of the became necessary and the
Indian people. Two main targets occasion arose when the
were Robert Clive and Warren Company had to ask the
Hastings. In parliament also, Government for a loan of £
members ofparliament and 1,000,000.
ministers wanted benefits from • Company was having enemies
acquisition of Bengal. with power, but it also had
• They forced company to pay friends in Parliament like King
tributes which was to be used to George III, was its patron. And
reduce the taxation or public so, company was able to fight
debt of England. back.
• Opposition of Company by • In the end parliament made a
Members of Parliament Many balance between company and
political thinkers and statesmen various influential sections of
of Britain were afraid that the British society.
powerful Company and its rich • Parliament decided that British
officials would completely Government would control the
debauch the English nation and basic policies of the Company’s
its politics, so they wanted to Indian administration so British
control company and its rule in India remained in British
politics. upper-class favour
• During this time parliament of
British was extremely corrupt
and retired officials used their
agents to purchase the seats in
house of commons.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Regulating Act of 1773:
• The first important parliamentary • The Act placed the GOI in the hands
act regarding the Company's affairs. of the Governor- General and a Council
• Court of director’s constitution was of three, so the Governor-General can
changed, and their actions were have say with even one-member
supervised by British government. support.
• Directors have to correspondence of • It clearly subordinated the Bombay
civil, military and revenue affairs with and Madras Presidencies to Bengal in
ministry. all questions of war, diplomacy, and
• It designated the Governor of revenues.
Bengal as the ‘Governor-General of • It started a new phase of the British
Bengal’ and created an Executive conquest of India.
Council of four members to assist him. • The Company having saved its
• The first such Governor-General monopoly of the Indian and Chinese
was Lord Warren Hastings. trade was satisfied. Its Directors
• It provided for the establishment of retained the profitable right of
a Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774) appointing and dismissing its British
comprising one chief justice and three officials in India.
other judges. • The company was directed not to
• This act was having some flaws. It indulge in offensive war & battles in
had not given the British Government India. It was asked not to enter in any
effective and decisive control over the treaty with native states.
Company. • It laid down the general framework
• Governor general was at mercy of in which the Government of India was
his council. to be carried on till 1857.
• The Governor-General’s control • Later enactments gradually
over the other two Presidencies also diminished the powers and privileges
proved inadequate in practice. of the Company.
• It had failed to resolve the conflict
between the Company and its Charter Act of 1813
opponents in England Pitt’s India Act
• It corrected the defects of regulating • Abolished company’s trading
act of 1784. monopoly except tea trade and trade in
• It gave the British Government china.
supreme control over the Company’s • Asked company to keep aside a sum
affairs and its administration in India. of rupees 1 lakh per annum for
• It established six Commissioners for promotion of learning of education in
the affairs of India, called as “Board of India.
Control”, including two Cabinet • The act guaranteed full support to
Ministers. Christian missionary act.
• Board of Control was to guide and • As a result of this they become
control the work of the Court of extremely aggressively in India.
Directors and the GoI. • It provided for the separation of
• In important and urgent matters, it company’s commercial and territorial
had the power to send direct orders to revenue.
India through a secret committee of • Company continued to appoint its
Directors. official in India.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The debts of company were taken Indian rulers tolerated and even
over by GOI. encouraged the establishment
of the Company’s factories in
Thus, the various acts of Parliament India.
completely subordinated the Company
and its Indian administration to the But British manufacturers were
British Government. jealous of Indian textiles
popularity:
Parliament recognized that day to day
administration of India could not be • Light cotton textiles of India began
run or even superintended from a to replace the coarse woolens of the
distance of 6,000 miles. English.
• Because of pressure by British
The British created a new system of manufacturers, government restricted
administration in India to serve their and prohibited the sale of Indian goods
purposes. in England.
• The purposes which it was designed • Heavy duties were imposed on the
to serve were to accomplish the aims import of plain cloth.
and objects of its rulers. • Other European countries, except
• Chief aim - to enable them to exploit Holland, also either prohibited the
India economically to the maximum import of
advantage of various British interests. Indian cloth or imposed heavy import
duties.
In 1793, Lord Cornwallis defined TWO • In spite of these laws, however,
primary objectives – Indian silk and cotton textiles still held
• ‘ensure its political safety’ their own in foreign markets, until
• ‘Render the possession of country as English textile industry began to
advantageous as possible to the EIC develop on the basis of new and
and British nation.’ advanced technology in middle of 18th
century.
British Economic Policies:
After the Battle of Plassey company
Commercial Policy acquired political power and by using
political power, company established
• From 1600-1757 EIC was a monopoly in trade and production in
trading company which Bengal by ousting the Indian traders.
exchanged goods with Indian Revenue of Bengal was used to finance
goods like textiles and spices. its export of Indian goods. This should
• These textiles and spices were have encouraged Indian
sold abroad, and it tried manufacturers, but it didn’t happen
constantly to open new markets because of –
for Indian goods in Britain and
other countries. • Weavers of Bengal were forced to
• Thereby, it increased the export sell their products at a cheaper and
of Indian manufactures and dictated price
thus encouraged their • Many of them were compelled to
production. That’s why the work for the Company for low wages

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
and were forbidden to work for Indian • Capital – sufficient capital was there
merchants. for investment in new machinery and
• Company eliminated its rival thefactory system.
traders, both Indian and foreign, and • Capital concentrated in hands of
prevented them from offering higher merchants and industrialists
wages or prices to the Bengal • Immense wealth drawn from
handicraftsmen. colonies.
• Sale of raw material at higher prices • Cheaper labor – population growth
to weavers. had helped in availability of cheap
labor
Thus, the weaver lost both ways, as • Government influenced by
buyer as well as seller. Indian textiles commercial and manufacturing
had to pay heavy duties on entering interests and ready to fight other
England to protect its rising machine countries determinedly for markets
industry whose products could still not and colonies.
compete with the cheaper and better • Developments in technology –
Indian goods. demands for increased production met
by developed technology.
The real blow on Indian handicrafts • Inventions by Hargreaves, Watt,
fell after 1813 when they lost not only Crompton, Cartwright, and many
their foreign markets but market in others.
India itself. The Industrial Revolution
(IR) in Britain completely transformed Drain of Wealth EIC exported part of
Britain’s economy and its economic Indian wealth and resources to Britain
relations with India. for which no return was there.

During 18th & 19TH century British had ‘Economic Drain’ is peculiar to
undergone through social and British rule. Even the earlier rulers
economic spent the collected revenue in one
transformation and British industry form or another. But British were
expanded rapidly. foreigners i.e. they came in India,
plundered it for their benefits and left
This development was aided by while the earlier rulers came and
several factors – settled in India. Indian government
was controlled by a foreign company of
• Expansion of Export industries merchants and govt. of Britain.
because of monopoly in many foreign
countries As a result, all the moisture was sucked
• Particularly true of the cotton textile from Indian land and rained to Britain.
industry which served as the main In other words, whatever taxes and
vehicle of the Industrial Revolution in revenue was collected from India was
Britain. used in Britain for reducing tax burden
• Colonies exported raw materials at or public debt etc.
low cost while Britain sold the
manufactured products at high prices. • It started in 1757 when company
servants started to take
immense wealth extorted from

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
kings, zamindars, and common • Interest paid by company on the
people. From 1758 to 1765 they loans raised in London.
sent £ 6 million. This didn’t • Salary and pensions of officials
include trading profits of the working in London.
Company which were often no • Pension of officials worked in India
less illegally derived. but had retired to London.
• After acquiring Diwani of • Cost of civil and military purchases
Bengal in 1765 company from London
drained more wealth than its
servants. Impact of drain of wealth –
• Company purchased goods out • Portion of national income not
of revenue of Bengal and then available to Indian people.
exported these goods to Britain. • Extreme exploitation.
These purchases were known as • No capital investment in India.
‘investments’ By the end of 18th • Indian handicrafts ruined.
century drain was 9% of India’s • Rapid industrialization in British.
national income. Actual drain • Impoverished India.
was even more than that. • Later helped in emergence of
• It consists of large parts of the nationalism.
salaries and other incomes of
the English. Actual amount of Development of Means of
drain of wealth was differently Transport and Communication
estimated by different
historians but it was at least • Up to the middle of the 19TH
from 1757 to 1857 was widely century, the means of transport
accepted by British officials. in India were backward.
• It also continued even after the Confined to bullock-cart, camel,
1857 but British administrators and packhorse.
and imperialist writers now • British soon realized that a
deny it. By 19TH century – 6% of cheap and easy system of
India’s national income and transport was a necessity if
1/3rd of its saving The drain movement of goods have to be
was one of important factor in done easily and fast. They
IR in Britain. During that time, introduced steamships on the
it was 2% of Britain’s national rivers and improved the roads.
income. • Work on the Grand Trunk Road
from Calcutta to Delhi began in
Home Charges 1839 and completed in the
1850's. Efforts were also made
Expenditure carried out by company to link by road the major cities,
up to 1858 and by British government ports, and markets of the
after 1858 inLondon on behalf of country.
India. Home charges include –
Railways
• Dividend paid to shareholders by • The first railway engine
company. designed by George Stephenson
was put on the rail in England

65
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
in 1814. Railways developed return on their capital by the
rapidly during the 1830s and GoI The first railway line in
1840s. India was Bombay to Thana -
• The earliest suggestion to build opened to traffic in 1853.
a railway in India was made in • Lord Dalhousie, Governor-
Madras in 1831. But the wagons General of India in 1849, was an
of this railway were to be drawn ardent advocate of rapid railway
by horses. construction. In 1853, he laid
• Construction of steam-driven down an extensive programme
railways in India was first of railway development.
proposed in 1834 in England. It • By 1905, nearly 45000 kms of
was given strong political railways had been built. Three
support by England's railway important aspects of the
promoters, financiers, and development of Indian railways
mercantile houses trading with should be kept in view.
India, and textile • First - over 350 crores of rupees
manufacturers. invested in them was provided
• Real improvement only with the by British investors, Indian
coming of the railways. Opened capital contributing negligible
the vast and hitherto untapped share of it.
market in the interior of the • Second - they were for the first
country and to facilitate the 50 years financially losing
export of Indian raw materials concerns which were not able to
and food-stuffs to feed their pay interest on the capital
hungry machines and invested in them.
operatives. • Third - in their planning,
• The British bankers and construction and management,
investors found railway the economic and political
development in India as a development of India and her
channel for safe investment of people were not kept in the
their surplus capital. forefront.
• Reasons- If railways come then • The primary consideration was
it may help GoI to administer to serve the economic, political,
the country more effectively and and military interests of British
efficiently, stop rebellion or imperialism in India.
external aggression by enabling • The railway lines were laid
more rapid mobilization and primarily with a view to link
movement of troops. India’s raw material producing
• First proposal – 1831 – horse areas in the interior with the
drawn railways. ports of export.
• Second proposal – 1834 - steam • The needs of Indian industries
drawn railways. regarding their markets and
• It was decided that the Indian their sources of raw materials
railways were to be constructed were neglected.
and operated by private • Railway rates were fixed in a
companies who were manner so as to favour imports
guaranteed a minimum of 5% and exports and to discriminate

66
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
against internal movement of Land Revenue Policy
goods.
Why company needed Indian
Postal System and Telegraph revenues?
• The first stamp of independent • Purchase of Indian handicrafts and
India shows the new Indian other goods for export
Flag. It was meant for foreign • To cost of conquest of whole of
correspondence. India.
• The British also established an • To Pay for employment of 1000s of
efficient and modern postal Englishmen in administration and
system and introduced the military positions.
telegraph. • The Cost of economic and
• First telegraph line in 1851 – administrative and military charges.
Between Calcutta and Diamond • This enabled colonialism to fully
Harbour along the busy penetrate Indian villages and far flung
shipping route on the Hooghly. areas.
And then expanded from
Calcutta to Agra - 1853. All the above had to be borne by
• Lord Dalhousie introduced Indian peasant or Ryot by paying
postage stamps. Previously cash revenue.
payment had to be made when a
letter was posted. He also cut • Since time memorial part of
down postal rates and charged a agriculture produce was as land
uniform rate of half an anna for revenue.
a letter all over the land. • Directly collected by servants or
• Before his reforms, the postage indirectly by intermediaries like
on a letter depended on the zamindas, revenue farmers etc.
distance it was to travel. • They kept a part of it as commission
and deposited rest with authority.
Youngest Governor General of India
(36 Years), and also known as Permanent Settlement
• Father of Indian Telegraph
• Father of Indian Railways After getting the Diwani (right to
• Father of Indian Postal system collect revenue), in 1765, of Bengal,
• Father of Indian Engineering Bihar, and Orissa. The EIC made an
Services attempt to continue the old system of
• Maker of modern India revenue collection though it increased
• Worked for social causes- Widow the amount to be collected. Need of
Remarriage, Educational Reforms permanent settlement
(Woods DispatchAct, 1854).
• In 1773, it decided to manage
the land revenues directly.
Warren Hastings auctioned the
right to collect revenue to the
highest bidders. This
experiment failed.

67
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Because amount of land revenue fisheries, and homestead plots
was pushed high by zamindars and protection against
and other speculators bidding enhancement of rent were some
against each other, the actual of their rights which were
collection varied from year to sacrificed.
year and seldom came up to • So that zamindars might be able
official expectations. to pay on time the exorbitant
• Neither the Ryot nor the land revenue demand of the
zamindar would do anything to Company.
improve cultivation because • Second - the zamindars were
they did not know what the next to give, 10/11Th of the rental
year’s assessment would be or they derived from the peasantry
who would be the next year’s to the state, keeping only 1/11th
revenue collector. for themselves.
• In 1793 – Lord Cornwallis – • The sums to be paid by them as
introduced permanent land revenue were fixed in
settlement – in Bengal and perpetuity.
Bihar Permanent settlement – • If the land revenue is increased
fixing of land revenue at a of a zamindar’s estate, he would
permanent amount. keep the entire amount of the
• John shore - the man who increase. The state would not
planned the Permanent make any further demand upon
Settlement him.
• But, the zamindar had to pay his
revenue rigidly on the due date
Why Permanent Settlement even if the crop had failed for
failed? some reason; otherwise his
lands were to be sold.
• Two special features of • The initial fixation of revenue
permanent settlement – was arbitrary and without any
• First – zamindars and revenue consultation with the
collectors were converted into zamindars.
so many landlords. They were to • Officials wanted to secure the
act as agents of the Government maximum amount and so fixed
in collecting land revenue from rates of revenue was very high.
the ryot. • Result of fixing high revenue
• They had been given the rate was half of zamindari lands
ownership of land, and their were put up for sale between
right of ownership was made 1794 and 1807. Before 1793
hereditary and transferable. zamindars didn’t have
• Cultivators were reduced to proprietary rights over most of
mere tenants. They were the land.
deprived of long-standing rights
to the soil and other customary What were the factors which
rights. guided to recognize the
• The use of the pasture and zamindars as proprietors?
forest lands, irrigation canals,

68
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• First - political - need to create • Removal of intermediaries will yield
political allies - British realized more revenue.
that as they were foreigners in • Madras govt. was short of funds and
India, their rule would be it needed a settlement in which it could
unstable unless they acquired revise land revenue amount.
local supporters who would act • It was kind of traditional Indian
as a buffer between them and settlement and so probably suitable to
the people of India. Indian conditions
• Second – financial - financial
security – constant financial Features:
crisis, finance army in wars, • The settlement was made with
“investment”. individual peasants- he was recognized
• Third – administrative as the owner of land and they had to
expediency - expected to deposit the revenue with company’s
increase agricultural official directly.
production. • Revenue was to be assessed with
• Permanent settlement was later surveys and measurement of land.
extended to Orissa, northern Quality of soil and types of crops were
districts of Madras and also considered.
Varanasi. • Rate vary from – 1/3 to 2/5.
• Temporary zamindari • Peasants were free to refuse
settlement - Zamindars were cultivation on land if they felt the
made owners of land but the burden of Land
revenue they had to pay was revenue was too high.
revised periodically. Introduced • This land was given to other
in central India and Awadh. peasants on same terms and if no one
agrees the land was left fallow.
Ryotwari Settlement After some time, positive elements
were abandoned. The total production
• Introduced by Thomas Munro, began to be estimated by officials
Governor of Madras, Madras through rough guess. The estimations
presidency in 1820 and in 1825 were roughly inflated as a result of
– introduced in Bombay which the actual burden of land
presidency revenue on peasants was 80% more
• In 1792-99 - Alexander Reed than of total produce.
carried out early experiments
related to Ryotwari system in The Ryot’s rights of ownership of
Baramahal region. Thomas his land were also negated by
Munro was subordinate to him. three other factors:
In 1817 – introduced in • In most areas the land revenue fixed
Coimbatore, Arcot and Nallore. was exorbitant; the Ryot was hardly
left with bare maintenance even in the
Why it had been introduced? best of seasons.
• Failure of Permanent settlement. • The Government retained the right
• Utilitarians were against the to enhance land revenue at will.
extension of permanent settlement in
new areas.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The Ryot had to pay revenue even • Now he could borrow money on the
when his produce was partially or security of his land or even sell part of
wholly it and pay his land revenue.
destroyed by drought or floods. • If he refused to do so, the
Government could and often did
Mahalwari System auction his land and realize the
• Mahalwari system was amount.
introduced in 1833 during the • Beliefs that, only the right of
period of William Bentick. ownership would make the landlord or
• Mahalwari system is the the Ryot exert him in making
modified version of the improvements.
Zamindari settlement.
• The revenue settlement was to The British by making land a
be made village by village or commodity which could be freely
estate (mahal) by estate with bought and sold introduced a
landlords or heads of families fundamental change in the existing
who collectively claimed to be land systems of the country. The
the landlords of the village or stability and the continuity of the
the estate. Indian villages were shaken. In fact,
• Places where this system was the entire structure of rural society
introduced - In the Gangetic began to break up.
valley, the North-West
Provinces, parts of Central • In the beginning, the Company
India, and the Punjab. left the administration of its
• In the Punjab a modified possessions in India in Indian
Mahalwari System known as the hands, confining its activities to
village system was introduced. supervision. But soon found
`that British aims were not
Why it had been introduced? adequately served by following
old methods of administration.
• Failure of Permanent Settlement Consequently, the Company
and Ryotwari Settlement. took all aspects of
• To protect the Government's administration in its own hand.
revenue. • Under Warren Hastings and
• Profits not go to cultivator; they Cornwallis, the administration
should be reaped by British. of Bengal was completely
overhauled and found a new
Features: system based on the English
• In Mahalwari areas also, the land pattern.
revenue was periodically revised. • The spread of British power to
• All over the country land was now new areas, new problems, new
made saleable, mortgagable, and needs, new experiences, and
alienable. new ideas led to changes in the
• This was done primarily to protect system of administration. But
the Government's revenue. the overall objectives of
imperialism were never
forgotten.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Indulging in illegal private trade.
British Administrative System : They amassed untold wealth with
which they retired to England.
The British administration in India
was based on three pillars: • Clive and Warren Hastings
made attempts to put an end to
a. The Civil Service, their corruption but were only
b. The Army, and partially successful.
c. The Police. • Lord Cornwallis, who came to
India as Governor-General in
• The chief aim of British-Indian 1786, was determined to purify
administration was the the administration, but he
maintenance of law and order realized that the Company's
and the perpetuation of British servants would not give honest
rule. Without law and order, and efficient service so long as
British merchants and British they were not given adequate
manufacturers could not hope salaries.
to sell their goods in every nook • Cornwallis, therefore, enforced
and corner of India. the rules against private trade
• The British, being foreigners, and acceptance of presents and
could not hope to win the bribes by officials with
affections of the Indian people; strictness. At the same time, he
they, therefore, relied on raised the salaries of the
superior force rather than on Company's servants. For
public support for the example, the Collector of a
maintenance of their control district was to be paid Rs 1,500
over India. a month and one per cent
commission on the revenue
The Civil Service collection of his district.
• The Civil Service was • Cornwallis also lay down that
introduced by Lord Cornwallis. promotion in the Civil Service
• The East India Company had would be by seniority so that its
from the beginning carried on members would remain
its trade in the East through independent of outside
• Servants who were paid low influence.
wages but who were permitted • In 1800, Lord Wellesley pointed
to trade privately. out that even though civil
Later, when the Company became a servants often ruled over vast
territorial power, the same servants areas, they came to India at the
assumed administrative functions. immature age of 18 or so and
were given no regular training
They now became extremely corrupt before starting on their jobs.
by: They generally lacked
• Oppressing local weavers and knowledge of Indian languages.
artisans, merchants, and zamindars, • Wellesley, therefore, established
• Extorting bribes and 'gifts' from the College of Fort William at
rajas and nawabs, and Calcutta for the education of

71
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
young recruits to the Civil developed certain traditions of
Service. independence, integrity, and
• The Directors of the Company hard work, though these
disapproved of his action and in qualities obviously served
1806 replaced it by their own British and not Indian interests.
East Indian College at • Satyendranath Tagore was the
Haileybury in England. first Indian who passed the
• Till 1853, all appointments to Indian Civil Service
the Civil Service were made by examination in 1863 and hold
the Directors of the East India 4th Rank. He was an author,
Company who placated the linguist, song composer. He
members of the Board of made significant contribution
Control by letting them make towards the emancipation of
some of the nominations. women in Indian society during
• The Directors fought hard to the British Rule.
retain this lucrative and prized
privilege and refused to Army
surrender it even when their • Second most important pillar of
other economic and political British administration.
privileges were taken away by • Four important functions of the
Parliament. army were –
• The Directors lost it finally in • instrument through which the
1853 when the Charter Act Indian powers were conquered
decreed that all recruits to the • defended the British Empire
Civil Service were to be selected from foreign rivals
through a competitive • safeguarded British supremacy
examination. from threat of internal revolt
• A special feature of the Indian • chief instrument in extending
Civil Service since the days of and defending British empire in
Cornwallis was the rigid and Asia and Africa Soldiers –
complete exclusion of Indians mostly Indians, chiefly from
• It was laid down officially in present UP and Bihar.
1793 that all the higher posts in • Officers – exclusively British
administration worth more than Highest post for Indian –
£ 500 a year in salary were to be subedar
held by Englishmen. This policy • large number of Indians has to
was also applied to other be employed because British
branches of Government, such troops were too expensive.
as the army, police, judiciary, • Population of British was too
and engineering. small to provide large base of
• The Indian Civil Service soldiers Counterweight - army
gradually developed as one of was officered entirely by British
the most efficient and powerful officials and a certain number of
civil services in the world. British troops were maintained
• Its members exercised vast to keep the Indian soldiers
power and often participated in under control.
the making of policy. They

72
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• It appears surprising today that • Major achievement was the
a handful of foreigners could suppression of thugs who robbed and
conquer and control India with killed travelers on the highways,
a predominantly Indian army. particularly in Central India.
• This was possible because of • It also prevented the organisation of
two factors. a large- scale conspiracy against
• First – absence of modern foreign control
nationalism in the country at • When the national movement arose,
the time the police was used to suppress it.
• Second – not realize that he was • In its dealings with the people
being anti-Indian + long police adopted an unsympathetic
tradition of loyally serving those attitude.
who paid his salary (popularly
known as loyalty to the salt) Judicial Organization
• In other words, the Indian • British founded a new system of
soldier was a good mercenary, dispensing justice through
and the Company on its part hierarchy of civil and criminal
was a good paymaster. courts.
• Started by – Warren Hastings
Police • Stabilized by – Cornwallis in
Third pillar of British administration. 1793
• Each district – has Diwani
Creation Adalat or Civil Court. Presided
• Creator – Cornwallis by - district judge (belonged to
• Relieved zamindar from their police civil service).
function • Below the District Court were
• Established a regular police force to Registrars’ Courts and a number
maintain law & order of subordinate courts .
• Modernized old system of Thanas • Registrars’ court headed by –
(police station) Europeans and Subordinate
court headed by - Indian judges
Structure known as Munsifs and Amins.
• India was ahead of Britain where a Civil courts applied customary
system of police had not developed yet. law which prevailed in that area
• Thanas headed by a Daroga, who or section from time
was an Indian. immemorial.
• District Superintendent of Police • Cornwallis separated civil judge
head the police organization in a post and collector.
district • Appeal from district court lay
• Indians were excluded from all 1st to 4 provincial court and
superior posts then finally to the Sadar Diwani
• Villages - duties of the police Adalat.
continued to be performed by village- • Criminal cases tried by – court
watchmen who were maintained by the of circuit in each division of
villagers. province. Headed by - civil
• The police gradually succeeded in servants.
reducing major crimes such as dacoity.

73
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Below circuit of courts – a large • In 1863 – govt. appointed a law
number of Indian magistrates to commission to codify Indian
try petty cases. Appeals from laws – chairman lord Macaulay.
the Courts of Circuit lay with the • Indian penal code, codes of civil
Sadar Nizamat Adalat. and Criminal Procedure and
• The criminal courts applied other codes of laws.
Muslim Criminal Law in a • The same laws now prevailed all
modified and less harsh form so over the country and they were
that the tearing apart of limbs enforced by a uniform system of
and such other punishments courts. Thus it may be said that
can be prohibited. 1831 – India was judicially unified.
William Bentinck abolished the
provincial court of appeal and The Rule of Law
circuit. • Introduced by British. It was
• Their works was first to obedience to laws, which clearly
Commissions and later to defined the rights, privileges,
District Judges and District and obligations of the subjects
Collectors. and not according to the caprice
• Bentinck also raised the status or personal discretion of the
and powers of Indians in the ruler.
judicial service and appointed • In practice opposite things
them as Deputy Magistrates, happened. Important feature -
Subordinate Judges and any official could be brought
Principal Sadar Amins. before a court of law for
• In 1865, High Courts were breaches of official duty or for
established at Calcutta, Madras acts done in excess of his official
and Bombay to replace the authority.
Sadar Courts of Diwani and • The rule of law was to some
Nizamat. extent a guarantee of the
• British established a new personal liberty of a person. In
system of law though the previous times rulers were
process of enactment and bounded by tradition and
codification of old laws. custom but sometimes they take
• Traditional system of law in steps by their own wish and
India was largely based on there was no authority to check
Shastra, shariyats and time them.
immemorial traditions of area.
• They were continued and • While British administration
British introduced regulations, was carried by according to
codified the existing laws, and laws, but many laws were
often systematized and defective and not made by
modernized them through people through democratic
judicial interpretation. process. Instead they were
• The Charter Act of 1833 made by autocratic.
conferred all lawmaking power • British and vested power in
on the Governor-General-in- hands of civil servants and
Council. police.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Social and Cultural Policy of being tested in practice.
Application of science to
• Till 1813 – British followed industry was visible proofs of
policy of non-interference in the power of human reason.
socio, religious affairs but after • Humanism - Every human
1813 it took active steps to being was an end in himself and
transform society and culture of should be respected and prized
India. This followed the wave of as such. The humanistic outlook
change which was going in gave birth to the doctrines of
Britain. individualism, liberalism, and
• The manufacture class knew socialism.
that only peace is not sufficient • Doctrine of Progress -
and transformation and reforms Society must change with time:
are required in society to create nothing was or could be static.
big markets for their goods. Conflict between old attitude
• Great ferment of new ideas in and new attitude
Britain and Europe which • In Europe there was clash of
influenced the British outlook attitudes between old outlook
towards Indian problems. and new currents Older attitude
• Whole Europe was witnessing – also known as “conservative
“new attitudes of mind, or traditional attitude”.
manners, and morals”. • Warren Hasting, Munro,
• The great French Revolution of Malcom, Metcalfe were
1789 with its message of representatives of this attitude.
Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity They were cautious of
generated powerful democratic introducing any innovation as
sentiments and unleashed the they believe that Sweeping or
force of modem nationalism. hasty innovations, they felt,
• Thinkers and philosophers like would produce a violent
Voltaire, Rousseau inspired reaction in the country.
world by their thoughts. • They looked down upon India
• In literature – Wordsworth, and consider it as uncivilized,
Byron, Shelley, and Charles corrupt, decadent, narrow and
Dicken. The effect of French unscientific. But all this was to
revolution and industrial justify political and economic
revolution have naturally feel by enslavement of India.
Indians. Leaders like Derozio
were inspired by French Radicals
revolution Emergence of new • Radicals went beyond narrow
thoughts. criticism and applied the three
• Three characteristics of new characteristics of new thought.
thought were – Rationalism, • According to them answer to all
Humanism and Confidence in Indian ills lie in rapid
the capacity of man to progress : modernization i.e. introduction
• Rationalism - only that was of modern Western sciences,
true which was in conformity philosophy, and literature.
with human reason and capable

75
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The British India can never their birth. It was prevailed – in
accept new idea or adopt Rajput’s and upper caste.
reforms until it is beneficial to
their imperialistic and Why followed?
exploitative motives.
• Radicals were not true to their • Because of the difficulties of earning
self-beliefs when they discussed a livelihood in unfertile areas
Indian problems. They wanted • Because of the prevalence of the evil
more authoritarian regime in custom of dowry Regulations banning
India. this practice had been passed in 1795
• Modernization of India was also and 1802, but they were sternly
encouraged by Christian enforced only by Bentinck and
missionaries. Radicals Hardinge. Hardinge also suppressed
supported people like Rajaram the practice of making human
Mohan Roy, Vivekananda who sacrifices that had prevailed among the
emphasized on rationalism. primitive tribe of Gonds.
• One reason of British following
policy of cautious innovation In 1856 the Government of India
was continuous prevalence of passed an Act enabling Hindu widows
the conservative outlook among to remarry. The Government acted
the British officials in India and after Pandit Ishwar Chandra
the belief that interference with, Vidyasagar and other reformers had
their religious beliefs and social carried on a prolonged agitation in
customs might produce a favour of the measure.
revolutionary reaction among The immediate effects of this Act
the Indian people. Other was were negligible.
safety of empire.
Spread of Modern Education
Humanitarian Measures
• Banning of Sati. Sati was a Important role played by - Christian
monstrous custom. Biggest missionaries and a large number of
achievement of British in this – enlightened Indians.In first 60 years
banning sati In 1829 - William took little interest as was a trading
Bentick banned it. company
• Earlier apathetic and afraid of
arousing anger of orthodox Two minor exceptions –
Hindus. British banned it only • In 1781, Warren Hastings set up the
after agitations of Raja Ram Calcutta Madrasah for the study and
Mohan Roy, missionaries. In teaching ofMuslim law and related
past, rulers who attempted to subjects.
ban it but remained • In 1791, Jonathan Duncan started a
unsuccessful - Akbar and Sanskrit College at Varanasi, where he
Aurangzeb, the Peshwas, and was the Resident, for the study of
Jai Singh of Jaipur. Hindu Law and Philosophy.
• Female infanticide and widow
remarriage. Practice of killing Both these institutions were designed
female children at the time of to provide a regular supply of qualified

76
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Indians to help the administration of resources were to be devoted to
law in the courts of the Company. teaching of western sciences and
literature through the medium of
Missionaries, and humanitarian English language alone.
pressured govt. to provide education to
its subjects Humanitarians believed – Lord Macaulay held the view that
modern knowledge would be best for "Indian learning was inferior to
socio, economic and political European learning"— which was true
Missionaries believed - education will as far as physical and social sciences in
end their faith in their religion 1813 the contemporary stage were
charter act - directed the Company to concerned.
spend the sum of one lakh of rupees
for the purpose. But even this petty The Government soon made English as
amount was not made available by the the medium of instruction in its
Company authorities till 1823. schools and colleges and opened a few
English schools and colleges instead of
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy a large number of elementary schools,
thus neglecting mass education.
Within the General Committee on
Public Instruction, the Anglicists The British planned to educate a small
argued that thegovernment spending section of upper and middle classes,
on education should be exclusively for thus creating a class "Indian in blood
modern studies. and color but English in tastes, in
opinions, in morals and in intellect"
The Orientalists - while western who would act as interpreters between
sciences and literature should be the Government and masses and
taught to prepare students to take up would enrich the vernaculars by which
jobs, emphasis should be placed on knowledge of western sciences and
expansion of traditional Indian literature would reach the masses. This
learning. was called the 'downward filtration
theory'.
Even the Anglicists were divided
over the question of medium of Modern ideas, if not education, did
instruction— filter down to the masses, though not
• One faction was for English in a form desired by the rulers, but
language as the medium through political parties, press,
• The other faction was for Indian pamphlets, public platforms, etc.
languages (vernaculars) for the
purpose. Modern education only helped this
Unfortunately, there was a great deal process by making available the basic
of confusion over English and literature on physical and social
vernacular languages as medium of sciences to nationalists, thus
instruction and as objects of study. stimulating their capacity to make
social analysis— otherwise the content,
Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835), This structure and curricula of modern
famous minute settled the row in favor education served colonial interests.
of Anglicists— the limited government Efforts of Thomson

77
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• It recommended a system of grants-
James Thomson, lieutenant-governor in-aid to encourage private enterprise.
of NW Provinces (1843-53), developed In 1857, universities at Calcutta,
a comprehensive scheme of village Bombay and Madras were set up and
education through the medium of later, departments of education were
vernacular languages. set up in all provinces.

In these village schools, useful subjects The Bethune School founded by

such as mensuration and agriculture Bethune at Calcutta (1849) was the
sciences were taught. The purpose was first fruit of a powerful movement for
to train personnel for the newly set up education of women which arose in
Revenue and Public Works 1840s and 1850s. Bethune was the
Department. president of the Council of Education.
Mostly due to Bethune's efforts, girls'
Wood's Despatch (1854) schools were set up on a sound footing
and brought under government's
In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a grants-in-aid and inspection system.
despatch on an educational system for
India. Considered the "Magna Carta of Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar)
English Education in India", this and Engineering Institute at Roorkee
document was the first comprehensive were started. The ideals and methods
plan for the spread of education in of Wood's Despatch dominated the
India. field for five decades which saw rapid
westernization of education system in
• It asked the Government of India to India, with educational institutions
assume responsibility for education of run by European headmasters and
the masses, thus repudiating the principals. Missionary enterprises
'downward filtration theory', at least played their own part.
on paper.
• It systematized the hierarchy from Gradually, private Indian effort
vernacular primary schools in villages appeared in the field. Factors which
at bottom, followed by Anglo- prevented the spread of education to
Vernacular High Schools and an the masses :
affiliated college at the district level, • Neglect of mass education
and affiliating universities in the • Emphasis on English as the medium
presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay of instruction in place of the Indian
and Madras. languages.
• It recommended English as the • It further tended to create a wide
medium of instruction for higher gulf between educated persons and the
studies and vernaculars at school level. masses..
• It laid stress on female and • Education was quite costly.
vocational, education, and on teachers' • Virtual monopoly of richer classes
training. and city – dwellers.
• It lay down that the education
imparted in government institutions
should be
secular.

78
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Women Education produce at prices fixed by the
Europeans.
• Total neglect of the education of • When Gandhi, joined now by
girls for which no funds were Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul-
allotted. Because British did not Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari
want to hurt the susceptibilities Parekh, J.B. Kripalani, reached
of orthodox Indians. Champaran to probe into the
• Female education lacked matter, the authorities ordered
immediate usefulness in the him to leave the area at once.
eyes of the foreign officials since Gandhi defied the order and
women could not be employed preferred to face the
as clerks in the Government. punishment.
• This passive resistance or civil
Scientific and Technical disobedience of an unjust order
Education was a novel method at that time.
• Finally, the authorities retreated
• Neglected by Company’s and permitted Gandhi to make
administration and only three an enquiry. Now, the
medical colleges – by 1837. Government appointed a
• Only one good engineering committee to go into the matter
college – Roorkee – open for and nominated Gandhi as a
only Europeans and Eurasians. member. Gandhi was able to
convince the authorities that the
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS: tinkathia system should be
abolished and that the peasants
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)— should be compensated for the
First Civil Disobedience illegal dues extracted from
them. As a compromise with the
• Gandhi was requested by planters, he agreed that only 25
Rajkumar Shukla to look into per cent of the money taken
the problems of the indigo should be compensated.
planters, of Champaran in • Within a decade, the planters
Bihar. The European planters left the area. Gandhi had won
had been forcing peasants to the first battle of civil
grow indigo on 3/20 of the total disobedience in India.
land (called tinkathia system). • Gandhi used civil disobedience
• When towards the end of the in South Africa against
nineteenth centuryGerman Registration certificates
synthetic dyes replaced indigo, • A new legislation in South
the European planters Africa made it compulsory for
demanded high rents and Indians there to carry at all
illegaldues from the peasants in times certificates of registration
order to maximize their profits with their fingerprints.
before the peasants could shift
to other crops. Besides, the
peasants were forced to sell the

79
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, vote a part of the budget, but
1919 75% of the budget was still not
votable.
The main features of the Government • Allocation of seats for Central
of India Act, 1919 were as follows: Legislature to provinces was
based on 'importance' of
• Dyarchy, i.e., rule of two— provinces—for instance,
executive councilors and Punjab's military importance,
popular ministers was and Bombay's commercial
introduced. importance.
• Subjects were divided into two • The secretary state was
lists: "reserved" which included henceforth to be paid out of the'
subjects such as law and order, British exchequer.
finance, land revenue,
irrigation, etc., and JALLIANWALA BAGH
"transferred" subjects such as MASSACRE (APRIL 13, 1919)
education, health, local
government, industry, • On Baisakhi day, a large, crowd
agriculture, excise, etc. of people mostly from
• The ministers were to be neighboring villages, unaware of
responsible to the legislature the prohibitory orders in the
and had to resign if a city, had gathered in this small
noconfidence motion was park to protest against the
passed against them by the arrest of their leaders, Saifuddin
legislature, while the executive Kitchlew and Satyapal.
councilors were not to be • The Army surrounded the
responsible to the legislature. gathering under orders from
• Provincial Legislative Councils General Dyer and blocked the
were further expanded-70% of only exit point and opened fire
the members were to be elected. on the unarmed crowd killing
• The system of communal and arouND1000. The incident was
class electorates was further followed by uncivilized
consolidated. brutalities on the inhabitants of
• Women were also given the Amritsar.
right to vote. • Rabindranath Tagore
• The Legislative Councils could renounced his knighthood in
initiate legislation but the protest.
governor's assent was required. • The Non-cooperation
• The governor could veto bills movement was a reaction to the
and issue ordinances. oppressive policies of the British
• The Legislative Councils could • Indian government such as the
reject the budget but the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala
governor could restore it, if Bagh massacre.
necessary.
• The legislators could ask NEHRU REPORT
questions and supplementaries, • As an answer to Lord
pass adjournment motions and Birkenhead's challenge, an All

80
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Parties Conference met in
February 1928 and appointed a • The younger section regarded
subcommittee under the the idea of dominion status in
chairmanship of Motilal Nehru the report as a step backward,
to draft a constitution. This was and the developments at the All
the first major attempt by the Parties Conference
Indians to draft a constitutional strengthened their criticism of
framework for the country. The the dominion status idea. Nehru
committee included Tej and Subhash Bose rejected
Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, theCongress' modified goal and
M.S.Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali jointly set up the Independence
Imam, Shuab Qureshi and G.R. for India League.
Pradhan as its members. • Jinnah’s fourteen points came
as a response to Nehru Report
The report was finalised by and became the basis for all
August 1928. Main future propaganda of the
Recommendations: Muslim League.

• Dominion status on lines of self- Nagpur Session of Indian

governing dominions as the National Congress in 1920. At the
form of government. Nagpur session of the Indian
• Rejection of separate National Congress in December
electorates; instead, a demand 1920—
for joint electorates with
reservation of seats for • The programme of non-cooperation
Muslims. was endorsed;
• Linguistic provinces. • The Congress decided to have the
• Nineteen fundamental rights attainment of swaraj through peaceful
including equal rights for and legitimate means as its goal;
women, right to form unions, • Some important organisational
and universal adult suffrage. changes were made: a Congress
• Responsible government at the Working Committee (CWC) of 15
centre and in provinces members was set up to lead the
• Full protection to cultural and Congress from now onwards;
religious interests of Muslims. Provincial Congress Committees on
• Complete dissociation of state linguistic basis were organised; ward
from religion. committees was organised; and entry
• However Not only were the fee was reduced to four arenas;
Muslim League, the Hindu • Gandhi declared that if the non-
Mahasabha and the Sikh cooperation programme was
communalists unhappy about implemented completely, swaraj would
the Nehru Report, but the be ushered in within a year.
younger section of the Congress • All India Youth Congress was
led by Jawaharlal Nehru and formed through Calcutta Session of
Subhash Bose were also 1928.
angered.

81
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
At this stage, some leaders like Hindu and Muslim communities.
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, Some section of Muslims started to see
G.S. Kharpade and B.C. Pal left the the futility of Swaraj and fresh interest
Congress as they believed in a was awakened in the Muslim League
constitutional and lawful struggle. which had been stagnant since 1918.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT The Ahmedabad session of

Congress in 1921 was presided
• The Khilafat movement (1919–22) over by C.R. Das while still in jail.
was a pan-Islamic, political protest
campaign launched by Muslims of After Gandhi's arrest (March 1922),
India to influence the British there was disintegration,
government not to abolish the disorganisation and
Ottoman Caliphate. demoralisation among nationalist
• The movement collapsed by late ranks. A debate started among
1922 When Turkey gained a more Congressmen on what to do during the
favourable transition period, i.e., the passive
diplomatic position and moved toward phase of the movement.
secularism. By 1924 Turkey simply
abolished the roles of the Sultan and Those advocating entry into legislative
Caliph. councils came be known as the
• The Ali brothers were arrested Swarajists led by C.R. Das, Motilal
during the course of the war only to be Nehru and Ajmal Khan. The other
released from jail after the war was school of thought led Vallabhbhai
over. This movement reached a Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C.
crescendo in Bengal, North-West Rajagopalachari and M.A. Ansari came
Frontier Province and the Punjab. to be known as the 'No-changers'. The
• October 17, 1919 was observed as 'No-changers' opposed council entry,
Khilafat Day. The Hindus also joined advocated, concentration on
hands with the Muslims and a strike constructive work, and continuation of
was called for. boycott noncooperation, and quiet
• On November 23 1919, the All India preparation for resumption of the
Khilafat Conference was organized at suspended civil disobedience
New Delhi and later a Khilafat programme.
Manifesto was published which called
upon the British to protect the By 1924, the Swarajist position had
Caliphate. weakened because of widespread
communal riots; split among
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Swarajists themselves on communal
movement, while bringing Muslims and Responsivist-Non-responsivist
into national movement also led to lines, and the death of C.R. Das in 1925
communalization of national politics. weakened it further. The Responsivists
among Swarajists—Lala Lajpat Rai,
After 1922 a series of differences Madan Mohan Malaviya and N.C.
between the Khilafat and Non- Kelkar—advocated cooperation with
Cooperation leaderships intersected the Government and holding of office
with growing popular conflict between

82
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
wherever possible to protect the so including three Englishmen
called Hindu interests. were arrested for organizing an
Indian railway strike.
They accused the Non-responsivists
like Motilal Nehru of being anti-Hindu • The British Government
and a beef-eater. convicted 33 leftist trade union
leaders under a false law suit.
• Due to differences between the two • The Meerut Conspiracy case
schools and defeat of the Swarajists' trial helped the Communist
proposal of 'ending or mending' the Party of India to consolidate its
councils at the Gaya session of the position among workers.
Congress (December 1922), C.R Das • Chittagong Armoury Raid (April
and Motilal Nehru resigned from the 1930): Surya Sen decided to
Congress and announced formation of organise an armed rebellion
Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party. along with his associates—
• However, both sides wanted to Anant Singh, Gariesh Ghosh
avoid a split like 1907 and hence and Lokenath Baul to show that
reached a compromise where the it was possible to challenge the
Swarajists were allowed to contest armed might of the mighty
elections as a group within the British Empire. They had
Congress. planned to occupy two main
armouries in Chittagong to seize
LAHORE CONSPIRACY CASE and supply arms to the
revolutionaries to destroy
• Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru telephone and telegraph lines
shot dead Saunders, the police and to dislocate the railway link
official responsible for the of Chittagong with the rest of
lathicharge in Lahore in Bengal.
December 1928. Later, Bhagat • The raid was conducted in April
Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt 1930 and involved 65 activists
were asked to throw a bomb in under the banner of Indian
the Central Legislative Republican Army— Chittagong
Assembly on April 8, 1929 Branch. The raid was quite
against the passage of the Public successful; Sen hoisted the
Safety and Trade Disputes Bill national flag, took salute and
aimed at curtailing civil liberties proclaimed a provisional
of citizens in general and revolutionary government.
workers in particular. Bhagat
Singh was caught during this; • Jatin Das became the first martyr on
however, Bhagat Singh, the 64th day of his fast.
Sukhdev and Rajguru were tried • There was a large-scale participation
in the Lahore conspiracy case. of young women in revolutionary
• The Meerut Conspiracy Case activities especially under Surya Sen
was a controversial court case like Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana
initiated in British India in Dutt.
March 1929 and decided in
1933. Several trade unionists,

83
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
ANTI-SIMON COMMISSION under Jinnah. Some others,
UPSURGE such as the Unionists in Punjab
and the Justice Party in the
• There was a chorus of protest by south, decided not to boycott
all Indians against the the commission.
appointment of an all-white, • Lala Lajpat Rai died due to lathi
sevenmember Indian Statutory charge during protests against Simon
Commission, popularly known Commission.
as the Simon Commission (after • Bhagat singh later killed the police
the name of its chairman Sir official Saunders responsible for lathi
John Simon), on November 8, charge and was tried and hanged for
1927. this.
• The commission was to
recommend to the Government Delhi Proposals
whether India was ready for
further constitutional reforms In December 1927, a large number of
and on what lines. (Although Muslim leaders had met at Delhi at the
constitutional reforms were due Muslim League session and evolved
only in 1929, the Conservative four proposals for Muslim demands to
Government, then in power in be incorporated in the draft
Britain, feared defeat by the constitution. These proposals, which
Labour Party and did not want were accepted by the Madras session of
to leave the question of the the Congress (December 1927), came
future of Britain's most priced to be known as the 'Delhi Proposals'.
colony in "irresponsible Labour
hands".) These were
• The Conservative Secretary of • Joint electorates in place of separate
State, Lord Birkenhead, who electorates with reserved seats for
had constantly talked of the Muslims;
inability of Indians to formulate • One-third representation to
a concrete scheme of Muslims in Central Legislative
constitutional reforms, which Assembly;
had support of wide sections of • Representation to Muslims in
Indian political opinion, was Punjab and Bengal in proportion to
responsible for the appointment their population;
of the Simon Commission. • Formation of three new Muslim
• The Congress session in Madras majority provinces— Sindh,
(December 1927) meeting under Baluchistan and North- West Frontier
the presidency of M.A. Ansaii Province.
decided to boycott the
commission "at every stage and Delhi Manifesto
in every form". Those who
decided to support the Congress On November 2, 1929, a conference of
call of boycott included the prominent national leaders issued a
Liberals of the Hindu "Delhi Manifesto" which demanded
Mahasabha and the majority • That the purpose of the Round
faction of the Muslim League Table Conference (RTC) should be to

84
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
formulate a scheme for from the unenthusiastic and
implementation of the dominion status unsatisfied Non-cooperators.
(thus acting as a constituent assembly)
and the basic principle of dominion • The name was chosen as
status should be immediately accepted; Hindustan Republican
• That the Congress should have Association on the lines of Irish
majority representation at the Republican Army. The
conference; manifesto of this revolutionary
• Amnesty and a general policy of organization was “The
conciliation; Viceroy Irwin rejected Revolutionary“.
these demands on December 23, 1929.
The stage of confrontation was to Objective:
begin now. • The Objective of the HRA was to
establish “Federated Republic of
HINDUSTAN REPUBLICAN the United States of India”
ASSOCIATION (HRA) through an organized armed
revolution”
• Hindustan Republican • The tactics of HRA were killing
Association (HRA) was a the officials; organize political
revolutionary organization of dacoties to raise funds,
India established in 1924 at terrorism among the British and
village Bholachang in East British loyalists and strikes
Bengal by Sachindra Nath against the raj.
Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen • Despite being a revolutionary
and Pratul Ganguly as an terrorist organization {the term
offshoot of Anushilan Samiti. Its terrorist was not derogatory in
objective was to establish a those days as compared to
“FederatedRepublic of the today}, the perspective of the
United States of India” through HRA was socialistic and it
an organized and armed wanted to establish a United
revolution. States of India by deposing the
• These young men did not like British.
the theory of nonviolence. They • Many other revolutionaries
had confidence that the British soon joined the HRA including
can be thrown out of the Chandrashekhar Azad,
country by using of force and Ashfaqullah Khan, Ram Prasad
violence. At the same time, Bismil etc.
there were uprisings in other • Bhagat Singh later established
parts of world and one could Hindustan Socialist Republican
witness a number of bloody Army (HSRA). The following
revolutions and coupe de etat major decisions were taken at
around the word. The result was the Lahore Session (December,
that the old Yugantar and 1929)
Anushilan samiti got awaken • The Round Table Conference to
and a new breed of terroristic be boycotted;
kind of revolutionaries emerged

85
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Complete independence • Change Arms Act allowing
declared as the aim of the popular control of issue of
Congress; firearms licences.
• CWC authorised to launch a • Release political prisoners.
programme of civil • Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
disobedience including non- Specific Bourgeois Demands
payment of • Reserve coastal shipping for
• taxes and all members of Indians. Specific Peasant
legislatures asked to resign their Demands
seats; • Reduce land revenue by 50 per
• January 26, 1930 fixed as the cent.
first Independence Day, to be • Abolish salt tax and
celebrated everywhere. government's salt monopoly.
• Gandhi- Irwin Pact is also called • Defiance of the salt laws started
Delhi Pact and was signed in all over the country. In Tamil
1931. Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a
• Jawaharlal Nehru was march from Tiruchirapally to
nominated the president for the Vedaranniyam. In Malabar, K.
Lahore session mainly due to Kelappan led a march from
Gandhi's backing. Calicut to Poyannur. In Assam,
• The reasons to choose him were satyagrahis walked from Sylhet
because of the appositeness of to Noakhali (Bengal) to make
the occasion (Congress' salt.
acceptance of complete • In Andhra, a number of
independence as its goal), and sibirams (camps) came up in
to acknowledge the upsurge of different districts as
youth that had made the anti- headquarters of salt satyagraha.
Simon campaign a huge success. • Gandhi's arrest came on May 4,
1930 when he had announced
To carry forward the mandate given by that he would lead a raid on
the Lahore Congress, Gandhi Dharsana Salt Works on the
presented eleven demands to the west coast. Gandhi's arrest was
Government and gave an ultimatum of followed by massive protests in
January 31, 1930 to accept or reject Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and in
these demands. The demands were as Sholapur, where the response
follows. was the fiercest.
Issues of General Interest: • After Gandhi's arrest, the CWC
• Reduce expenditure on Army sanctioned:
and civil services by 50 per cent. • Non-payment of revenue in
• Introduce total prohibition. Ryotwari areas;
• Carry out reforms in Criminal • No chowkidara tax campaign in
Investigation Department zamindari areas;
(CID). • Violation of forest laws in the
• National Movement 1919-1939 Central Provinces.
167

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
BARDOLI SATYAGRAHA Gandhi reached Bardoli to stand
by in case of any emergency.
• The Bardoli taluqa in Surat • The Government was looking
district had witnessed intense for a graceful withdrawal now.
politicization after the coming It set the condition that first the
of Gandhi on the national enhanced rent be, paid by all
political scene. The movement the occupants (not actually
sparked off in January 1926 done). Then, a committee went
when the authorities decided to into the whole affair and found
increase the land revenue by 30 the revenue hike to be
per cent. The Congress leaders unjustified and recommended a
were quick to protest and a rise of 6.03 per cent only.
Bardoli Inquiry Committee was
set up to go into the issue. M.N. Roy
• The committee found the
revenue hike to be unjustified. • He plunged into the nationalist
In February 1926, Vallabhbhai movement after the partition of
Patel was called to lead the Bengal in 1905. His early idols
movement. Under Patel, the were the Bengali revolutionaries
Bardoli peasants resolved to as well as the fiery Vinayak
refuse payments of the revised Damodar Savarkar. Roy left
assessment until the India in 1915 to acquire
Government appointed an weapons for the fight against
independent tribunal or the British. The months he
accepted the current amount as spent in the US radicalized him,
full payment. and Roy improbably became
• To organize the movement, one of the founders of the
Patel set up 13 chluzvanis or Mexican Communist Party.
workers' camps in the taluqa. • Roy rose to the highest levels of
Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was the international communist
brought out to mobilize public movement, before he parted
opinion. An intelligence wing ways. He returned to India only
was set up to make sure all the to be sent to jail for six years by
tenants followed the the colonial government. One
movement's resolutions. Those result of these years of
who opposed the movement incarceration was a
faced a social boycott. Special comprehensive critique of
emphasis was placed on the Marxism.
mobilization of women. K.M. • He founded the Communist
Munshi and Lalji Naranji Party of India in Tashkent in
resigned from the Bombay 1920. Roy was also the first to
Legislative Council in support of be elected to the leadership of
the movement. Commintern. He was a
• By August 1928, massive communist leader and the
tension had built up in the 'area. editor of the communist journal
There were prospects of a Vanguard. He condemned the
railway strike in Bombay. session court's sentence to

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
death to 172 of the 225 accused • Dandi March (March 12, 1930) by
in the Chauri Chaura incident Gandhi to launch the Civil
(later, 19 were hanged and the Disobedience Movement.
rest transported) as against 22 • 'Deepavali Declaration' by Lord
policemen killed. Irwin (1929).
• Roy would later be the guiding • Boycott of the First Round Table
light of the radical humanist Conference (1930), Gandhi-Irwin Pact
movement. Among its core (1931) and suspension of Civil
beliefs was that freedom is for Disobedience Movement.
individuals rather than • Poona Pact was signed in 1932
collectives, social progress under Lord Willingdon.
should be measured by the
amount of freedom every QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
individual has, human beings
are innately rational, The reasons for launch:
philosophy should be rooted in
science rather than in religion, 1. The failure of the Cripps Mission to
political change has to be solve the constitutional deadlock.
preceded by a cultural 2. There was popular discontent
renaissance and that because of rising prices and shortage of
decentralized democracy rice, salt, etc.
without political parties is the 3. News of reverses' suffered by the
best way to organize political British in South-East Asia.
life. 4. The manner in which the British
evacuated from South-East Asia
Lord Irwin (1926-1931) leaving the subjects to their fate.
5. The leadership wanted to condition
• Visit of Simon Commission to India the masses for a possible Japanese
(1928) and the boycott of the invasion.
commission by the Indians.
• An All-Parties Conference held at Gandhi was named the leader of the
Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for the struggle, but after his arrest there was
(future) Constitution of India, the a leadership vacuum and thus it is
report of which was called the Nehru often called ‘leaderless movement’.
Report or the Nehru Constitution.
• Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash
Indian States Commission (1927). Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha
• Murder of Saunders, the assistant Sharma, Biju Patnaik, Chhotubhai
superintendent of police of Lahore; Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta
bomb blast in the Assembly Hall of Kripalani and R.P. Goenka carried out
Delhi (1929) - the Lahore Conspiracy underground activity. Usha Sharma
Case and death of Jatin Das after started an underground radio in
prolonged hunger strike (1929), and Bombay.
bomb accident in train in Delhi (1929).
• Lahore session of the Congress Pritilata Waddedar was an Indian
(1929) - Purna Swaraj Resolution. Bengali revolutionary and part of
revolutionary group headed by Surya

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Sen. She led a team of fifteen Radcliffe Line
revolutionaries in a 1932 attack on the To fix the international boundaries
Pahartali European Club, which had a between the two countries, the
sign board that read "Dogs and Indians Boundary Commission was established
not allowed". chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The
commission was to demarcate Bengal
The revolutionaries torched the club and Punjab into the two new countries.
and were later caught by the British The boundary demarcation line is
police. To avoid getting arrested, called Radcliffe line.
Pritilata consumed cyanide and died.
Its western side serves as India-
Parallel governments were established Pakistan border and eastern side
in Ballia(UP), Tamluk(Bengal), serves as India- Bangladesh border.
Satara(Maharashtra) and
Talchar(Orissa). • MacMohan line demarcates the
border between India and china.
• First parallel government was However. China does not recognize it.
established at Ballia and the longest
one was at Satara. Vaikom Satyagraha was a movement in
• The movement is also known as Travancore (modern-day Kerala) for
‘August Kranti’. Gandhi was not in temple entry of the depressed classes.
support of an immediate struggle in It took place near the Shiva Temple at
1939 after British declared India’s Vaikom, Kottayam district, Kerala
support to the war without consulting during 1924-25. Vaikom was at that
Indians time a part of the princely state of
• Allied cause was just; Travancore.
• Communal, sensitivity and lack of
Hindu-Muslim unity could result in • Tebhaga movement was launched in
communal riots; Bengal to implement
• Congress organisation was in recommendations of Flood
shambles and the atmosphere was not Commission to give two-third
conducive for a mass struggle; (tebhaga) share to the bargardars
• Masses were not ready for a (share-croppers) instead of one-half
struggle. share.

They instead advocated toning up the Cripps Mission

Congress organisation, carrying on In March 1942, a mission headed by
political work among the masses, and Stafford Cripps was sent to India due
negotiating till all possibilities of a to the following reasons:
negotiated settlement were exhausted. • Reverses suffered by Britain in South-
Only then would the struggle be begun. East Asia, the Japanese threat to
invade India seemed real now and
• Subhash Chandra Bose and Leftists Indian support became crucial.
wanted to take advantage of Britain’s • There was pressure on Britain from
difficulties and start a mass movement, the Allies (USA, USSR, China) to seek
but Gandhi was for unconditional Indian cooperation.
support to Britain’s War efforts.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Indian nationalists had agreed to constitution—a blueprint for India's
support the Allied cause if substantial partition.
power was transferred immediately • Free India could withdraw from the
and complete independence given after Commonwealth.
the war. • Indians were allowed a large share
in the administration in the interim
The main proposals of the period.
mission were as follows. Nehru and Maulana Azad were the
1. An Indian Union with a dominion official negotiators for the Congress.
status would be set up • Both Congress and the Muslim
2. After the end of the war, a League rejected the proposal.
constituent assembly would be
convened to frame a new constitution. GANDHI-IRWIN PACT
Members of this assembly would be
partly elected by the provincial On January 25, 1931 Gandhi and all
assemblies through proportional other members of the CWC were
representation and partly nominated released unconditionally. The CWC
by the princes. authorised Gandhi to initiate
3. The British Government would discussions with the viceroy.
accept the new constitution subject
totwo conditions: As a result of these discussions,apact
(i) Any province not willing to join the was signed between the viceroy,
Union could have a separate representing the British Indian
constitution Government, and Gandhi,
and form a separate Union, representing the Indian people, in
(ii) The new constitution making body Delhi on February 14, 1931. This Delhi
and the British Government would Pact, also known as the Gandhi-Irwin
negotiate a treaty to effect the transfer Pact, placed the Congress on an equal
of power and to safeguard racial and footing with the Government.
religious minorities.
4. In the meantime, defence of India Irwin on behalf of the
would remain in British hands and the Government agreed on
governorgeneral's powers would • Immediate release of all political
remain intact. prisoners not convicted of violence
• Remission of all fines not yet
The proposals differed from collected
those offered in the past in many • Return of all lands not yet sold to
respects— third parties
• The making of the constitution was • Lenient treatment to those
to be solely in Indian hands now (and government servants who had resigned
not "mainly" in Indian hands—as • Right to make salt in coastal villages
contained in the August Offer). A for personal consumption (not for sale)
concrete plan was provided for the • Right to peaceful and non-
constituent, assembly. aggressive picketing and Withdrawal
• Option was available to any of emergency ordinances.
province to have a separate

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
The viceroy, however, turned down • Indians also attempted to develop
two of Gandhi's demands an indigeneous scheme of education
• Public inquiry into police excesses, called Wardha scheme of education
• Commutation of Bhagat Singh and based on Gandhi’s ideas under
his comrades' death sentence to life chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain.
sentence. Gandhi on behalf of the
Congress agreed Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was popularly
• To suspend the civil disobedience known as Baba Saheb. He was the
movement, and Chairman of the Drafting Committee
• To participate in the next RTC on of the Constituent Assembly and is
the constitutional question around the called the ‘Father of the Indian
three Finchpins of federation, Indian Constitution’.
responsibility, and reservations-and
safeguards that may be necessary in He established the Bahishkrit
India's interests (covering such areas Hitakarini Sabha to promote education
as defence, external affairs, position of and socio-economic improvements
minorities, financial credit of India and among the Dalits. He also founded the
discharge of other obligations). Independent Labour Party (later
• When Gandhi met Irwin and held transformed into the Scheduled Castes
negotiations, it was for the first time Federation) in 1936 and contested in
that the two were meeting as ‘equals’. 1937 from Bombay to the Central
Legislative Assembly.
HARTOG COMMITTEE (1929)
He authored several books and essays.
An increase in number of schools and Some of them are: The Annihilation of
colleges had led to deterioration of Caste, Pakistan or the Partition of
education standards. India, The Buddha and his Dhamma,
The Evolution of Provincial Finance in
A Hartog Committee was set up to British India, Administration and
report on development of education. Finance of the East India Company,
etc.
Its mainrecommendations were
as follows. His death anniversary is observed as
Mahaparinirvan Din. His birth
• Emphasis should be given to anniversary is celebrated as Ambedkar
primary education but there need be Jayanti or Bhim Jayanti on 14 April
no hasty expansion or compulsion in every year.
education. • A few months before he died, he
• Only deserving students should go converted to Buddhism
in for high school and intermediate • He considered the Right to
stage, while average students should Constitutional Remedy as the soul of
be diverted to vocational courses after. the constitution.
(VIII standard.)
• For improvements in standards of Faizpur Session
university education, admissions • Faizpur Session (December 1936):
should be restricted. President – Jawaharlal Nehru

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• It was the first session of Congress combating the 1935 Act, but
to be held in a village. work in legislatures was to be
• Only session presided by Mahatma only a short-term tactic since
Gandhi was Belgaum in December option of a mass movement was
1924. not available at the time, and
mass struggle alone was capable
Elections to provincial of winning independence.
assemblies in 1937 • The Congress manifesto
reaffirmed total rejection of the
• In early 1937, elections to 1935 Act, and promised release
provincial assemblies were of prisoners, removal of
announced and once again the disabilities on the basis of
debate on the future strategy to gender and caste, radical
be adopted began. There were transformation of the agrarian
sharp differences over these system, substantial reduction of
questions among the rent and revenue, scaling down
nationalists. The two sides of of rural debts, cheap credit and
the debate soon got identified right to form trade unions and
with the emerging ideological to strike.
divide along the left and right • Congress ministries were
lines. formed in Bombay, Madras,
• J.L Nehru, Subhash Chandra Central Provinces, Orissa,
Bose, Congress socialists and United Provinces, Bihar and
communists were opposed to later in NWFP and Assam also.
office acceptance and thereby in • The Congress ministries did
the working of the 1935 Act, much to ease curbs on civil
because they argued that it liberties.
would negate the rejection of • There were certain basic
the Act by the nationalists. constraints before the Congress
• As a counter-strategy, the ministries could undertake a
leftists proposed entry into the complete overhaul of the
councils with an aim to create agrarian structure by
deadlocks, thus making the completely abolishing
working of the Act impossible zamindari. In spite of the
(older Swarajist strategy). And, constraints, the Congress
as a long-term strategy, they ministries managed to legislate
advocated an increased reliance a number of laws relating to
on workers and peasants, land reforms, debt relief, forest
integration of their class grazing fee, arrears of rent, land
organisations into the Congress, tenures, etc. But most of these
thus imparting a socialist benefits went to statutory and
direction to the Congress and occupancy tenants while sub-
preparing for the resumption of tenants did not gain much.
a mass movement.
• The proponents of office • Agricultural labourers did not
acceptance argued that they benefit, as they had not been
were equally committed to mobilised.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
➢ Gandhi did not attend a • Although many principles on
single election meeting. reforms were agreed upon, not much
➢ During this time, was implemented and the Congress
National Planning Committee Party carried on its civil disobedience.
was setup under Congress
President Subhash Chandra The Indian National Congress decided
Bose in 1938. This was India’s not to participate in the conference.
first attempt to develop a Many of the INC leaders were
national plan. imprisoned due to their involvement in
the civil disobedience movement. The
Round Table Conferences Conference was regarded as a failure.
• The British government understood
• The Round Table Conferences the importance and the need for the
were a series of three Congress Party to make any decision
conferences conducted by the on India’s political future.
Labour Party-led British
government to deliberate upon Second RTC
and bring about constitutional
reforms in British India during • The Second Round Table
1930 – 32. There were three Conference was held between
such conferences. September and December 1931 at
• The conferences were based on London.
the recommendation of • The major difference between the
Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Lord first and the second conference was
Irwin, the then Viceroy of India that the INC was participating in the
and James Ramsay MacDonald, second one. This was one of the results
the then British Prime Minister, of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
and the Simon Commission • Gandhi represented Indian National
report. It was for the first time Congress and Sarojini Naidu
that the Indians and the British represented Indian women.
were meeting as ‘equals’. • The British decided to grant a
communal award for representing
First RTC minorities in India by providing for
separate electorates for minority
• The First Round Table Conference communities. Gandhi was against this.
was held between November 1930 and • In this conference, Gandhi and
January 1931 at London. Ambedkar differed on the issue of
• Dr. B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the
separate electorates for the untouchables. Gandhi was against
‘untouchables’. treating untouchables as separate from
• Tej Bahadur Sapru moved the idea the Hindu community. This issue was
of an All-India Federation. The Muslim resolved through the Poona Pact 1932.
League supported this. The princely • The second round table conference
states also supported this on the was deemed a failure because of the
condition that their internal many disagreements among the
sovereignty is maintained. participants. While the INC claimed to
speak for the whole of the country,

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
other participants and leaders of other notablepersonalities who
parties contested this claim. contributed to the magazine.
After Rajaji's death in 1972, the
Third RTC magazine began to decline and
eventually closed in 1980.
• The Third Round Table Conference • The magazine was relaunched
was held between November and as a monthly print magazine
December 1932 at London. and online daily in 2014, with
• Only 46 delegates in total took part Sandipan Deb as the Editorial
in this conference. The INC and the Director.
Labour Party decided not to attend it.
(The INC wasn’t invited). AUGUST OFFER
• Not much was achieved in this
conference also. Hitler's astounding success and the fall
• The recommendations of this of Belgium, Holland and France put
conference were published in a White England in a conciliatory mood.
Paper in 1933 and later discussed in
the British Parliament. The To get Indian cooperation in the war
recommendations were analysed and effort, the viceroy announced the
the Government of India Act of 1935 August Offer (August 1940), which
was passed on its basis. proposed:
• Poona Pact refers to an agreement
between B. R. Ambedkar and M. K. • Dominion status as the objective for
Gandhi on the reservation of electoral India.
seats for the depressed classes in the • Expansion of viceroy's executive
legislature of then British India. council.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar attended all • Setting up of a constituent assembly
three conferences.Subhash Chandra after the war. Indians would decide the
Bose started the newspaper called constitution according to their social,
‘Swaraj’. economic and political conceptions,
• He was selected for the Indian Civil subject to fulfillment of the obligation
Services (ICS) but refused to take up of the Government regarding defence,
service since he did not want to serve minority rights,
the British government. treaties with states, All India services.
• No future constitution to be adopted
• Swarajya is an Indian monthly without the consent of minorities.
print magazine and online daily. • The Congress rejected the August
It was a weekly magazine Offer.
founded in 1956 by Khasa • August Offer recognized for the first
Subba Rao with the patronage time, the inherent right of Indians to
of C. Rajagopalachari, one of the frame their Constitution.
founders of the Swatantra Party, • For the first time, Viceroy’s
and a regular contributor to the Executive council included more
magazine in the form of his Indians than whites. The Arctic Home
Dear Reader column. Minoo in the Vedas
Masani, R.Venkatraman, R.K.
Laxman are some

94
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• It is a history book on the origin the proprietor's instance.
of Aryanic People by Bal Deshpande requested Sri
Gangadhar Tilak, a Aurobindo to continue in a
mathematician turned modified tone and he
astronomer, historian, reluctantly consented, but felt
journalist, philosopher and no farther interest and the
political leader of India. articles were published at long
• It propounded the theory that intervals and finally dropped of
the North Pole was the original them altogether.0
home of Aryans during the
preglacial period which they Surat Session of 1907
had to leave due to the ice • The Congress was on the brink
deluge around 8000 B.C. and of split. The 1907 session was to
had to migrate to the Northern be held at Nagpur. But Nagpur
parts of Europe and Asia in was the stronghold of Bal
search of lands for new Gangadhar Tilak. The
settlements. moderates were aware that the
• In support to his theory, Tilak local delegates would raise the
presented certain Vedic hymns, issues in favor of the extremists.
Avestic passages, Vedic So, Gopal Krishna Gokhle got
chronology and Vedic calendars the venue changed and the new
with interpretations of the venue was Surat which was a
contents in detail. The book stronghold of the Congress.
was written at the end of 1898,
but was first published in March • The 1907 Surat session was held at
1903 in Pune. the bank of the Tapti river in Surat.
• The Extremist camp was led by Lal
New Lamps for Old Bal and Pal and the moderate camp
• Aurobindo Ghosh gave a was led by Gopal Krishna Gokhle.
systematic critique of the • The Surat session was presided by
moderate politics of Indian Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh.
National Congress in series of
articles entitled NEW LAMPS The congress met in an atmosphere of
FOR OLD. anger and resentment in this session.
• They were begun at the instance Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh was elected but
of K. G. Deshpande, the extremists had an objection to this
Aurobindo's Cambridge friend election. Initially the extremists
who was editor of the paper, but dominated the session but soon they
the first two articles made a accepted Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh as
sensation and frightened president and offered to cooperate. But
Ranade and other Congress the session was suspended. Congress
leaders. Ranade warned the got split.
proprietor of the paper that, if
this went on, he would surely be By the time, the next session of
prosecuted for sedition. Congress was held in Madras in 1908
Accordingly the original plan of under Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh, it was
the series had to be dropped at the extremist camp that was facing the

95
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Lathis and arrest by the British funding from the German
Government who was now in its government.
comfortable position as Congress was • They had a very militant tone,
divided. as illustrated by this quote from
Harnam Singh: “No pundits or
The Ghadar’ mullahs do we need”

• The party was built around the The party rose to prominence in the
weekly paper The Ghadar, second decade of the 20th century, and
which carried the caption on the grew in strength owing to Indian
masthead: Angrezi Raj Ka discontent over World War I and the
Dushman (an enemy of the lack of political reforms:
British rule). "Wanted brave
soldiers", the Ghadar declared, • Ghadar activists undertook what the
"to stir up rebellion in India. British described as political terrorism.
Pay-death; Price-martyrdom; Ghadar activists were responsible for
Pension-liberty; Field of battle- bombs planted on government
India". property.
• The ideology of the party was • In 1917 some of their leaders were
strongly secular. In the words of arrested and put on trial in the Hindu
Sohan Singh Bhakna, who later German Conspiracy Trial in which
became a major peasant leader their paper was quoted.
of the Punjab: "We were not • The Ghadar party commanded a
Sikhs or Punjabis. Our religion loyal following the province of Punjab,
was patriotism". The first issue but many of its most prominent
of The Ghadar, was published activists were forced into exile to
from San Francisco on Canada and the United States.
November 1, 1913.
• Following the voyage of the • It ceased to play an active role
Komagata Maru in 1914, a direct in Indian politics after 1919. The
challenge to Canadian anti- party had active members in
Indian immigration laws, other countries such as Mexico,
several thousand Indians Japan, China, Singapore,
resident in the United States Thailand, Philippines, Malaya,
sold their business and homes Indo-China and Eastern and
ready to drive the British from Southern Africa.
India. However, Hardayal had • The Komagata Maru incident
fled to Europe concerned that involved the Japanese
the US authorities would hand steamship Komagata Maru on
him over to the British. Sohan which a group of citizens of the
Singh Bhakna was already in British Raj attempted to
British hands, and the emigrate to Canada in 1914 but
leadership fell to Ram Chandra. were denied entry.
Following the entry of Canada • Komagata Maru sailed from
into World War I, the British Hong Kong, via
organisation was centred in the Shanghai, China, and
USA and received substantial Yokohama, Japan, to

96
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Vancouver, British Columbia, took it to Kabul where he
Canada, in 1914, carrying 376 reached in June 1916.
passengers from Punjab, British • With the onset of World War I,
India. Of them, 24 were Ubaidullah Sindhi and Mehmud
admitted to Canada, but the Hasan (principal of the Darul
other 352 passengers were not Uloom Deoband) had
allowed to disembark in proceeded to Kabul in October
Canada, and the ship was forced 1915 with plans to initiate a
to return to India. The Muslim insurrection in the
passengers comprised 340 tribal belt of India.
Sikhs, 24 Muslims, and 12
Hindus, all British subjects. For this purpose, Ubaid'Allah
This was one of several was to propose that the
incidents in the early 20th • Amir of Afghanistan declares
century in which exclusion laws war against Britain while
in Canada and the United States Mahmud al Hasan sought
were used to exclude German and Turkish help.
immigrants of Asian origin. Hasan proceeded to Hijaz.
Ubaid Allah, in the meantime,
Silk Letter Movement/ Reshmi was able to establish friendly
Rumaal Tehreek relations with Amir.
• As the plans unfolded in what
• The Silk Letter Movement refers came to be called the Silk Letter
to a movement organised by the movement, Ubaid'Allah was
Deobandi leaders between 1913 able to establish friendly
and 1920, aimed at freeing relations with Amir. At Kabul,
India from the British rule by Ubaid'Allah, along with some
allying with Ottoman Turkey, students who had preceded him
Imperial Germany, and to make way to Turkey to join
Afghanistan. The plot was the Caliph's "Jihad" against
uncovered by Punjab CID with Britain, decided that the pan-
the capture of letters from Islamic cause was to be best
Ubaidullah Sindhi, one of the served by focussing on the
Deobandi leaders then in Indian Freedom Movement.
Afghanistan, to Mahmud al
Hasan, another leader then in All India Muslim League
Persia. The letters were written
in silk cloth, hence the name. • A resolution to form the All
• Muhammad Mian Mansoor India Muslim League was
Ansari went to Hejaz with passed by Nawab Salimullah
Mahmood Hasan in September Khan and was seconded by
1915. He returned to India in Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana
April 1916 with Ghalib Nama Muhammad Ali and Moulana
(Silk Letter) which he showed to Zafar Ali. The resolution was
freedom fighters in India and passed by All India Educational
the autonomous area and then Conference on 30th December
1906.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• A committee was formed to propaganda organ for the nascent
prepare its draft constitution. revolutionary organisation Anushilan
Sir Agha Khan was appointed as Samiti that was taking shape in Bengal
President and Syed Hassan at the time.
Balgrami was appointed as • The journal derived its name
secretary, while Nawab Mohsim- Jugantar from a political novel of the
ul-Mulk and Nawab Viqar-ul- same name by renowned Bengali
Mulk were made joint secretaries author Shivnath Shastri. The journal
with six Vice- Presidents, a went on to lend its name to the
Central Committee with forty Western Bengal wing of the Anushilan
Members was also constituted. Samiti, which came to be known as the
In this way Muslim league was Jugantar group.
established and become the sole • The journal expounded and justified
representative of Muslims. revolutionary violence against the
• Knowing the circumstances British Raj as a political tool for
which led to the formation of independence, and denounced the
Muslim league was not difficult right and legitimacy of the British rule
to make out what it aimed to. in India.
• It was also critical of the Indian
However, the Muslim league laid National Congress and its moderate
the following points as its methods which was viewed as aiding
objectives: the Raj. Its target audience was the
young, literate and politically
• To create among Muslims the motivated youth of Bengal, and was
feelings of loyalty towards British priced at one paisa.
Government and to remove
misconception and suspicious. Emperor vs Aurobindo Ghosh and
• To safeguard the political rights of others, colloquially referred to as the
the Muslims and to bring them into the Alipore Bomb Case, the Muraripukur
notice of the Government. conspiracy, or the Manicktolla bomb
• To prevent among the Muslims, the conspiracy, was a criminal case held in
rise of prejudicial feelings against the India in 1908. The case saw the trial of
other communities of India. a number of Indian nationalists of the
• The first session of all India Muslim Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta, under
league was held at Karachi on 29th charges of "Waging war against the
December, 1907 and was presided over Government" of the British Raj.
by Adamji Peer Bhai.
The trial was held at Alipore
Jugantar Patrika Sessions Court, Calcutta,
Jugantar Patrika was a Bengali between May 1908 and May 1909.
revolutionary newspaper founded in
1906 in Calcutta by Barindra Kumar • The trial followed in the wake of the
Ghosh, Abhinash Bhattacharya and attempt on the life of Presidency
Bhupendranath Dutt. Magistrate Douglas Kingsford in
• A political weekly, it was founded in Muzaffarpur by Bengali nationalists
March 1906 and served as the Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki in
April 1908, which was linked to the

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attempts to derail the train carrying to promote the consumption of
Lieutenant-Governor Sir Andrew indigenous products and boycott
Fraser in December 1907. Among the foreign goods. When the moderates
famous accused were Aurobindo and the extremists parted ways in the
Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh as well Surat session, he attempted
as 37 other Bengali nationalists of the reconciliation between the two groups.
Anushilan Samiti. Most of the accused
were arrested from Barin Ghosh's Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh (1
Garden house in 36 Murarirupukur December 1886 – 29 April 1979) was a
Road, in the Manicktolla suburb of freedom fighter, journalist, writer, and
Calcutta. Marxist revolutionary social reformist
• The accused were held in the of India and President of first
Presidency Jail in Alipore before the Provisional Government of India. He
trial, where also formed the Executive Board of
Narendranath Goswami, approver and India in Japan in 1940 during the
crown-witness, was shot dead by two Second World War. He also took part
fellow accused Kanailal Dutta and in the Balkan War in the year 1911
Satyendranath Bose within the jail along with his fellow students of MAO
premises. Goswami's murder led to College.
collapse of the case against Aurobindo.
However, his brother Barin and a In recognition of his services, the
number of others were convicted of the government of India issued postage
charges and faced varying jail terms stamps in his honor.
from lifeimprisonment to shorter jail
terms. • On 1 December 1915 during World
• Aurobindo Ghosh retired from War I (his 28th birthday) Pratap
active nationalist politics after serving established the first Provisional
a prison sentence awarded in the trial, Government of India at Kabul in
beginning his journey into spirituality Afghanistan as a government-in-exile
and philosophy that he described as of Free Hindustan, with himself as
having started with revelations that President, Maulavi Barkatullah as
occurred to him during his Prime Minister, and Maulavi
incarceration. He later moved to Abaidullah Sindhi as Home Minister,
Pondicherry, establishing an Ashram. declaring jihad on the British. Anti-
British forces supported his
For Anushilan samiti, the movement, but because of obvious
incarceration of many of its prominent loyalty to the British, the Amir kept on
leaders led to a decline in the delaying the expedition to overthrow
influence and activity of the British rule in India.
Manicktolla branch, and its activities • Due to his revolutionary ideas
were overtaken by what emerged to be Pratap had a good relationship with
called the Jugantar branch under the Lenin, who invited him to Russia after
leadership of Bagha Jatin. its liberation and welcomed him. By
Ashwini Kumar Dutta was a this time he had become a real threat
Bengali educationist, philanthropist, to British rule in India, and the British
social reformer and patriot. He Government of India put a bounty on
founded the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti his head, attacked his entire estate,

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
and declared him a fugitive, causing nationalist society of Abhinav Bharat
him to flee to Japan in 1925. Mandal, founded by V.D. Savarkar.
• The society was founded amongst
The Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS) efforts and movements that arose to
was an Indian organisation founded in reverse the flow of authority and power
London in 1905 that sought to promote from Britain to India along with
the cause of self-rule in British India. substantial help from Bhikaji Cama.

• The organisation was founded by Abhinava Bharat Society

Shyamji Krishna Varma, with support
from a number of prominent Indian Vinayak D Savarkar and Ganesh
nationalists in Britain at the time, Savarkar started Mitra Mela, a
including Bhikaji Cama, Dadabhai revolutionary secret society in Nasik in
Naoroji and S.R. Rana, and was 1903.
intended to be a rival organisation to
the British Committee of the Indian It was one among several such melas
National Congress that was the main (revolutionary societies) functioning in
avenue of the loyalist opinion at the Maharashtra at that time, which
time. believed in the overthrow of British
• Founded on 18 February 1905, the rule through armed rebellion. In 1904,
IHRS was a metropolitan organisation in a meeting attended by 200 members
modelled after Victorian public from various towns in Maharashtra,
institutions of the time. It had a Vinayak Savarkar renamed it Abhinav
written constitution and the stated Bharat, taking after Giuseppe
aims to "secure Home Rule for India, Mazzini's Young Italy.
and to carry on a genuine Indian
propaganda in this country by all • A. M. T. Jackson, the district
practicable means". magistrate of Nasik, was assassinated
• The IHRS was open for membership in India by Anant Laxman Kanhare in
"to Indians only", and found 1909 in the historic "Nasik Conspiracy
significant support amongst Indian Case".
students and other Indian populations • The investigation into the Jackson
in Britain. It recruited from amongst assassination revealed the existence of
young Indian activists, collected the Abhinav Bharat Society and the
money, and may have been collecting role of the Savarkar brothers in leading
arms and maintaining close contact it. Vinayak Savarkar was found to have
with revolutionary movements in dispatched twenty Browning pistols to
India. India, one of which was used in the
• The society was foundations of the Jackson assassination. He was charged
India House and, along with Krishna in the Jackson murder and sentenced
Varma's journal The Indian to "transportation" for life. Savarkar
Sociologist, was the foundation of the was imprisoned in the Cellular Jail in
militant Indian nationalist movement the Andaman Islands in 1910.
in Britain. Vande Mataram is a poem written by
• After Krishna Varma's shift to Paris Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in
in 1907, the society gave way the secret 1870s, which he included in his 1881
novel Anandamath. The poem was

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
composed into song by Rabindranath The Congress passed a resolution
Tagore. The first two verses of the song condemning the pomp and show of
were adopted as the National Song of this Darbar at the cost of the poor
India in October 1937 by Congress Indians.
Working Committee prior to the end of
colonial rule in August 1947. • In this Darbar, the King declared
that Capital of India will be transferred
• It played a vital role in the Indian from Calcutta to Delhi.
independence movement, first sung in • It was also declared the Partition of
a political context by Rabindranath Bengal is cancelled. East and West
Tagore at the 1896 session of the Bengal were joined and new provinces
Indian National Congress. of Bihar, Orissa and Assam were
formed.
It became a popular marching song for • There were three Delhi Durbars –
political activism and Indian freedom 1877, 1903 and 1911. Lucknow Pact,
movement in 1905. Spiritual Indian (December 1916), agreement made by
nationalist and philosopher Sri the Indian National Congress headed
Aurobindo referred it as "National by Maratha leader Bal Gangadhar
Anthem of Bengal". The song and the Tilak and the All-India Muslim League
novel containing it was banned by the led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah; it was
British government, but workers and adopted by the Congress at its
general public defied the ban, many Lucknow session on December 29 and
went to colonial prisons repeatedly for by the league on Dec. 31, 1916. The
singing it, and the ban was overturned meeting at Lucknow marked the
by the Indians after they gained reunion of the moderate and radical
independence from the colonial rule. wings of the Congress. The pact dealt
both with the structure of the
• Vande Mataram became a call of government of India and with the
agitation during Swadeshi Moveemnt, relation of the Hindu and Muslim
when partition of Bengal was communities.
announced.
• On the former count, the
Delhi Durbar 1911 proposals were an advance on
Darbar was held to commemorate the Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s
coronation of Kin George V and Queen “political testament.” Four-
Mary as Emperor and Empress of fifths of the provincial and
India. The Darbar brought back the central legislatures were to be
pomp and show of the Mughals once elected on a broad franchise,
again in Delhi. and half the executive council
members, including those of the
The King and the Queen attired in the central executive council, were
coronation robes with thousands of to be Indians elected by the
diamonds and precious gems appeared councils themselves.
in the Jharokha of the red fort to give • Except for the provision for the
Darshan to 5 Lakh Indian people who central executive, these
gathered to greet the sovereign couple. proposals were largely
embodied in the Government of

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
India Act of 1919. The Congress in India and it went on to become a
also agreed to separate very popular newspaper, reaching a
electorates for Muslims in peak circulation of over 25,000, a new
provincial council elections record for Urdu journalism in those
and for weightage in their days.
favour (beyond the proportions
indicated by population) in all The paper played a catalytic role in
provinces except the Punjab and shaping Muslim opinion against the
Bengal, where they gave some Raj, a fact acknowledged by many
ground to the Hindu and Sikh stalwarts of India’s freedom struggle.
minorities. This pact paved the
way for Hindu-Muslim The Servants of India Society was
cooperation in the Khilafat formed in Pune, Maharashtra, on June
movement and Mohandas 12, 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Gandhi’s noncooperation The Society organized many
movement from 1920. campaigns to promote education,
• Annie Besant was the first women sanitation, health care and fight the
president of Congress. She presided social evils of untouchability and
the congress session of 1917. She discrimination, alcoholism, poverty,
played a key role to bring moderates oppression of women and domestic
and extremist on the single platform abuse.
once again.
• Saroijini Naidu was the first Indian The publication of ‘The Hitavada’, the
Women President of INC - 1925. organ of the Society in English from
Nagpur commenced in 1911.
Al - Hilal
• The Al-Hilal was a weekly Urdu Rani Gadinliu
language newspaper established by the
Indian leader Maulana Abul Kalam • Gaidinliu (1915–1993) was a
Azad and used as a medium for Rongmei Naga spiritual and
criticism of the British Raj in India.The political leader who led a revolt
first issue came out on 13 July 1912. against British rule in India. At
The newspaper also espoused the the age of 13, she joined the
cause of the Indian independence Heraka religious movement of
movement and exhorted Indian her cousin Haipou Jadonang.
Muslims to join the movement. The movement later turned into
a political movement seeking to
The newspaper was shut down under drive out the British from
the Press Act of 1914. "Al-Hilal (The Manipur and the surrounding
Crescent), published in Calcutta, Naga areas.
ushered in a new chapter in Urdu • Within the Heraka faith, she
journalism and immediately appealed came to be considered an
to Muslims in the city". incarnation of the Goddess
• The Al- Hilal covered a range of Cherachamdinliu. Gaidinliu was
issues related with theology, politics, arrested in 1932 at the age of 16,
wars and scientific advancement and was sentenced to life
besides its critical coverage of the Raj

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
imprisonment by the British Dadabhai Naoroji, Congress
rulers. adopted Swaraj as the Goal of
• Jawaharlal Nehru met her at Indian people. But here a bit of
Shillong Jail in 1937, and politics was played by the
promised to pursue her release. Moderates.
Nehru gave her the title of • They, by no means wanted to be
"Rani" ("Queen"), and she tagged as radical. The toned
gained local popularity as Rani down the resolution in a
Gaidinliu. compromised state and made it
• She was released in 1947 after “self-government means that
India's independence, and obtaining the self-governing
continued to work for the British Colonies“. Thus the
upliftment of her people. An whole meaning of Swaraj of the
advocate of the ancestral Naga extremists was changed.
religious practices, she • The National Council of
staunchly resisted the Education (or NCE) was an
conversion of Nagas to organisation founded by Indian
Christianity. She was honoured nationalists in Bengal in 1906 to
as a freedom fighter and was promote science and technology
awarded a padma Bhushan by as part of a swadeshi
the Government of India. industrialisation movement.
• It established the Bengal
CALCUTTA SESSION National College and Bengal
Technical Institute which would
• In 1906, the session at Calcutta later merge to form Jadavpur
was presided by Dada Bhai University. Institutions
Naoroji. The moderates chose functioning under the Council
Dada Bhai Naoroji to preside were considered to be hotbeds
the Congress. Dada Bhai of swadeshi activities and the
Naoroji, the Grand Oldman of government banned
India was respected by the nationalistic activities such as
moderates and extremist alike. the singing of patriotic songs.
• But, in this session, the congress
was compelled by the extremists The Simla Deputation
to adopt following resolutions
which were accepted by the • On 8 October 1906 a deputation
moderates with half heart. of prominent Muslims led by
the Aga Khan visited Viceroy
These were as follows: Minto at Simla to present their
1. Resolution on Partition of Bengal demands. The demands were
2. Resolution of Self Government set out in what has become
(Swaraj) known as ‘The Simla
3. Resolution on Swadeshi Deputation’.
4. Resolution on Boycott. • In they demanded that in all
local and provincial elections
• Thus in Calcutta session of 1906, Muslims should have their own
under the leadership of representatives and that

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Muslims in all councils should from subversive nationalist
have a higher percentage of violence. The act was first
seats than their percentage of applied during the First Lahore
the Indian population. Conspiracy trial in the
• The British acceptance of the aftermath of the failed Ghadar
Simla Deputation was an Conspiracy of 1915, and was
extremely important moment in instrumental in crushing the
the history of the subcontinent. Ghadr movement in Punjab and
The acceptance showed that the the Anushilan Samiti in Bengal.
attempts made by Sir Syed and
others to restore relations However its widespread and
between the Muslims and the indiscriminate use in stifling genuine
British had been successful. political discourse made it deeply
unpopular, and became increasingly
Defence of India Act - 1915 reviled within India.

• The Defence of India Act 1915, • The extension of the law in the
also referred to as the Defence form of the Rowlatt Act after the
of India Regulations Act, was an end of World War I was
emergency criminal law enacted opposed unanimously by the
by the Governor-General of non-official Indian members of
India in 1915 with the intention the Viceroy's council. It became
of curtailing the nationalist and a flashpoint of political
revolutionary activities during discontent and nationalist
and in the aftermath of the First agitation, culminating in the
World War. Rowlatt Satyagraha. The act was
• It was similar to the British re-enacted during World War II
Defence of the Realm Acts, and as Defence of India act 1939.
granted the Executive very wide Independent India retained the
powers of preventive detention, law in a number of amended
internment without trial, forms, which have seen use in
restriction of writing, speech, proclaimed states of national
and of movement. However, emergency including Sino-
unlike the English law which Indian War, Bangladesh crisis,
was limited to persons of hostile The Emergency of 1975 and
associations or origin, the subsequently the Punjab
Defence of India act could be insurgency.
applied to any subject of the • Lee Commission, body
King, and wasused to an appointed by the British
overwhelming extent against government in 1923 to consider
Indians. the ethnic composition of the
• The passage of the act was superior Indian public services
supported unanimously by the of the government of India.
non-official Indian members in • The Lee Commission proposed
the Viceroy's legislative council, in 1924 that 40 percent of future
and was seen as necessary to entrants should be British, 40
protect against British India percent Indians directly

104
 MODERN HISTORY 2021
recruited, and 20 percent activists who resided in the
Indians promoted from the Germany.
provincial service. • The organisation was
• By the date of independence in established with the aim to
1947, more than half the service promote the cause of Indian
of about 1,000 members were Independence. In the beginning
Indians, many with long the orgnisatio was called the
experience and holding high Berlin-Indian Committee.
positions. • Later, this Berlin-Indian
• Linlithgow Commission was Committee played an
appointed to inquire into the instrumental part in the Hindu-
crisis of Indian agriculture German Conspiracy.
Muddidman Committee, 1924 a Virendranath Chattopadhyaya,
committee appointed by the Champakaraman Pillai and
Government of India in early Abinash Bhattacharya were the
1924 with the terms of reference key members of the committee.
of making an empirical • The Indian Sociologist was an
investigation into the working Indian nationalist journal in the
of the Constitution as set up in early 20th century. Its subtitle
1921 under the India Act of was ‘An Organ of Freedom, and
1919, and making appropriate Political, Social, and Religious
recommendations for the Reform’.
consideration of the authorities. • The journal was edited by
The immediate background to Shyamji Krishnavarma from
the committee was the 1905 to 1914, then between
mounting political unrest on the 1920 and 1922. It was originally
dyarchy issue of the produced in London until May
Constitution. 1907 when Krishnavarma
• The official designation of the moved to Paris.
committee was the Reforms • The journal was edited in Paris
Enquiry Committee, but it came from June 1907, but the change
to be known as the Muddiman of address was only announced
Committee after the name of its in the September 1907 issue.
chairman, Sir Alexander Publication continued in Paris
Muddiman, who was then a until 1914, when Krishnavarma
Home Member of the moved to Geneva on account of
Government of India. the First World War. While in
Geneva he abandoned the
Indian – Berlin Committee publication under pressure from
• During the World War I in 1914, the Swiss authorities. He
an organisation was established recommenced publication in
in Germany, namely the Berlin ecember 1920 and continued
Committee. After 1915, it was until September 1922.
renamed the Indian
Independence Committee. The
organisation was formed by
Indian students and political

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
HOME RULE MOVEMENT The following reasons were
responsible for the Decline of
• There were two home rule Home Rule League in India:
leagues launched. Tilak • The Movement was left
launched the Indian Home Rule leaderless once Tilak left for
League in April 1916 at England to pursue a libel case
Belgaum. Annie Besant he had filed and Annie Besant
launched the Home Rule was largely satisfied by the
League in September 1916 at promise of Reforms.
Madras. • Its further growth and activity
• The Home Rule League were stalled by the rise of
functioned throughout the year Mahatma Gandhi and his
as opposed to the Congress Satyagraha art of revolution:
Party whose activities were non-violent, but mass-based
confined to once a year. civil disobedience. Gandhi's
• This movement led to the Hindu lifestyle, mannerisms
Montague Declaration of 1917 in and immense respect for Indian
which it was declared that there culture and the common people
would be more Indians in the of India made him immensely
government leading to the popular with India's common
development of self-governing people. His victories in leading
institutions ultimately realising the farmers of Champaran,
responsible governments in Bihar and Kheda, Gujarat
India. This Declaration (also against the British uthorities on
known tax revolts made him a national
• as August Declaration) implied hero.
that the demand for home rule • After the Montagu Declaration
would no longer be considered the league agreed to suspend its
seditious. This was the biggest expansion of the movement.
significance of the movement. After this the all moderate
• Annie Besant convinced the candidate gave up the
Congress to pledge to an membership of league.
educative propaganda and the • The league believed that the
establishing of local-level British government will
committees. It was also agreed gradually reform the
upon that if these conditions • administration and local
were not satisfied by September representative system by
1916, she would be free to set up ushering participation of local
a home rule league. Indians.
Accordingly, she set up her • Sir Subbier Subramania Iyer
Home Rule League in was an Indian lawyer, jurist and
September 1916. Tilak, however, freedom fighter who, along with
was not bound by any such Annie Besant, founded the
ondition and so had set up his Home Rule Movement. He was
league in April 1916. popularly known as the "Grand
Old Man of South India".
Subramania Iyer was born in

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
the Madurai district of Madras They were mostly young men
Presidency. and children, with a few women
• On completion of his schooling and older men. They were
in Madura, Subramania Iyer members of various religions
qualified as a lawyer from the and various origins, not just
University of Madras, and went Indians.
on to practice as a lawyer in • Various languages, Gujarati,
Madurai and Madras, before Tamil, Hindi and English, were
being appointed a Judge of the spoken by the residents. Adults
Madras High Court, in 1891. He and children worked in farming
also served as the first Indian and gardening, including
Chief Justice of the Madras pruning fruit trees, growing,
High Court, before retiring in harvesting, nd clearing
1907. woodland. The emphasis was
• After making Madras her home, upon simple communal living
Annie Besant founded a weekly combined with a clearly
newspaper Commonweal in structured routine of work,
January 1914. school, bathing and a general
• She started a newspaper, "New meeting at the end of the day.
India", criticized British rule • Meals were vegetarian.
and was jailed for sedition. • Shrimadh Bhagvad Gita
• Young India was a Journal by Rahasya, popularly also known
Mahatma Gandhi. Tolstoy Farm as Gita Rahasya or Karmayog
• Tolstoy Farm was a community Shashtra, is a 1915 Marathi
started by Gandhi in Transvaal, language book authored by
South Africa, in 1910. It became Indian social reformer and
the headquarters of the independence activist Bal
campaign of satyagraha (non- Gangadhar Tilak while he was
violence) which he lead at that in prison at Mandalay, Burma.
time. This campaign was a It is the analysis of Karma yoga
reaction to the discrimination which finds its source in the
against Indians in Transvaal, Bhagavad Gita, the sacred book
and at one stage, 2,500 people for Hindus.
of Indian origin were in jail for • According to him, the real
non-violent resistance to the message behind the
racist laws. Mahabharata’s Gita is to act or
• The farm, 22 miles from perform, which is covered in the
Johannesburg, had been bought initial parts rather than
by Herman Kallenbach, one of renounce, which is covered in
Gandhi’s supporters and placed the later parts of theepic
at the disposal of the Mahabharata. He took the
Satyagrahis for as long as the Mimamsa rule of interpretation
campaign lasted. as the basis of building up his
• Gandhi recalled that between 70 thesis.
and 80 people lived in this “co-
operative commonwealth”, but
sometimes there were more.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Ahrar Movement • Criminal Law (Amendment) Act
(1908)
• Ahrar Movement was a movement • Indian Newspapers (Incitement to
founded in 1910 under the leadership Offences) Act (1908)
of MaulanaMuhammed Ali Hakim • Explosive Substances Act (1908)
Ajmal Khan. • Indian Press Act (1910)
• This movement was in opposition to
the loyalist politics of the Aligarh Anushilan Samiti
movement, itsmembers advocated
active participation in the nationalist • It was established by
movement. Pramathanath Mitra became
• Ahrar movement was moved by the one of the most organised
modern ideas of self-government; its Revolutionary associations,
member especially in the Eastern Bengal
advocated active participation in the where the Dhaka Anushilan
nationalist movement. Samitihad several branches and
• Hakim Ajmal Khan, Iqbal, CR Das, carried out major activities.
Sir Mian Muhammad Shafi and leaders
of Ahrar wereagainst the Lucknow Jugantar
Pact. The issue of separate electorates
got prominence in theMuslim majority • It was initially formed by an
provinces by the late 1920s due to the innercircle of the Kolkata
unwise weightage formula ofthe Anushilan Samiti, like the
Lucknow Pact. Palmach of Haganah. The
Anushilan Samiti hadover five
The Khaksar Movement hundred branches. Indians
living in America and Canada
• It was a social movement based in had established the
Lahore, Punjab, British India, Gadarorganization.
established by AllamaMashriqi in 1931,
with the aim of freeing India from the Baba Ramchandra
rule of the British Empire andestablish
a Hindu-Muslim government in India. Baba Ramchandra was a sanyasi who
• Mashriqi had said in 1931 that the had earlier been to Fiji as an
Khaksar movement had three distinct indentured labourer His battlefieldwas
objectives; "toemphasize the idea of Awadh where he led the peasants
superiority of God, unity of the nation against the exploitation of zamindars
and service to mankind". and British.
• Allama Mashriqi was called to join • He moved around the region with a
the Quit India Movement. Mashriqi copy of the Ramayana under his arm,
was apprehensiveof its outcome and blendingreadings from this popular
did not agree with the Congress Hindu epic with denunciations of both
Working Committee's resolution. the British Raj and thelandlords, and
appealed to the peasants to act
Government Acts for Repression together against their exploiters.
of Swadeshi Movement
• Seditious Meetings Act (1907)

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Although he began by seeking to and public speeches to passive
harmonise tenant-landlord relations, resistance and boycott, all had their
Ram Chandrasoon considered this to origins inthe movement.
be a wasted effort and began to Recognition of the True Nature of
mobilise the peasants. British Rule:
• He encouraged peasants to pay only
the required rent and refrain from • The Government was not concealing
customary donations. In 1919 he led their demands
the first peasant protest against the • Militant among those politically
landlords and by 1920 had organised conscious got disillusioned and started
all the farmers associations in Oudh, looking for amore effective mode of
forming the Oudh Kisan Sabha (Oudh political action.
Farmers’ Association). • The economic miseries of the 1890s
• He was arrested on a number of further exposed the exploitative
occasions for organizing public character of colonial rule.
protests. • Severe famines killed 90 lakh
persons between 1896 and 1900.
SWADESHI PHASE Bubonic plague affectedlarge areas of
the DeccanGrowth of Confidence and
Let us revise few connecting events Self-Respect
from previous VANPossible • Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo
introduction to any question in and Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal
around 1905: repeatedly urged thenationalists to rely
on the character and capacities of the
• The period in and around 1905, Indian people.
along with the Partition of • There was the widespread feeling
Bengal in 1905, saw a major that only masses were capable of
leapforward in Indian National making the immense sacrifices needed
movement. The richness of the to win freedom.
movement was not confined
topolitics alone, it lead to Growth of Education:
expanse of the Revolt to the
common Indian masses. • The spread of Education led to an
• The Partition ofBengal and the increased awareness among the
revolt against it lead to the masses, on the other hand, the rise in
emergence of almost all the unemployment and underemployment
major political trends ofthe among the educated drew attention to
Indian national movement. poverty and the underdeveloped state
of country's economy under colonial
What were the Different Phases ruleReaction to Increasing
of Indian National Movement in Westernization.
the UpcomingDecades? • The new leadership felt the
stranglehold of excessive
From conservative moderation to westernisation and sensed colonial
political extremism, from terrorism to designsto submerge the Indian
incipient socialism, from petitioning national identity in the British Empire
Myths of Western Superiority Busted.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The intellectual and moral • 1892 –I ndian Council Act Failed
inspiration of the new leadership was and was Criticized by Nationalist that
Indian. Intellectuals likeSwami it failed to satisfy them.
Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra • 1897 - Deportation of Natu brothers
Chatterjee and Swami Dayanand without trial & Tilak was imprisoned
Saraswatiinspired many young without trial
nationalists with their forceful alai • 1898 - Further repressive laws
articulate arguments, paintingIndia's under IPC 124A
past in brighter colors than the British • 1898-No of members in Calcutta
ideologues had. These thinkers cooperation were reduced
explodedthe myth of western • 1904 - Official Secrets Act curbed
superiority by referring to the richness the freedom of Press
of Indian civilization in thepast • 1904 - Indian universities act lead
Dayanand's 'India for the Indians' to greater Government control Over
Dissatisfaction with Achievements of Universities
Moderates.
• The younger elements within the Important Events
Congress were dissatisfied with the • Decision to Partition – 1903
achievements ofthe Moderates first 15- • Anti-partition campaign under
20 years. They were strongly critical of Surendranath Banerjee, KK Mitra &
the methods of peacefuland Ray- 1903-1905
constitutional agitation, popularly • Announcement of Partition -July
known as the "Three 'P's"— prayer, 1905
petition andprotest—and described • Boycott resolution in Calcutta town
these methods as 'political hall - formal proclamation of swadeshi
mendicancy'. • Day of mourning : Oct 16,1905
• Annulment of Partition - 1911 –
A Trained Leadership Had (Governor General: Hardinge)
Emerged : • Moderate - Extremist dispute about
spread of the movement
• This leadership could provide a • 1906 - Dadabahai President of
proper di-annelisation of the immense Congress – The Calcutta Session lead
potential for political struggle which to 4 point agendaof: Self-government
the masses possessed and, as the (SWARAJ), declaration & passive
militant nationalists thought, were resistance + Swadeshi/boycott
ready to give expression to. This +national education
energy of the masses got a release • 1907 - Surat Split
during themovement against the
partition of Bengal, which acquired the Bengal with a population of 78 million
form of the swadeshi agitation. (about a quarter of the population of
British India) hadindeed become
Different Acts that proved that administratively unwieldy. Equally
Government was taking away the there was no escaping the fact that the
Rights of Citizens realmotive or partitioning Bengal was
political. Indian nationalism was
gaining in strength and partition
expected to weaken what was

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
perceived as the nerve centre of Indian
nationalism at that time.

The main Intention was to dethrone Under the Militant leadership.

Calcutta’ from its position as the
‘centre from which the Congress Party After 1905, the Extremists acquired a
is manipulated throughout Bengal, and dominant influence over the Swadeshi
indeed which the Congress Party Movement inBengal.
centre of successful intrigue’ and
‘divide ,the Bengali speaking There were three reasons for
population.’ The partitionof the state this:
intended to curb Bengali influence by • The Moderate-led movement had
not only placing Bengalis under two failed to yield results.
administrations but by reducing them • The divisive tactics of the
to a minority in Bengal itself. Governments of both the Bengals had
Embittered the nationalists.
Also, the partition was meant to foster • The Government had resorted to
another kind of division— this time on suppressive measures, which included
the basis of religion. The policy of atrocities on students—many of whom
propping up Muslim communalists as were given corporal punishment;
a counter to the Congressand the banon public singing of Bande
national movement was to be Mataram; restriction on public
implemented. meetings; prosecution and long
imprisonment of swadeshi workers;
ANTI PARTITION MOVEMENT clashes between the police and the
people in many towns; arrests and
Under the Moderates Leaders in deportation of leaders; and
Charge: Surendranath Banerjee, suppression of freedom of the
K.K.Mitra and Chandra Ray Objective press.The Extremist gave a call for
was: To exert sufficient pressure on the Passive Resistance.
Government through an educated
public opinion in India and England What all things did Passive
and to prevent the unjust partition of Resistance Include?
Bengal from being implemented.
• The boycott of Government schools
Methods Adopted: and colleges, Government Service,
Petitions to the Government, public courts, legislative councils,
meetings, memoranda, and municipalities, government titles etc.
propaganda through pamphlets and • The militant nationalists tried to
newspapers such as Hitabadi, Sajibani transform the ant partition and
and Bengalee Swadeshi Movement Swadeshi Movement into a mass s
elsewhere struggle and gave the slogan of India's
1. Tilak- Maharashtra independence from foreign rule.
2. Lala lajpat Rai - Punjab
3. Syed Haider Raza - Delhi The Extremists gave the idea of India's
4. Chidambaram Pillai – Madras independence the central place in
India's politics.The goal of

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
independence was to be achieved • Abanindranath Tagore - broke the
through self-sacrifice. domination of victorian naturalisation
“What we could not have accomplished & took
in 50 or 100 years, the great disaster, inspiration from mughal,ajanta &
the partition of Bengal, has done for us rajput paintings-- BHARAT MATA
in six months. Its fruits have been the PAINTING
great national movement known as the • Nandlal Bose- first recipient of
Swadeshi movement.” - Abdul Rasul. scholarship - from Indian society of
oriental art
The work of extremist relied on 3 • Science- JC bose & Prafulchandra
criteria’s Roy
• Self-development through
constructive work All India Muslims League
• Passive resistance & mass
mobilization In December 1906: ALL INDIA
• Freedom through certain techniques MUSLIM LEAGUE was formed.
Arobindo Ghosh - first to
systematically criticize the moderate Following three factors were
leadership- in new lamps for old in responsible for the formation of the
induprakash. Muslim League in India:

TILAK - WAS KNOWN AS • Loss of Sovereignty by Mughal

FATHER OF INDIAN UNREST. Rulers - The British established
their absolute rule over
New Forms of Struggle theIndian peninsula when they
• Boycott of foreign goods dethroned the Mughal rulers.
• Public meetings & Processions Since the Mughal throne had
• Corps of volunteers, Samitis asymbolic importance and
• Popular festival use emotional value for common
• Emphasis to self-reliance- Atma Muslims in India it was seen as
shakti an attackon Muslim identity
• Programme of swadeshi & national itself.
education • British Policy of Divide and
• Swadeshi & indigenous Enterprises Rule - In order to maintain their
• Impact of cultural sphere. hold over India, the British
government began to follow
Important Facts for Prelims: their infamous policy of ‘Divide
Cultural Significance of Partition and Rule’. In 1871, the
movement of 1905. government adopted a
• VP Chidambaram - "National resolution which made Urdu the
Shipbuiliding medium of instruction for
• Swadesh Bandhab Samiti- Ashwini Muslims in primary
Kumar Dutt andsecondary schools and
• Tagore - AMAR Sonar Bangla increased the government aid to
• Subramanium Bharati - Swadesh Muslim education institutions.
Geetam - in TN

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Muslim rulers were portrayed filling of British jails, social reform and
as plunderers and Hindu rulers constructive work—but failed to give
as cruel to their Muslim these techniques a disciplined focus.
subjects. The partition of Bengal • The movement was rendered
was also publicized as a move in leaderless with most of the leaders
the interest of Muslims. Caste either arrested or deported by 1908
and religion fault lines were and with Aurobindo-Ghosh and Bipin
magnified on purpose through Chandra Pal retiring from active
the Press, posters, literature, politics.
etc., and communal leaders • Internal squabbles among leaders,
were accepted as authentic magnified by the Surat split (1907), did
representatives of their much harm to the movement.
communities. • The movement aroused the people
• Relative Backwardness of Muslim but did not know how to tap the newly
Community - The communal and released energy or how to find new
separatist trend of thinking grew forms to give expression to popular
among the Muslims because of resentment.
their then relative backwardness in • The movement largely remained
education, trade andindustry. confined to the upper and middle
Because of the hostility of upper classes and zamindars, and failed to
class Muslim zamindars and reach the masses—especially the
aristocrats towards the British, peasantry.
Muslim largely remained aloof • Non-cooperation and passive
from modern western education. resistance remained mere ideas.
Since the British also regarded • It is difficult to sustain a mass-
them as responsible for the 1857 based movement at a high pitch for too
rebellion, they were discriminated long.
against.
Immediate Causes: The era around 1903-1908, was
• Hindi Urdu Controversy in United significant in Indian National
Province Movement, not only for the reason
• Swadeshi Movement that , it lead to the “Partition of
• Morley's budget Speech in 1906 Bengal” and the “ Swadeshi
Movement”, but also forone more
The Reasons that lead to fizzling out of Important event - THE SURAT SPLIT.
the Swadeshi Movement were as
follows- Annulment of Partition of Bengal

• There was severe government • It was decided in 1911(Delhi

repression. Durbar) under the viceroy ship of Lord
• The movement failed to create an Hardinge.
effective organization or a party • Lord Minto-II was appointed the
structure. It threw up an entire gamut Viceroy of India in the year 1905 after
of techniques that came to be the resignationof Lord Curzon and
associated with Gandhian politics— served office till 1910.
non cooperation, passive resistance,

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• It was decided to annul the partition glorious culture to generate the spirit
of Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb the of nationalism. Extremists invoked
menace ofrevolutionary terrorism. goddesses Kali or Durga for strength to
• The annulment came as a rude fight for the motherland.
shock to the Muslim political elite. It
was decided toshift the capital to Delhi 2 - Most of the moderate leaders were
as a sop to the Muslims, as it was loyal to British. Many of them held
associated with Muslim glory, but the high ranks under the British
Muslims were not pleased. government. Extremist denounced
British rule and defied it. Many of
MODERATES vs. EXTREMISTS them (Extremists) were arrested
because of anti-British activities.
MODERATES
Moderates believed in constitutional
1 Moderates aimed at administrative means and worked within the
and constitutional reforms. Extremists framework of the law. Their methods
aimed at nothing short of swaraj as it including passing resolutions,
existed in the United Kingdom and its persuasion, sending petitions and
self-governing colonies. Tilak said, appeals. Extremist were radical in their
“Swaraj is my birth right and I shall approach. Demands of extremists were
have it”. aggressive.

2 Moderates wanted more Indians in Moderates received their support from

the administration and not to an end the intelligentsia and urban middle
of British rule. Extremists wanted to class. Moderates had a narrow social
end the British rule. base. Extremists believed in atma
shakti or self-reliance as a weapon
3 Moderate leaders had faith in the against domination.
British sense of justice and fair play.
Extremist drew their supporters Moderates believed in cooperation and
included peoples from all sections reconciliation. Extremists believed in
including the lower middle class, militant methods including swadeshi
workers, and farmers. Extremists thus and boycott. According to Tilak,
had a wider social base. freedom to be fought for.

4 Moderates Believed political Examples of moderate leaders-

connections with Britain to be in Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna
India’s social, political and Extremists Gokhale etc.
drew their inspiration from India’s Examples of extremist leaders- Bala
past. Gangadhara Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal
and Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh.
EXTREMISTS
THE SURAT SPLIT
1 - Extremists revived the Ganapati
and Sivaji festivals to arouse cultural The Extremists wanted to extend the
interests. the masses. Extremists Boycott and Swadeshi Movement to
wanted to inculcate pride in India’s regions outside Bengal and also to

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include all forms of associations (such Different Perception Regarding
as government service, law courts, the Method of Struggle
legislative councils, etc.) within the
boycott programme and thus start a The Extremists, emboldened by the
nationwide mass movement. proceedings at the Calcutta session,
gave a call for wide passive resistance
The Moderates, on the other hand, and boycott of schools, colleges,
were not in favour of extending the legislative councils, municipalities,
movement beyondBengal and were lawcourts, etc. The Moderates,
totally opposed to boycott of councils encouraged by the news that council
and similar associations. They reforms were on the anvil, decided to
advocated strictly constitutional tone down the Calcutta programme.
methods to protest against the
partition of Bengal. Anticipation of Council Reforms

At the Calcutta session of the Congress The Moderates saw in the council
in December 1906, the Moderate reforms an opportunity to realise their
enthusiasm had cooled a bit because of dream of Indianparticipation in the
the popularity of the Extremists and administration. Any hasty action by
the revolutionary terrorists and the Congress, the Moderates felt,
because of communal riots. Here, the underExtremist pressure was bound to
Extremists wanted either Tilak or annoy the Liberals in power in
Lajpat Rai as the president, while the England then.
Moderates proposed the name of The Moderates did not realize that the
Dadabhai Naoroji, who was widely council reforms were meant by the
respected by all the nationalists. Government moreto isolate the
Extremists than to reward the
Different Interpretations of Moderates. The Extremists did not
Swaraj realise that theModerates could act as
their outer line of defense in face of
In 1906 Dadabhai Naoroji was elected state repression. Both sides did
as the president and as a concession to notrealise that in a vast country like
the militants, the goal of the Indian India ruled by a powerful imperialist
National Congress was defined as country, only a broadbasednationalist
‘swarajya or self-government like the movement could succeed.
United Kingdom or the colonies’. Also
a resolution supporting the Act of 1909 Morley-Minto
programme of swadeshi, boycott and Reforms
national education was passed.
• Lord Morley, the then secretary
The word swaraj was mentioned for of state of India and Lord
the first time, but its connotation was Minto, the then viceroy of India,
not speit out, whichleft the field open announced some reforms in the
for differing interpretations by the British Parliament. They were
Moderates and the Extremists. announced to placate
themoderate nationalists by

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
giving some constitutional executive councils ofviceroy and
concessions. At the same time governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha
theysuppressed the militant was the first Indian to join viceroy’s
nationalists there by creating a executivecouncil. He was appointed as
divide and rule after the Surat the law member.
split oF1907.
5. Introduced a system of communal
1. It considerably increased the size of representation for Muslims by
the legislative councils, both central accepting the conceptof ‘separate
and provincial. Thenumber of member electorate’. Under this the Muslim
in the central legislative council was members were to be selected only by
raised from 16 to 60. Now theviceroy’s Muslimvoters. Thus the act legalised
executive council consisted of viceroy communalism and Lord Minto came to
+ 1 extra-ordinary member+ 7 be known as Father of Communal
members. Electorate.

• Although it increased the number of GOKHALE – said “Our achievements

elected members in the Imperial would be small, our failures frequent,
Legislative Counciland Provincial but we must contain with serving our
Legislative Council, most of the elected country with our failures - with this
members were indirectly electedby the our strength will grow” The period
provincial councils in the case of between 1903-1908, was one of the
Imperial council and by municipal most important transitional period in
committeesand district boards in the India-It raised confidence of Indians,
case of the provincial councils. Some of brought different opinions and people
the elected seats werereserved for from all sections to the mainstream.
landlords and British capitalists in
India. RISE OF REVOLUTIONARY
TERRORISM – PHASE 1
Moreover, the reformed councilsstill
enjoyed no power, being merely Why violence now-at this stage?
advisory bodies.
• This was primarily because they
2. Retained official majority in the could find no other way of
Central legislative council, but allowed expressing their patriotism. It
non-official majorityin the provincial isnecessary at this point to
legislative council. reiterate the fact that, while the
youth of Bengal might have
3. It enlarged deliberative functions of beenincensed at the official
the legislative councils at both the arrogance and repression and
levels i.e. memberscould now ask the ‘mendicancy’ of the
supplementary questions, move Congress Moderates.
resolution on the budget, discuss bills • They were also led to ‘the
etc. politics of the bomb’ by the
Extremists’ failure to give
4. It provided (for the first time) for apositive lead to the people.
the association of Indians with the

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They had talked and written number of young men turned to
about direct action, The this form of political struggle.
Extremists had failed to find
forms through which all these GHADR PARTY
ideas could find practical
expression. The Extremists • Ghadr was an early 20th-
could not create a viable century movement among
organization to lead the Indians, principally Sikhs living
movement nor could they really in NorthAmerica, to end British
define the movement in a way rule in their homeland of India.
that differed from that of the The movement originated with
Moderates. anorganization of immigrants in
• “The Extremist way of struggled California called the Hindustani
had come to a dead End”- Workers of the Pacific Coast.
according to the Youth who • Shortly after the outbreak of
moved towards militant World War I, many of the
nationalism. Ghadrites returned to India and
• The thirty crores of people forseveral months during 1915
inhabiting India must raise carried on terrorist activities in
their sixty crores of hands to central Punjab. Attempted
stop thiscurse of oppression. uprisings were quickly crushed
Force must be stopped by by the British. After the war, the
force”- Yugantar Method of party in America split into
Oppression Decided by the Communist and anti-
Militant Youth. Communist factions. The party
• They decided to organize the was dissolved in 1948, after
assassination of unpopular India had achieved
British officials. Such independence.
assassinations would strike • Main Leaders Lala Hardylal,
terror into the hearts of the Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh
rulers, amuse the patriotic etc. Organization established &
instincts of the people, inspire their Head Quarters Swadesh
them and remove the fear of Sevak Home -- Vancouver &
authority from their minds. United India House –Seattle.
Each assassination, and if
theassassins were caught, the Method of Working
consequent trial of the 1. To organize assassinations,
revolutionaries involved, would 2. Publish revolutionary & anti
act as ‘propaganda by deed’’ All imperialistic behaviour
that this form of struggle 3. Preached militant nationalism with
needed was numbers of young secular approach.
peopleready to sacrifice their
lives. KOMATA MARU INCIDENT
• It aroused their latent sense of
heroism. A steadily increasing What was the Komagata Maru?

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• The Komagata Maru was a coal- What was Hindu German
transport steamship that had been Conspiracy?
converted into a passenger ship by
Hong Kong-based businessman Gurdit • The “Hindu-German
Singh. It set off from HongKong in conspiracy” involved India’s
April 1914, reaching Vancouver’s revolutionary exiles in the US
harbour a month later with 376 people and Europe. Turkish officials
onboard, most of them Sikhs like and Irish Republicans lent some
Singh. extra colour to the effort.
Moving arms from America to
Why was the ship turned away? the subcontinent was only one
part of the German ambition to
• The Komagata Maru was, in a sense, turn Britain’s greatest
designed as a test of Canada’s advantage — thepossession of
increasingly strict immigration India — into a liability.
policies. Among the most cumbersome • Germany looked for allies
requirements for new arrivals wasthe among the Bengal
Continuous Passage regulation, revolutionaries, the Ghadar
instituted by the Canadian government Party in Punjab, theDeobandis,
in 1908. It stated that immigrants Hindu princes and Muslim
must “come from the country of their nawabs. The German effort
birth, or citizenship, by a continuous peaked with the establishment
journey” and using tickets “purchased of aprovisional government of
before leaving the country of their India in Kabul exactly a century
birth or citizenship.” ago this year in December 1915.

• That means if you were born in The plan was to bring 20,000 Turkish
India, went to China, and then and German soldiers to Afghanistan
continued on to Canada,you were and assist Kabul in launching a war
illegal. against the Raj. The attack on the
North West Frontier would be
What happened to everyone else? reinforced by a mutiny in theIndian
army and a popular upsurge against
• Eventually, after a two-month British rule.
standoff in the waters just off
Vancouver, the ship was escorted back What was Zimmerman Plan?
out to sea by the Canadian military. Who was “Arthur Zimmerman”?
During the span of time it sat in
theharbour, the Komagata Maru • Arthur Zimmermann (5 October
became something of a media 1864 – 6 June 1940) was State
sensation, and drew plentyof attention Secretary for Foreign Affairs of
from the public at large. 19 of the theGerman Empire from 22
passengers were killed by gunfire upon November 1916 until his
disembarking. Others were resignation on 6 August 1917. His
imprisoned. name is associatedwith the
Zimmermann Telegram during

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
World War I. However, he was out propaganda among South
closely involved in plans Asian prisoners of war in
tosupport rebellions in Ireland Germany, first of all in the so-
and in India, and to assist the called Halbmondlager in
Bolsheviks to undermine Tsarist Wünsdorf.
Russia.
• THE BERLIN COMMITTEE HOME RULE MOVEMENT
FOR INDIAN
INDEPENDENCEYEAR OF Home Rule League, either of two
ESTABLISHMENT: 1915 by short-lived organizations of the same
“Virendranath name in India established in April and
Chattopadhyay”MAJOR September 1916, respectively, by
LEADERS: Lala Hardayal, Indian nationalist Tilak and British
Bhupendranath Dutta and social reformer and Indian
others During the First World independence leader Annie Besant.
War, Berlin became an The term, borrowed from a similar
organizational hub for Indian movement in Ireland, referred to the
nationalist and revolutionary efforts of Indian nationalists to achieve
activities. By September 1914, a self rule from the British Indian
group of South Asian emigrants government.
had organized –with permission
of and in cooperation with the Factors Leading -to - Home Rule
German Foreign Office – the Movement -
Berlin Indian Independence • Moderates were disillusioned by
Committee (IIC). The Foreign Morley Minto reforms
Office together with the Political • People feeling burden of wartime
Office of the Reserve General miseries
Staff cooperated with exiles, • Tilak was ready to assume
revolutionaries and opposition leadership
groups from various • Annie Besant, an Irish Theosophist
nationalities based in India has decided to enlarge
the sphere ofher activities.
Aims and Activities of the IIC
THE PROGRAMME OF HOME
The main tasks of the Berlin Indian RULE LEAGUE
Independence Committee included
• to prepare a mission tothe • To Convey to common man message
Persian Gulf “in order to of home rule & self-government
convince Indian troops there • Attracted Politically backward
not to fight the Turkish and regions
Persian armies to organise a • Promoting political education &
mission to the Emir of discussion through public meetings,
Afghanistan in order to get organizing libraries and reading rooms
permission to enter India with etc.
an Indian battalion from the • They fulfilled their aim through
Afghan territory and to carry holding conferences, organising classes
for students on politics, propaganda

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
through newspapers, pamphlets, opportunity of demonstrating
posters, illustrated post-cards, plays, theirstrength. Tilak’s Home
religious songs, etc., collecting funds, Rule League established a
organising social work, and tradition that was to become an
participating in local government essentialpart of later Congress
activities. annual sessions.
• The Russian Revolution was a
motivation for the Home Rule League • The Lucknow Congress was
Reasons why the Home Rule significant also for the famous
Movement faded off the Movement Congress League Pact,
was also left leaderless once Tilak left popularlyknown as the
for England to pursue a libel case he Lucknow Pact. The Lucknow
had filed and Annie Besant was largely Congress also demanded a
satisfied by the promise of Reforms. further dose ofconstitutional
• Its further growth and activity were reforms as a step towards self-
stalled by the rise of Mahatma Gandhi government. Another very
and his Satyagraha art of revolution: significant proposalmade by
non-violent, but mass-based civil Tilak — that the Congress
disobedience. Gandhi's Hindu lifestyle, should appoint a small and
mannerisms and immense respect for cohesive Working
Indian culture and the common people Committeethat would carry on
of India made him immensely popular the day to day affairs of the
with India's common people. His Congress and be responsible for
victories in leading the farmers of implementingthe resolutions
Champaran, Bihar and Kheda, Gujarat passed at the annual sessions-
against the British authorities on tax However; it was quashed by the
revolts made him an .ational hero. opposition bythe Moderates.

After the Montagu Declaration the But, Why did the Moderates and
league agreed to suspend its expansion Extremists get together?
of the movement. After this the all
moderate candidate gave up the • They realized that the Split had led
membership of league. The league to Political Inactivity.
believed that the British government • The Old Controversies had become
will gradually reform the meaningless now.
administration and local • The Home Rule League members
representative system by ushering had made significant efforts for the
participation of local Indians. Also Reunion.
there was lack of Effective • The death of the Moderates who
Organization. had leaded the opposition of reunion.

Why was the Lucknow Pact MONTAGUE’s STATEMENT OF

Significant? 1917/ THE AUGUST
DECLARATION
• It presented the Home Rule
Leaguers with the long-awaited

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
The Governments Policy is of • It required that the three of the six
increasing participation of Indians in members of the Viceroy’s executive
every branch of Administration and Council (otherthan the commander-in-
gradual development of Indians in chief) were to be Indian.
every branch of administration and • It extended the principle of
gradual development of self-governing communal representation by providing
institutions with a view to Progressive separate electorates for Sikhs, Indian
Realization of Responsible Christians, Anglo-Indians and
Government in India as an integral Europeans.
part of British Empire” • It granted franchise to a limited
number of people on the basis of
property, tax or education.
• It created a new office of the High
Commissioner for India in London and
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA transferred to him some of the
ACT – 1919FEATURES functions hitherto performed by the
Secretary of State for India.
• Introduction of Diarchy at the • It provided for the establishment of
PROVINCES i.e. classification a public service commission. Hence, a
of the central and provincial Central Public Service Commission
subjects. The provincial subjects was set up in 1926 for recruiting civil
were divided into two groups: servants.
One was reservedsubjects • It separated, for the first time,
(essential areas of law provincial budgets from the Central
enforcement such as justice, budget and authorised the provincial
police, revenue) were kept legislatures to enact their budgets.
withthe Governor and • It provided for the appointment of a
transferred subjects (public statutory commission to inquire into
health, public works, education and report on its working after ten
etc.) were keptwith the Indian years of its coming into force.
Ministers. This division of
subjects was basically what they GANDHIJI’s STAY IN SOUTH
meant by introducing the AFRICA
Diarchy.
• It introduced, for the first time, • South Africa was the crucible
bicameralism and direct that forged Gandhi’s identity as
elections in the country. Thus, a political activist and was
theIndian Legislative Council animportant prelude to his
was replaced by a bicameral return to India, where he played
legislature consisting of an a pivotal role in securing
UpperHouse (Council of State) itsindependence from British
and a Lower House (Legislative rule in August 1947.
Assembly). The majority of • Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
members ofboth the Houses arrived in South Africa in 1893
were chosen by direct election. at the relatively tender age of 24
as a newly qualified lawyer on a

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
temporary assignment to act on Pietermaritzburg that reads: 'In the
behalf of alocal Indian trader in vicinity ofthis plaque MK Gandhi was
a commercial dispute. What was evicted from afirst-class compartment
meant to be a short stop gap for on the night of 7 June1893. This
the struggling young lawyer incident changed the course of hislife.
turned into a 21-year stay, with He took up the fight against racial
spells in India and England. oppression. His active non-violence
• During his time here, he started from that date.'
developed the strategy known as
satyagraha (truth-force), in THE INDIAN NATAL CONGRESS
which campaigners went on
peaceful marches and presented • The NIC (Natal Indian
themselves for arrest in protest Congress) was the first of the
against unjust laws. Indian Congresses to be formed.
• This form of action was to It was established in 1894 by
become one of the great political Mahatma Gandhi to fight
tools of the 20th century, discrimination against Indian
influencing the civil rights traders in Natal.
movement in the United States • From the 1920s the
and the African National organization functioned under
Congress inits early years of the umbrella organization, the
struggle against apartheid in SAIC (South African Indian
South Africa. Congress).
• Even though Gandhi had • The Natal Indian Congress
studied law London, he had (NIC) came into being in 1894
been battling to land work in and was formed by Mahatma
India, both in Bombay (now Gandhito fight discrimination
Mumbai) and his hometown of against Indian traders in Natal.
Porbandar in Gujarat. His break The NIC, was the first of the
came when Dada Abdulla and Indian Congresses followed by
Sons in South Africa needed a the formation of the Transvaal
lawyer who could speak Indian Congress (TIC) and the
Gujarati to settle a dispute Cape Indian Congress, the three
witha cousin who was failing to later went on to form the South
pay money owed to the firm. African Indian Congress (SAIC)
iN1919. Gandhi leads the march
The Train Incident: from Natal to the Transvaal.
1913.
Gandhi refused on the grounds that he
had avalid ticket, and was ejected from INDIAN AMBULANCE CORPS
the train in Pietermaritzburg. Here he
spent a freezing night in the waiting The Natal Indian Ambulance Corps
room at the station, brooding on what was created by Mahatma Gandhi for
had just happened andwhether he use by the British as stretcher bearers
should return to India. Today, there is during the Second Boer War, with
a plaque at the station in expenses met by the local Indian

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
community. Gandhi and the corps advancementof the public interest in
served at the Battle of Spion Kop. It India
consisted of 300 free Indians and 800
indentured labourers. When did Gandhiji Return –
Kaiser-i-Hind?
Why did they do this? Gandhi returned the medal in 1920 as
part of the national campaign
1. The large Indian population of the protesting the Jallianwala Bagh
British colonies in South Africa, led by massacre.
Gandhi, saw in the Anglo-Boer War an
opportunity. Through dedicated THE TOLSTOY FARM
military service to the British Raj,
Indians could demonstrate to the • Extract From His
white colonists their loyalty as British Autobiography The Tolstoy
subjects with all the rights, privileges Farm was named such by
and equal treatment under British law. Herman Kallenbach, Gandhi's
2. Gandhi encouraged the recruitment associate It was founded iN1910
of Indian soldiers for service in South and disbanded in 1913 proved to
Africa with his organization of the be an ideal laboratory for
Indian Ambulance Corps despitehis Gandhi's educational
sympathies for the Boer cause. The experiments. "Tolstoy Farm was
objective of Gandhi's service to the a family in which I occupied the
British Crown in the Anglo-Boer War place of the father," wrote
was to force the British to recognize
Indians as equal citizens of the British Gandhi, and that I should so far
Empire. as possible shoulder the
responsibility for the training of
Why was Gandhiji awarded theyoung".
Kaiser-i-Hind? The routine of the children on
the farm was divided between
The most famous recipient is attending classes and
Mohandas Gandhi, who was awarded contributing to the maintenance
the Kaisar-i-Hind in 1915 by The Lord of the farm. As at the Phoenix
Hardinge of Penshurst for his settlement manual work was
contribution to ambulance services in combined with instruction on a
South Africa. daily basis, but Gandhi took this
concept one step further
Kaiser-i-hind atTolstoy by introducing
vocational training to give "all-
The Kaisar-i-Hind Medal for Public round development to the boys
Service in India was a medal awarded and girls".
by the British monarch between 1900 • Although at this stage there was
and 1947, to "any person without no attempt to educate the
distinction of race, occupation, children through the medium of
position, or sex ...who shall have aspecific handicraft, Gandhi
distinguished himself (or herself) by enabled each child to become
important and useful service in the

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
self-supporting by settlement in Natal, was
supplementing their education inspired in 1904 by a single
with vocational training. Their reading of John Ruskin's
ages ranging from six to sixteen, UntoThis Last, a work that
the children hadon an average extolled the virtues of the
eight hours of manual training simple life of love, labour, and
per day, and one or, at the most the dignity ofhuman beings.
two hours ofbook learning" Gandhi was not as personally
• An added dimension of the involved in the daily running of
Tolstoy Farm was the decision the Phoenix settlement as he
to hold co-educational classes, was to become in his stay of
andindeed to encourage the interrupted duration at the
boys and girls to do everything Tolstoy Farm whichlasted for
together. about four years. In part this
• The activities which the young was because the political
contributed their energies to at struggle had shifted to the
Tolstoy Farm included general Transvaal after 1906, and he
labouring, cooking, scavenging, controlled it from its
sandal- making, simple Johannesburg headquarters.
carpentry and messenger work. • GANDHI also established the
But Gandhi did not recommend Phoenix farm in the Natal
manual activities merely
because they were materially SUMMARY OF HIS STAY IN
productive or remunerative. In SOUTH AFRICA
addition to productive crafts,
manual work of a purely • Moderate Phase ( 1894-1906)
constructive nature was also • He set up Natal Indian Congress
essential for the maintenance • Started newspaper- India's
and development of community opinion
life. The contribution ofwork • Phase of Satyagraha (1906-
such as sweeping, scavenging 1914)
and water fetching was seen to • Satyagraha against registration
be invaluable to the certificates
psychological, social and moral • Passive resistance association
well-being of an integrated • Campaign against restrictions
community. on Indian migration
• Gandhi's objective inthis • Setting up of Tolstoy Farm
context was to inculcate the
• Campaign Against poll Tax &
ideals of social service and
Invalidation of Indian
citizenship through all the
marriages
activitiesof children from the
earlier formative years.
GANDHIJI IN INDIA
• The Tolstoy Farm was the
second of its kind of
CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA
experiments established by
.
Gandhi. The first, the Phoenix

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• Gandhi was requested by acompromise with the planters,
Rajkumar Shukla to look into he agreed that only 25 per cent
the problems of the indigo of the money taken should
planters, of Champaran in becompensated.
Bihar. The European planters
had been forcing peasants to Champaran Satyagraha- 1917-
grow indigo on 3/20of the total First Civil disobedience
land (called tinkathia system).
When towards the end of the • RAJKUMAR SHUKLA called
nineteenth century German Gandhiji.
synthetic dyes replaced indigo, • Tinkathia system issue with Indigo
the European planters Farmers ( indigo to be cultivated on
demanded high rents and illegal 3/20th of the totalland)
dues from the peasants in order • Joined by Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-
to maximize their profits before ul Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari
the peasants could shift toother Pradad, JB Kriplani
crops. Besides, the peasants • 25 % as compensation to the
were forced to sell the produce peasant agreed
at prices fixed by the • Effect -- planters left within one
Europeans. year & tinkatha was abolished
• When Gandhi, joined now by • Rajendra prasad, Anugrah Sinha,
Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul- Brajkishore Prasad ---were notable
Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari leaders
Parekh, J.B. Kripalani, reached • Rents had increased due to increase
Charnparan to probe into the in GERMAN competition
matter, the authorities ordered
him toleave the area at once. More About Champaran
Gandhi defied the order and • It was in 3 stages
preferred to face the • 2nd stage in 1907-09 --- was violent
punishment. This passive • Agitators were united irrespective of
resistance or civil disobedience religion, caste etc against the planters
of an unjust order was a novel • PIR MUNIS --was important
method at that time. personality associated with it.
• Finally, the authorities retreated
and permitted Gandhi to make MOVEMENT FIRST
an enquiry. Now, the • Champaran Satyagraha First
Government appointed a Civil Disobedience
committee to go into the matter • Ahmedabad Mill Strike First
and nominated Gandhi as a Hunger Strike
member. • Kheda Satyagraha First Non
• Gandhi was able to convince the Cooperation
authorities that the tinkathia • Rowlatt Satyagraha First Mass
system should be abolished Strike
andthat the peasants should be
compensated for the illegal dues AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE
extracted from them. As

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ISSUE: Dispute between Mill owners authorities, not willing to
of Ahmedabad and the workers over openly concede the peasants'
the issue ofdiscontinuation of plague demands, issued secret
bonus. instructions that only thosewho
could afford to pay should pay.
What did Gandhi Do? During the Kheda Satyagraha,
many young nationalists such as
• Gandhi asked the workers to go Sardar Patel and Indulal Yaanik
on a strike and demand a 35% became Gandhi's followers
increase in wages. The
employers were willing to pay ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA
20% bonus only. Gandhi
advised the workers to remain • First Mass StrikeOn the basis of
nonviolent while on strike, he the finding of the Rowlatt
undertook fast unto death to Committee aka Sedition
strengthen the workers . Committee Rowlatt bill
wasintroduced in the Imperial
Legislative Council aka
“Anarchical and Revolutionary
What was the consequence? Crimes Act oF1919, in March
1919.
The mill owners finally agreed to give • This act authorized the
the workers a 35% increase in wages. government to imprison for a
Who formed the “Ahmedabad Textile maximum period of two years,
Labour Association ? It was Anusuya without trial, any person
Sarabhai along with Mahatma Gandhi. suspected of terrorism. The act
provided speedy trial of the
Anusuya was the sister of Ambala offenses by aspecial cell that
Sarabhai, who was a mill owner and consisted of 3 High Court
against whom they were fighting. Judges. There was no court of
Anusuya supported the workers and appeal above that panel. This
was the chief lietenants of Gandhi. panel could also accept the
evidences which were not even
KHEDA SATYAGRAHA acceptable in the Indian
Evidences Act.
• Because of drought in 1918, the • This act gave a new direction to
crops failed in Kheda district of the movement. Gandhi
Gujarat. Revenue Code, if the organized a mass protest at all
yield was less than one-fourth Indialevel. By March 23, 1919,
the normal produce, the farmers the volunteers started courting
were entitled to remission. The arrests. Gandhiji suggested that
authorities refused to grant aSatyagraha to be launched
remission. against the Rowlatt Act. A
• Gandhi supported the peasants' Satyagraha Sabha was formed
cause and asked them to in 1919.
withhold revenue. The

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The three organizations viz, the government with powers to
Home Rule league, Muslim detain any person without trial.
league and the Satyagraha • The crowd had a mix of men,
Sabhaalong with some other women and children. They all
small organizations coordinated gathered in a park called the
and organized the biggest Jallianwala Bagh, walled on all
Satyagrahaever. sides but for a few small gates,
• On April 6, 1919, an all India against the orders of the British.
strike was organized. There was • The protest was a peaceful one,
mob violence in Bombay, and the gathering included
Ahmadabad and all other major pilgrims visiting the Golden
towns. The Satyagraha lost Temple who were merely
momentum with the Jallianwala passing through the park, and
Bagh tragedy on April 13, 1919. some who had not come to
• The term 'Himalayan Blunder' protest.
was used in the context of • While the meeting was on,
failure of Rowlatt Act Brigadier-General Reginald
Satyagraha. Edward Harry Dyer, who had
crept up to the scene wanting to
teach the public assembled a
lesson, ordered 90 soldiers he
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre had brought with him to the
venue to open fire on the crowd.
• APRIL 13, 1919 Many tried in vain to scale the
• Jallianwala baug, Amritsar – walls to escape. Many jumped
Punjab into the well located inside the
• Officer in Charge: General Dyer park.
• Why people had gathered: To • While official death toll in the
protest against the arrest of Jallainwalla Bagh massacre
their leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew stood at 379, with 192 Wounded,
and Satyapal sources had suggested that
• April 13, 1919, marked a turning more than 1,000 people had lost
point in the Indian freedom their lives, while 1,200 people
struggle. It was Baisakhi that were wounded.
day, a harvest festival popular in • Not all those who died fell to the
Punjab and parts of north India. soldiers’ bullets. Many died in
Local residents in Amritsar the ensuing stampede while
decided to hold a meeting that others jumped into the well of
day to discuss and protest the park. Officials reportedly
against the confinement of dug out close to 120 bodies from
Satya Pal and Saifuddin the well. Some of the severely
Kitchlew, two leaders fighting wounded passed away as they
for Independence, and could not get up.
implementation of the Rowlatt • General Dyer ordered his
Act, which armed the British soldiers to kneel and open fire
on the crowd. It has been

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reported that some soldiers • The Hunter Committee
initially fired in the air but Dyer convened in Delhi and then took
screamed at them to target the further testimony in
crowd. Ahmedabad, Bombay and
• A total of 1,650 rounds were Lahore over a period of 46 days.
fired by the soldiers in a span of • On 14th Nov, the Indian
10 minutes on the unarmed National Congress appointed a
crowd, which was not given any Punjab sub-committee with
prior warning to disperse. Mahatma Gandhi at its head.
• Considered the ‘The Butcher of • He was to conduct his own
Amritsar’ in the aftermath of the investigation of events in
massacre, General Dyer Punjab and at Amritsar 1919. As
wasremoved from command a counter measure to the
and exiled to Britain with a gift Hunter Committee, its work
of 26,000 pounds, which was a also possessed some short
huge sum in those days. He died comings.
in 1927 after suffering a series of • On 26th May, the Hunter
heart strokes. Report was published. It
concluded that the Indian
gathering was notthe result of a
pre-arranged conspiracy.
• It asserted that the rioting in
In protest, Rabindranath Tagore Amritsar had turned into
and Gandhiji gave up rebellion. The declaration of
• Rabindranath Tagore: knighthood martial law was viewed as
• Mahatma Gandhi: Kaiser-i-hind justifiable in firing and that its
application was, in the main,
HUNTER COMMISSION REPORT not oppressive.
• On the 29 Oct 1919, the • The report concluded that
legislative Council of the Govt. Brigadier General Dyer was
of India named an investigatory justified in firing on the mob,
Committee to be led by Lord though notice should have been
William Hunter (1865-1957) given and its duration
and assisted by 5 Englishmen shortened. The Indian members
and four Indians. This was of the Hunter Committee issued
named as the Hunter a minority report. It questioned
Committee. the need for martial law to have
• The Hunter Committee was been used and disputed the
charged with the examination of level of severity of the Indian
the violence which had disturbances.
occurredin Amritsar and
elsewhere in Punjab, in KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
consequence of the catastrophic • The Khilafat movement (1919-
Jallianwala bagh Amritsar 1924) was an agitation by
massacre. Indian Muslims allied with

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Indian nationalism in the years November 1919, a call made for
following World War I. Boycott of British goods.
• Its purpose was to pressure the • The Khilafat leaders also clear
British government to preserve spilt out that unless peace terms
the authority of the Ottoman after the war were favourable to
Sultan as Caliph of Islam Turkey, they would stop all
following the breakup of the cooperation with the
Ottoman Empire at the end of government. The movement
the war. succeeded in bringing a radical
• The movement collapsed by late nationalist trend among the
1922 When Turkey gained a Muslim youth. It made
more favourable diplomatic traditional Muslim scholars
position and moved towards critical of the British.
secularism. By 1924 Turkey • The Congress-support made it
simply abolished the roles of the inter-religious and mass based.
Sultan and Caliph. Its most important success
• The Khilafat issue was not wasthat it ensured Hindu-
directly linked to Indian politics Muslim unity which was
but it provided the immediate inevitable for the success of
declaration to the movement freedom struggle.
and gone and added advantage • The Khilafat issue, however, lost
of cementing Hindu-Muslim its value and merged along the
unitya gainst the British. Non-cooperation Movement
• The British attempt at clipping oF1921.
the power of the Sultan of
Turkey and fragmentation of
histerritory after the World War
I aroused publics are against The Non-Cooperation Movement
British in India. In early 1919 a
Khilafat Committee was famed. Why was the Non Cooperation
It demanded first that the Movement launched?
Khalifa’s control over Muslim
sacred places should be restored • With much cause, The
and secondly, he should be left Rowlattct, the Jallianwala Bagh
with sufficient territories. massacre and martial law in
• Initially the Khilafat leaders Punjab had belied all the
limited their actions to meeting, generous wartime promises of
petitions deputations in favour the British. The Montague-
ofthe Khilafat. However, later Chelmsford Reforms announced
on a militant trend emerges towards the end of 1919, with
demanding an active agitation their ill-considered scheme of
such asstopping all cooperation dyarchy satisfied few.
with the British. • The Indian Muslims were
• The All India Khilafat incensed when they discovered
Conference held in Delhi in that their loyalty had been
purchased during the War by

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
assurances of generous 2. Extra constitutional methods to be
treatment of Turkey after the carried out decided
War- a promise British 3. CWC of 15 members set up- to lead
statesman had no intention of congress from now on
fulfilling. 4. Gandhi said if we continued like this
• Hunter Committee appointed independence within one year
by the Government to enquire 5. Jinnah, Annie Besant, Kharopade &
into the Punjab disturbances B.C Pal left congress- as they believed
wasan eye wash and that the in Constitutional methods
House of Lords had voted in 6. Also Surendranath Banerjee formed
favour of General Dyer’s action his own party
and that the British public had 7. The NCM was withdrawn by
demonstrated its support by BARDOLI RESOLUTION
helping the Morning Post collect
30,000pounds for General What all things did the Non-
Dyer. Cooperation Movement include?

What opportunity did Gandhiji • The programme of non-cooperation

see? included within its ambit the surrender
• It was a golden opportunity to of titles and honors, boycott of
cement the Hindu-Muslim unity and to government affiliated schools and
bring the Muslim masses into the colleges, law courts, foreign cloth, and
national movement. could be extended to include
• Now different communities could resignation from government service
come together and fight for their rights and mass civil disobedience including
and realize that colonial rule was the non-payment of taxes.
opposed to them. • National schools and colleges were
• The Congress was aware that the to be set up, panchayats were to be
masses were eager to fight. established forsettling disputes, hand-
• The Congress was losing faith in spinning and weaving was to be
Constitutional struggle, especially after encouraged and people wereasked to
Punjab incidents and Hunter maintain Hindu- Muslim unity, give up
Committee Report. un-touchability and observe strict
• Khilafat Committee Leadership - - nonviolence.
Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Ajmal • Gandhiji promised that if the
khan & Hazrat Mohani programme was fully implemented,
• Who was appointed as the President Swaraj would be ushered in within a
of All India Khilafat Committee- year Changes made in the Structure of
Gandhiji the Congress.
• September 1920 Congress Special • To enable the Congress to fulfill its
session at Calcutta- formally launched new commitment, significant changes
NCM Nagpur Session -1920 were introduced in its creed as well as
President : C. Vijayaraghavachariar in its organizational structure.
• The goal of the Congress was
1. Programme of non-cooperation was changed from the attainment of self-
enforced government by constitutional and legal

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
means to the attainment of Swaraj by were the foremost Khilafat
peaceful and legitimate means. leaders), undertook a
• The new constitution of the nationwide tour/during which
Congress, the handwork of Gandhiji, he addressed hundreds
introduced other important changes. ofmeetings and met a large
The Congress was now to have a number of political workers. In
Working Committee of fifteen the first month itself, thousands
members to look after its day-to-day ofstudents (90,000 according to
affairs. one estimate) left schools and
• This proposal, when first made by colleges and joined more than
Tilak in 1916, had been shot down by 800 national schools and
the Moderate opposition. colleges that had sprung up all
• Gandhiji, too, knew that the over the country.
Congress could not guide a sustained • The educational boycott was
movement unless it had a compact particularly successful in
body that worked round the year. Bengal, where the students in
• Provincial Congress Committees Calcutta triggered off aprovince-
were now to be organized on a wide strike to force the
linguistic basis, so that they could keep managements of their
in touch with the people by using the institutions to disaffiliate
local language. themselves from the
• The Congress organization was to Government. C.R. Das played a
reach down to the village and the major role in promoting the
mohalla level bythe formation of movement and SubhasBose
village and mohalla or ward became the principal of the
committees. National Congress in Calcutta.
• The membership fee was reduced to The Swadeshi spirit was revived
four annas per year to enable the poor with new vigour, this time as
to become members. Mass part of a nation-wide struggle.
involvement would also enable the Punjab, too, responded tothe
Congress to have a regular source educational boycott and was
ofincome. second only to Bengal, Lala
• In other ways, too, the Lajpat Rai playing a leading
organization structure was both parthere despite his initial
streamlined and democratized. reservations about this item of
The Congress was to use Hindi the programme.
as far as possible. • The most successful item of the
• The adoption of the Non- programme was the boycott of
Cooperation Movement foreign cloth. Volunteers would
(initiated earlier by the Khilafat go from house to house
Conference) by the Congress collecting clothes made of
gave it a new energy and, from foreign cloth, and the entire
January 1921, it began to community would collect to
register considerable success all light a bonfire of the goods.
over the country. Gandhiji, Government revenues showed
along with the Ali brothers (who considerable decline on this

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
count and the Government was sufficient cause for the decision
forced to actually carry on is in itself a weak one.
propaganda to bring home to • Gandhiji had repeatedly warned
the people the health effects of a that he did not even want any
good drink. non-violent movement in
anyother part of the country
Congress membership reached a figure while he was conducting mass
roughly 50 lakhs. The Tilak Swaraj civil disobedience in Bardoli,
Fund was oversubscribed, exceeding and in fact had asked the
the target of rupees one crore. Andhra PCC to withdraw the
Charkhas were popularized on awide permission that it had granted
scale and khadi became the uniform of to some of the District Congress
the national movement. Committees to start civil
disobedience. One obvious
THE CHAURI CHAURA reason for this was that, in such
INCIDENT a situation of mass ferment and
activity, the movement might
• Irritated by the behavior of easily take a violent turn, either
some policemen, a section of the due to its own volatile nature or
crowd attacked them. The police because of provocation by the
pened fire. At this, the entire authorities concerned (as had
procession attacked the police actually happened in Bombay in
and when the latter hid inside November 1921 and later in
the police station, set fire to the Chauri-Chaura);also if violence
building. Policemen who tried occurred anywhere it could
to escape were hacked to easily be made the excuse by the
piecesand thrown into the fire. Government to launch a
In all twenty-two policemen massive attack on the
were done to dead. movement as a whole. The
Government could always cite
• On hearing of the incident, theactual violence in one part as
Gandhiji decided to withdraw proof of the likelihood of
the movement. He also violence in another part of the
persuadedthe Congress country, and thus justify its
Working Committee to ratify his repression. This would upset
decision and thus, on 12 the whole strategy of non-
February 1922, theNon- violent civil disobedience which
Cooperation Movement came to was based on the principle that
an end. the forces of repression would
• DEFENSE: An Answer to the always stand exposed since they
Critics of Gandhiji on would be using armed force
withdrawal of It seems that against peaceful civil resisters.
Gandhiji’s critics have been less It was,ther efore, not enough to
than fair to him. First, the assert that there was no
argument that violence in a connection between Chauri
remote village could not be a Chaura and Bardoli.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• The fraternization that was
Was the movement a failure? witnessed between Hindus and
Muslims, with Gandhiji and
• One could hardly answer in the other Congress leaders speaking
affirmative. The Non- from mosques was great to
Cooperation Movement had in watch.
fact succeeded on many counts. • The Swarajists and the No
It certainly demonstrated that it Changers
commanded the support and • The Stagnation Period
sympathy of vast sections of the • The withdrawal of the Non-
Indian people. After Non Cooperation Movement in
cooperation, the charge of February 1922 Was followed by
representing a ‘microscopic th earrest of Gandhiji in March
minority,’ made by the Viceroy, and his conviction and
Dufferin, in 1888,’ could imprisonment for six years for
neveragain be hurled at the the crime of spreading
Indian National Congress. Its disaffection against the
reach among many sections of Government. The result was the
Indian peasants, workers, spread of disintegration,
artisans, shopkeepers, traders, disorganization and
professionals, white-collar demoralization in the
employees, had been nationalist ranks. There arose
demonstrated. The spatial the danger of the movement
spread of the movement was lapsing into passivity. Many
also nation-wide. began to question the wisdom of
• Some areas were more active the total Gandhian strategy.
than others, but there were few Others started looking for ways
that showed no signs of activity out of the impasse.
at all.
• The capacity of the ‘poor dumb A New Line of Political Activity
millions’ of India to take part in • It was now advocated by C.R.
modem nationalist politics Das and Motilal Nehru. They
wasalso demonstrated. They suggested that the nationalists
had shown a lot of courage, should end the boycott of the
sacrifice, and fortitude in the legislative councils, enter them,
face of adversity and repression. expose them as
This was the first time that ‘shamparliaments’ and as ‘a
nationalists from the towns, mask which the bureaucracy has
students from schools and put on,’ and obstruct ‘every
colleges or even the educated work of the council. ‘This, they
and politically aware in the argued, would not be giving up
villages had made aserious non-cooperation but continuing
attempt to bring the ideology it in a more effective form by
and the movement into their extending it to the councils
midst. themselves. It would be opening
a new front inthe battle.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Another section of the Congress, Provinces. Their ranks were
headed by Vallabhbhai Patel, soon swelled by N.C. Kelkar,
Rajendra Prasad and M.R. Jayakar and other leaders.
C.Rajagopalachari, opposed the Lajpat Rai and Madan Mohan
new proposal which was Malaviya too separated
consequently defeated by 1748 themselves from the Swaraj
to 890votes. Party on Responsivist as well as
communal grounds.
SWARAJISTS NO CHANGERS
Manifesto of Swaraj Party
• They wanted to enter legislative
councils • The Swarajists would present the
• They opposed entry into leg Nationalist demand of Self-
council, advocated constructive government in the Council
work & continuation of boycott • The guiding motive of British in
CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Ajmal governing India lay in self-interest of
Pasha- formed Congress their own country
Khilafat Swaraj Party • It had the aim of wrecking the
• C Rajagopalachari, Vallabbhai council from within.
Patel, Rajendra Prasad. They • The understood that the so called
wanted to fill political vaccum, reforms were only blind to further said
use councilas an arena interests under the pretense of
Parliamentary work would lead granting responsible government.
toneglect of constructive work,
revolutionary zeal, political The achievements of Swaraj
corruption. Party
• They outvoted the Government
SWARAJISTS/PRO CHANGERS- several times on various issues.
• They agitated through various
• CR DAS, HAKIM AHMED KHAN , speeches, civil liberties,
VITHALBHAI PATEL, MOTIILAL industrialization etc
NEHRU -- also known asend or mean • They Defeated the Public Safety Bill
council NO CHANGERS- (which was aimed at deporting the
• RAJAJI,VALABHBHAI PATEL, MA undesirable and subversive foreigners)
ANSARI, RAJINDRA PRASAD • They filled the political vacuum by
RESPONSIVISTS— their activities
• Kelkar, jaykar, lala lajpat rai ,Madan THE REVOLUTIONARY
Mohan Malviya— ACTIVITIES

What did the Responsivists Why did the Revolutionary

wants? Activities not take place earlier?
• They wanted to work the
reforms and to hold office • The revolutionary terrorists
wherever possible. The were severely suppressed during
Responsivists joined the World War I, with most of the
Government in the Central leaders in jail or absconding.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Consequently, in order to create non-violent Non-Cooperation
a more harmonious atmosphere Movement.
for the Montague-Chelmsford
reforms, the Government INFLUENCE OF THE
released most of them under a REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS
general amnesty in early 1920.
Soon after, the National • They could see the
Congress launched the Non- revolutionary potential of the
Cooperation Movement and on new class and desired to
the urging of Gandhiji, C.R. Das harness it to the nationalist
and other Leaders, most of the revolution. The second major
revolutionary activists either influence was that of the
joined the movement or Russian Revolution and the
suspended their own activities success of the young Socialist
in order to give the Gandhian State in consolidating itself. The
mass movement a chance. youthful revolutionaries were
keen to learn from and take the
• The sudden suspension of the help of the young Soviet State
Non-Cooperation Movement and its ruling Bolshevik Party.
shattered the high hopes raised • The third influence was that of
earlier. Many young people the newly sprouting Communist
began to question the very basic groups with their emphasis on
strategy of the national Marxism, Socialism and the
leadership and its emphasis on proletariat.
non-violence and began to look
for alternatives. They were not LISTING OF THE
attracted by the parliamentary REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES
politics of the Swarajists or the
patient and undramatic •Hindustan Republican
constructive workof the no- Army : Founded at Kanpur by-
changers.. Many were drawn to Bismil, Sachin Sanyal,
the idea that violent methods JCChatterjee. Aim- to
alone would free India. overthrow colonial government
• Revolutionary terrorism again &place a Federal United States
became attractive. It is not of India, socialism.its objective.
accidental that nearly all the Hanged-Ramprasad Bismil,
major new leaders of the Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan
revolutionary terrorist politics, Singh, Rahendra Lahiri (Many
for example, Jogesh Chandra others also involved withthem)
Chatterjea, Surya Sen, Jatin KAKORI TRAIN ROBBERY
Das, Chandrashekhar Azad,
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Shiv • On 9 August 1925, ten men held
Varma, Bhagwati Charan Vohra up the 8-Down train at Kakori,
and Jaidev Kapur, had been an obscure village near
enthusiastic participants in the Lucknow, and looted its official
railway cash. The Government

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reaction was quick and hard. Commission, popularly known
Itarrested a large number of as the Simon Commission after
young men and tried them in its Chairman, was appointed.
the Kakori Conspiracy Case. • In November 1927 itself (i.e., 2
• Ashfaqulla Khan, Ramprasad years before the schedule), the
Bismil, Ràshan Singh and British Government announced
Rajendra Lahiri were hanged, the appointment a seven-
four others were sent to the member statutory commission
Andamans for life and under the chairmanship of Sir
seventeen others were John Simon to report on the
sentenced to long terms of condition of India under its new
imprisonment. Constitution.
• On Saunders MurderBy: Bhagat • All the members of the
Singh, Azad and Rajguru commission were British and
• Why?-He was a police official hence, all the parties boycotted
involved in the lathi charge of the commission except Justice
Lala Lajpat Rai. “The murder of Party (Madras) and Unionist
a leader respected by millions of Party (Punjab).
people at the unworthy hands of • The commission submitted its
an ordinary police official was report in 1930 and
an insult to the nation. It was recommended the abolition of
the bounden duty of young men dyarchy, extension of
of India to efface it. We regret responsible government in the
to have had to kill a person but provinces, establishment of a
he was part and parcel of that federation of British India and
inhuman and unjust order princely states, continuation of
which has to be destroyed”- communal electorate and so on.
Bhagat Singh • To consider the proposals of the
commission, the British
SIMON COMMISSION Government convened three
roundtable conferences of the
Why a Commission in 1927, when representatives of the British
reforms were due in 1929? Government, British India and
Indian princely states
• In 1927, however, the • On the basis of these
Conservative Government of discussions, a “White Paper on
Britain, faced with the prospect Constitutional Reforms‟ was
of electoral & feat at the hands prepared and submitted for the
of the Labour Party, suddenly consideration of the Joint Select
decided that it could not leave Committee of the British
anissue which concerned the Parliament.
future of the British Empire in • The recommendations of this
the irresponsible hands of an committee were incorporated
inexperienced Labour (with certain changes) in
Government and it was thus thenext Government of India
that the Indian Statutory Act of 1935.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Lala Lajpat Rai died due to lathi from one province to another
charge in the Anti-Simon addressing and presiding over
Commission protest Response innumerable youth conferences.
in India.
• The response in India was NEHRU REPORT, 1928
immediate and unanimous.
That no Indian should be Why was Nehru Report Drafted?
thought fit to serve on a body
that claimed the right to decide • Lord Birkenhead, the
the political future of India was Conservative Secretary of State
an insult thatno Indian of even responsible for the appointment
the most moderate political of the Simon Commission, had
opinion was willing to swallow. constantly harped on the
The call for aboycott of the inability of Indians to formulate
Commission was endorsed by a concrete scheme of
the Liberal Federation led by constitutional reforms which
Tej Bahadur Sapru, by the had the support of wide sections
Indian Industrial and of Indian political opinion. This
Commercial Congress, arid by challenge, too, was taken up and
the Hindu Mahasabha the meetings of the All-Parties
Muslim League even split on the Conference were
issue, Mohammed Ali Jinnah • Held in February, May and
carrying the majority with him August 1928 to finalize a
in favourof boycott. scheme which popularly came
• The Congress had resolved on to be knownas the Nehru
the boycott at its annual session Report.
in December 1927 at Madras,
and in the prevailing excitable Principal Author: Motilal Nehru
atmosphere, Jawaharlal Nehru Recommendations of the Nehru
had even succeeded in Report:
gettingpassed a snap resolution
declaring complete • This report defined Dominion
independence as the goal of the Status as the form of government
Congress. desired by India.
• Everywhere that Simon went — • It also rejected the principle of
Calcutta, Lahore, Lucknow, separate communal electorates on
Vijayawada, Poona — he which previous constitutional reforms
wasgreeted by a sea of black- had been based.
flags carried by thousands of • Seats would be reserved for
people. And ever new ways of Muslims at the Centre and in provinces
defiance were being constantly in which they werein a minority, but
invented. not in those where they had a
• Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas numerical majority.
Bose emerged as the leaders of • The Report also recommended
this new wave of youth and universal adult suffrage, equal rights
students, and they travelled for women, freedom to form unions,

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
and dissociation of the state from • Representation of communal
religion in any form. groups shall continue to be by means
of separate electorate as at present:
Why did Jinnah come up with his 14 provided it shall be open to any
points agenda? community, at any time to abandon its
separate electorate in favour of a joint
• A section led by Jinnah would electorate.
not give up the demand for • Any territorial distribution that
reservation of seats for Muslims might at any time be necessary shall
especially in Muslim majority not in any wayaffect the Muslim
provinces. The dilemma in majority.
which Motilal Nehru and other • Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of
secular leaders found belief, worship and observance,
themselves was not one that was propaganda, association and
easy to resolve: if they conceded education, shall be guaranteed to all
more to Muslim communal communities.
opinion, then Hindu • No bill or resolution or any part
communalists would withdraw thereof shall be passed in any
support and if they satisfied the legislature or any other elected body if
latter, then Muslim leaders three fourths of the members of any
would be estranged. In the community in that particular body
event, no further concessions oppose it as being injurious to the
were forthcoming and Jinnah interests of that community or in the
withdrew his support to the alternative, such other method is
report and went ahead to devised as may be found feasible and
propose his famous ‘Fourteen practicable to deal with suchcases.
Points’ which were basally a • Sindh should be separated from the
reiteration of his objections to Bombay Presidency.
the Nehru Report. • Reforms should be introduced in
the North West Frontier Province and
The Fourteen Points : Balochistan onthe same footing as in
• The form of the future constitution the other provinces.
should be federal, with the residuary • Provision should be made in the
powers vested in the provinces; constitution giving Muslims an
• A uniform measure of autonomy adequate share, alongwith the other
shall be guaranteed to all provinces; Indians, in all the services of the state
• All legislatures in the country and and in local self-governing
other elected bodies shall be bodieshaving due regard to the
constituted on the definite principle of requirements of efficiency.
adequate and effective representation • The constitution should embody
of minorities in every province without adequate safeguards for the protection
reducing the majority in any province of Muslim culture and for the
to a minority or even equality; protection and promotion of Muslim
• In the Central Legislature, Muslim education, language, religion,personal
representation shall not be less than laws and Muslim charitable
one third; institutions and for their due share in

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the grants-inaidgiven by the state and Working Committee, meeting at
by local self-governing bodies. Sabarmati Ashram, invested
• No cabinet, either central or Gandhiji with full powers to
provincial, should be formed without launch the Civil Disobedience
there being a Movement at a time and place
proportion of at least one-third of his choice.
Muslim ministers. • The acknowledged expert on
• No change shall be made in the mass struggle was already
constitution by the Central Legislature ‘desperately in search of an
except with theconcurrence of the effective formula.” Gandhiji’s
States constituting of the Indian ultimatum of 31 January to
Federation. Lord Irwin, stating the
minimum demands inthe form
DELHI PROPOSALS of 11 points, had been ignored,
and there was now only one way
A large number of Muslim communal out civildisobedience.
leaders met at Delhi in December 1927
and evolved fourbasic demands known Lord Irwin’s Tenure (1926-1931)
as the Delhi Proposals.
• Visit of Simon Commission to India
These proposals were: (1928) and the boycott of the
• Sind should be made a separate commission by theIndians.
province • An All-Parties Conference held at
• The North-West Frontier Province Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for the
should be treated constitutionally on (future) Constitution of India, the
the same footing as other provinces; report of which was called the Nehru
• Muslims should have 1/3 per cent Report or the Nehru Constitution.
representations in the central • Appointment of the Harcourt Butler
legislature Indian States Commission (1927).
• In Punjab and Bengal, the • Murder of Saunders, the assistant
proportion of representation should be superintendent of police of Lahore;
in accordance with the population, bomb blast in theAssembly Hall of
thus guaranteeing a Muslim majority, Delhi (1929) - the Lahore Conspiracy
and in other provinces, where Muslims Case and death of Jatin Das after
were a minority, the existing prolonged hunger strike (1929), and
reservation of seats for Muslims bomb accident in train in Delhi (1929).
should continue. • Lahore session of the Congress
(1929) - Purna Swaraj Resolution.
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE • Dandi March (March 12, 1930) by
MOVEMENT Gandhi to launch the Civil
• The Lahore Congress of 1929 Disobedience Movement.
authorized the Working • Deepavali Declaration' by Lord
Committee to launch a Irwin (1929)
programme, Civil Disobedience
including non-payment of taxes.
In mid-February, 1930, the

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Lord Irwin’s Statement • Impose custom duty on foreign
cloth,
“In view of the doubts which have been • Accept the Postal Reservation Bill,
expressed both in Great Britain and in • Abolish the CID department,
India regarding the interpretation to • Release all political prisoners, and
be placed on the intentions of the • Issue licenses of arms to citizens for
British government in enacting the self-protection.
statute of 1919, I am authorized on
behalf of his Majesty’s Government to THE DANDI MARCH
state clearly that in their judgment it is
implicit in the Declaration of 1917 that • It was started with Dandi March
the natural issue of India’s (also Salt march, Salt
constitutional progress as there Satyagraha) by Mahatma
contemplated is the attainment of Gandhi on 12th March, 1930
Dominion status.” from the Sabarmati Ashram to
“Dandi” on the Gujarat coast. It
The Course of Civil Disobedience was a distance of 200 miles. At
Movement Dandi a few days later they
violated the salt laws by making
• Civil Disobedience Movement salt from sea-water. Thus,
was started by Gandhiji against began the civil disobedience
British laws and unjust Movement.
commands. In March 1930, • The British government
Gandhiji wrote in the resorted to cruel repression in
newspaper, Young India, that he spite of the total non-violent
might suspend his civil conduct of the movement by
disobedience or law-breaking issuing more than a dozen
movement if the government ordinances.
accepted his eleven-point • Why was Salt chosen? – In
demands. words of Gandhiji, ‘There is no
• But Lord Irwin’s government article like salt outside water by
did not respond. So, Gandhiji taxing which the State can reach
started the Civil Disobedience even the starving millions, the
Movement. sick, the utterly helpless. The
tax constitutes therefore the
Eleven –point demands by most in human poll tax the in
Gandhiji included: genuity of man can devise.’-
Gandhiji Gandhiji- Having a
• Prohibit intoxicants, Nation by his side As Gandhiji
• Change the ratio between the rupee began his march, staff in hand,
and the sterling, at the head of his dedicated
• Reduce the rate of land revenue, band, there was something in
• Abolition of salt tax, the image that deeply stirred the
• Reduce the military expenditure, imagination of the people.
• Reduce expenditure on civil • News of his progress,of his
administration, speeches, of the teeming crowds

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
that greeted and followed the different districts to serve as the
marchers, of the longroad headquarters of the salt Satyagraha
lovingly strewn with leaves and • bands of Satyagrahis marched
festooned with banners and through villages on their way to the
flags, of men and women quietly coastal centres to defy the law
paying their homage by
spinning yam on their charkas What was the Chowkidari Revolt?
as Gandhiji passed, of the 300 • Eastern India became the scene
village officials in Gujarat who of a new kind of no-tax
resigned their posts in answer campaign — refusal to pay
to his appeal, was carried thechowkidara tax. Chowkidars,
dayafter day by newspapers to paid out of the tax levied
readers across the country and specially on the villages, were
broadcast live by thousands of guardswho supplemented the
Congress workers to eager small police force in the rural
listeners. By the time Gandhiji areas in this region.
reached Dandi, he had a whole • They were particularly hated
nation, aroused and expectant, because they acted as spies for
waiting restlessly for the final the Government and often also
signal. as retainers for the local
• On the Other hand The Indian landlords
National Congress was declared • Government’s Response
an illegal body and Gandhi was
arrested on 5 May,1930. The 1st –Round Table Confere
arrest of Gandhi infuriated the
masses and they voluntarily • First ever conference British and
expressed their solidarity with Indians as equals
the movement. • Muslim League & Hindu
• While the civil disobedience was Mahasabha, Liberals, Princes-
going on, the British attended it.
government convened the • Congreess- boycotted
Round Table Conferences. • Ambedkar attended as depressed
Gandhi did not attend the first class representative
one held in 1930 • British PM extended OLIVE branch
to the congress
Civil Disobedience Movement • FICCI also boycotted
Elsewhere-
• Malabar, K. Kelappan, the hero of Gandhi Irwin Pact
the Vaikom Satyagraha, walked from
Calicut to Payannur to break the salt Gandhi agreed to attend the Second
law. Round Table Conference of 1931 and in
• A band of Satyagrahis walked all the this background only Gandhi-Irwin
way from Sylhet in Assam to Noakhali pact was concluded, which was
on the Bengal Coast to make salt. variously described as a “truce” and a
• In Andhra, a number of sibirams provisional settlement.
(military style camps) were set up in

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021

Gandhi-Irwin Pact 5 March 1931 :

Karachi Session of 1931
(a) To withdraw all ordinances and President: Sardar Vallabhbhai
pending prosecutions, Patel
(b) To release all political prisoners • The Gandhi Irwin Pact was
except those who were guilty of endorsed.
violence, • The goal of Purna Swaraj was
(c) To restore the confiscated property reiterated.
of the Satyagrahis, • Two Resolutions were adopted –
(d) To permit peaceful picketing of One on Fundamental Rights and
liquor, opium and foreign cloth shops, Second on National Economic
and Programme.
(e) To permit the collection or • First Time the Congress Spelt out,
manufacture of salt, free of duty, by what Swaraj would mean.
persons residing within aspecific
distance of the sea shore, Chronology
(f) The Congress agreed not to press The Sequence :
for investigation into police excess, 1. 1ST RTC
(g) To suspend the civil disobedience 2. Gandhi Irwin pact
movement, and 3. March- Karachi Congress Session
(h) To stop boycott and to participate 4. 2nd RTC- London - December
in the Second Round Table
Conference. The Communal Award/
MacDonald Award
• In 1931 certain events – coming
to power of conservatives, • The reason behind introduction
replacement of the Viceroy, and of this 'Award' was that Ramsay
execution of Bhagat Singh – MacDonald considered himself
created an atmosphere of as 'a friend of the Indians' and
dejection in Gandhi and other thus wanted to resolve the
younger Indian leaders. The issues in India. The 'Communal
Congress decided to restart the Award' was announced after the
movement in January 1932. failure of the Second of the
• As usual, the British Three Round Table
government took steps to Conferences.
suppress the movement and in • The Communal Award was
the mean while the British made by the British Prime
Prime Minister announced Minister Ramsay MacDonald on
communal award in 1932. The 16August 1932 granting
civil disobedience movement separate electorates in India for
continued up to 1934 and it was the Forward Caste, Scheduled
suspended in that year. Caste, Muslims, Buddhists,
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Indians, Europeans and • Akali Dal, the representative
Depressed Classes (now known body of the Sikhs, was also
as the Scheduled Caste) etc. The highly critical of the Award
principle of weightage was also since only 19% was reserved to
applied Based on the findings of the Sikhs in Punjab, as opposed
which committee: Indian to the 51% reservation for the
Franchise Committee (Lothian Muslimsand 30% for the
committee) Hindus.
• Reactions of Gandhi and
Ambedkar on the Award The THE POONA PACT
Award was highly controversial
and opposed by Gandhi, who • The Poona Pact refers to an
was in Yerwada jail, and fasted agreement between B. R.
in protest against it. Gandhi Ambedkar and M. K. Gandhi on
feared that it would disintegrate the reservation of electoral seats
Hindu society. However, the for the depressed classes in the
Communal Award was legislature of British India
supported by many among the government.
minority communities, most • It was made on the 24th of
notablythe leader of the September 1932 at Yerwada
Scheduled Castes, Dr. B. R. Central Jail in Poona, India and
Ambedkar. was signed by Madan Mohan
• According to Ambedkar, Gandhi Malviya, Ambedkar and some
was ready to award separate other leaders as a means to end
electorates to Muslims and the fast that Gandhi was
Sikhs. But Gandhi was reluctant undertaking in jail as a protest
to give separate electorates to against the decision by British
scheduled castes. He was afraid Prime Minister Ramsay
ofdivision inside Congress and MacDonald to give separate
Hindu society due to separate electorates to depressed classes
scheduled caste representations. for theelection of members of
• But Ambedkar insisted for provincial legislative assemblies
separate electorate for in British India. They finally
scheduled caste. After lengthy agreedupon 148 electoral seats.
negotiations, Gandhi reached an
agreement with Ambedkar to The terms of the Poona Pact were
have a single Hindu electorate, as follows.
with scheduled castes having 1. There shall be electoral seats
seats reserved within it. This is reserved for the Depressed Classes out
called the PoonaPact. of general electorate.
Electorates for other religions 2. Election to these seats shall be by
like Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, joint electorates’ subject, however, to
Indian Christians, Anglo- the following procedure –
Indians, Europeans remained • All members of the Depressed
separate. Classes registered in the general
electoral roll of a constituency will

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
form an electoral college which will Classes in regard to any election to
elect a panel of four candidates local bodies or appointment to the
belonging to the Depressed Classes for public services. Every endeavor shall
each of such reserved seats by the be made to secure a fair representation
method of of the Depressed Classes in these
the single vote and four persons respects, subject to such educational
getting the highest number of votes in qualifications as may be laid down
such primary elections shall be the forappointment to the Public Services.
candidates for election by the general 9. In every province out of the
electorate. educational grant an adequate sum
3. The representation of the Depressed shall be ear-marked for providing
Classes in the Central Legislature shall educational facilities to the members
likewise be onthe principle of joint of Depressed Classes.
electorates and reserved seats by the Dr.Ambedkar and others after signing
method of primary election in the Poona Pact at Yerwada jail
themanner provided for in clause
above for their representation in the The Government of India Act
provincial legislatures. 1935
4. In the Central Legislature 19% of the
seats allotted to the general electorate There was a growing demand for
for BritishIndia in the said legislature constitutional reforms in India by
shall be reserved for the Depressed Indian leaders. India’s support to
Classes. Britain in the First World War also
5. The system of primary election to a aided in British acknowledgment of the
panel of candidates for election to the need forthe inclusion of more Indians
Central and Provincial Legislatures as in the administration of their own
herein-before mentioned shall come to country.
an end after the first tenyears, unless
terminated sooner by mutual The Act was based on:
agreement under the provision of • Simon Commission Report
clause 6 below. • The recommendations of the Round
6. The system of representation of Table Conferences
Depressed Classes by reserved seats in • The White Paper published by the
the Provincial and Central Legislatures British government in 1933 (based on
as provided for in clauses (1) and (4) the Third Round Table Conference)
shall continue until determined • Report of the Joint Select
otherwise by mutual agreement Committees Important Points Related
between the communities concerned in to 1935 Act Creation of an All India
this settlement. Federation
7. The Franchise for the Central and • This federation was to consist of
Provincial Legislatures of the British India and the princely states.
Depressed Classes shall be as • The provinces in British India
indicated, in the Lothian Committee would have to join the federation but
Report. this was not compulsory for the
8. There shall be no disabilities princely states.
attached to any one on the ground of
his being a member ofthe Depressed

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• This federation never materialized defense, ecclesiastical affairs (church-
because of the lack of support from the related), external affairs, press, police,
required number of princely states. taxation, justice, power resources and
tribal affairs.
Division of powers • The transferred subjects were
• This Act divided powers between administered by the Governor-General
the centre and the provinces. with his Council ofMinisters (not more
• There were three lists which gave than 10). The Council had to act in
the subjects under each government. confidence with the legislature.
The subjects in this list included local
• Federal List (Centre) government, forests, education, health,
• Provincial List (Provinces) etc.
• Concurrent List (Both) • However, the Governor-General had
‘special powers’ to interfere in the
• The Viceroy was vested with transferred subjects also.
residual powers.
Bicameral legislature
Provincial autonomy • A bicameral federal legislature
• The Act gave more autonomy to the would be established.
provinces. • The two houses were the Federal
• Diarchy was abolished at the Assembly (lower house) and the
provincial levels. Council of States (upper house).
• The Governor was the head of the • Federal assembly had a term of five
executive. years.
• There was a Council of Ministers to • Both houses had representatives
advise him. The ministers were from the princely states also. The
responsible to the provincial representatives of the princely states
legislatures who controlled them. The were to be nominated by the rulers and
legislature could also remove not elected. The representatives of
theministers. British India were to be elected. Some
• However, the governors still were to be nominated by the Governor-
retained special reserve powers. General.
• The British authorities could still • There were to be separate
suspend a provincial government. electorates for the minority
communities, women and the
Diarchy at the Centre depressed classes.
• Bicameral legislatures were
• The subjects under the Federal List introduced in some provinces also like
were divided into two: Reserved and Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Bihar,
Transferred. Assam and the United Provinces.
• The reserved subjects were
controlled by the Governor-General Federal court
who administered them with the help • A federal court was established at
of three counselors appointed by him. Delhi for the resolution of disputes
They were not responsible to the between provinces and also between
legislature. These subjects included the centre and the provinces.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• It was to have 1 Chief Justice and Party could never rule on its own. It
not more than 6 judges. was also a way to keep thepeople
Indian Council divided.
• The Indian Council was abolished.
• The Secretary of State for India
would instead have a team of advisors.
Franchise Congress’s Stand on the Eve of
• This Act introduced direct elections World War 2
in India for the first time.
• About 10% of the whole population It said to cooperate in war if :
acquired voting rights.
• Freedom was given after the war
Reorganization • Some form of genuinely responsible
• Sindh was carved out of Bombay govt was immediately set up
Presidency. September 1, 1939 - WW2 broke
• Bihar and Orissa were split. outSeptember 10-14, 1939 - CWC meet
• Burma was severed off from India. at Wardha Congress Divided over the
• Aden was also separated from India issue of Support to World War 2
and made into a Crown colony. • Gandhiji: He wanted to go for
unconditional support to Britain's war
Other points efforts
• The British Parliament retained its • Bose & Leftist: They were for taking
supremacy over the Indian legislatures advantage of Britain's difficulties &
both provincial and federal. starting mass movement
• A Federal Railway Authority was set • Nehru: He was hesitant- He
up to control Indian railways. recognized imperialist nature of war
• The Reserve Bank of India was but was against taking advantage of
established as per this Act. Britain’s difficulties
• The Act also provided for the • CWC resolved- by zeroing down on
establishment of federal, provincial the following stand
and joint Public Service Commissions. • No Indian participation unless
freedom is granted
EVALUATION • Government should declare war
• The Act was a milestone in the aims soon
development of a responsible
constitutional government Linlithgow’s Statement
• The Government of India Act 1935 He refused to define Britain’s war aims
was replaced by the Constitution of beyond stating that Britain was
India after independence. resisting aggression. He said it would
• The Indian leaders were not be part of future arrangement to
enthusiastic about the Act since consult all representatives of several
despite granting provincialautonomy communities on how the Act of 1935
the governors and the viceroy had might be modified. He said
considerable ‘special powers’. consultative committee to be formed
• Separate communal electorates whose advice could be sought
were a measure through which the whenever required.
British wanted to ensure the Congress

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Note: Rights of Indians to make the
It was perceived that Britain’s constitution was recognized for the
hidden plan was- first time
CONGRESS REJECTED, Muslim
1. To provoke congress into League Supported the AUGUST
confrontation with the govt- use OFFER
extraordinary draconian
Powers
2. emergency powers- acquire INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA
provincial subjects The Individual Satyagraha had a dual
3. To invoke defense of India purpose — while giving expression to
ordinance- to curb civil liberties the Indian people’s strong political
4. To draft revolutionary movement feeling; it gave the British Government
ordinance –which would allow to further opportunity to peacefully
launch preemptive strikes on congress acceptthe Indian demands. It wanted
to show that,
Debate on Immediate Satyagraha 1. The patience was not due to
Gandhi was against it, as he felt that – weakness
1. The allies cause was just in the war. 2. The people made no distinction
2. There was hardly any communal between Nazism & double autocracy
sensitivity, there was lack of HM unity that ruled India the demand of
3. He said that the masses were not satyagrahi’s was to prevent freedom of
ready. speech against war through anti-
4. He felt that the Congress wardeclaration.
organization was in shambles
Bose & forward bloc: They wanted First Satyagrahi Acharya Vinoba
to go for All-out war; Bose was also in Bhave
the favor of Parallel Congress. Second Satyagrahi Jawaharlal
Nehru: He was hesitant but in the end Nehru
went with Gandhi.
• More importantly, Gandhiji was
AUGUST OFFER- August 1940 beginning to prepare the people
1. The dominion status to India was for the coming struggle.
stated as the objective TheCongress organization was
2. It provided for the expansion of being put back in shape;
viceroy executive council opportunist elements were
3. It was in favor of setting up of being discovered and pushed
Constituent assembly after war- out of the organization; and
comprising of mainly Indians above all the people were being
4. It stated that no future constitution politically aroused, educated
would be done without consent of and mobilized.
minorities • By 15 May 1941, more than
5. It agreed for separate state for 25,000 Satyagrahis had been
Muslims convicted for offering individual
6. A National defense council was set civil disobedience. Many lower
up.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
level political workers had been separate union
left free by the Government. • meanwhile defense of India would
remain in Britain’s hands
CRIPPS MISSION
• After the signing of the Atlantic Departures from the Past
Charter which guaranteed the 1. The making of Constitution to be
“right of all people to choosethe solely in Indian hands
form of Government under 2. A concrete plan for the same was
which they will live.” Stafford provided.
Cripps with this aims 3. Free India could withdraw from
anddirectives arrived in Delhi commonwealth.
on 22ND March, 1942. He Congress objected to
brought with him a new 1. The provision dominion status- and
constitutional scheme approved not complete Independence.
by the British Cabinet. But no 2. Right of provinces to secede.
body from the Congress 3. No provision for immediate transfer
expected any good thing from of power.
him. The Congress however 4. The retention of Governor General's
agreed to have dialogues with supremacy.
Cripps only with an aim to know
the British mind. Muslim League Objected to
1. Pakistan’s creation not being
Official Negotiators from the Congress: explicitly offered
Nehru & Maulana Azad were official 2. The machinery for creation of
congress Constitution assembly
Negotiators : 3. It denied Muslims right to self-
• It was sent with constitutional determination.
proposals to seek Indian support for The Muslim League welcomed the
war implicit recognition of the possibility
• The Government perceived a of Pakistan but rejected the proposals
possibility of threat of Japan invading because it had given greatest
India importance and priority to the creation
• It had the pressure from allies of oneIndian Union. The League
• The Indian Nationalist had agreed reaffirmed its conviction that the “only
to support war if power was solution of India’s constitutional
transferred immediately. problem is the partition of India into
independent Zones.
Proposals of the Cripps Mission
1. That dominion status would be given Who all opposed overall?
to India. • Liberals, Hindu Mahasabha,
2. After war – Constitution Committee Muslim League, Depressed Classes and
would be formed. Sikhs along someothers Gandhi
3. British Government would accept described it as “A post-dated cheque”
new constitution provided On 4th April an unhappy Gandhi
• any new province not willing to join advised Cripps to take the first plane
would have separate constitution & home and leave India. Cripps

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admitting his failure left India on 12TH refused to grant immediate
April, 1942. Independence, saying that it
• On the next day Gandhiji could happen only after the war
commented on his ill-fated mission in had ended.
the following words “It is athousand • The Quit India movement was
pities that the British Government started by Mahatma Gandhi in
should have sent a proposal for 1942 but drew protests from the
dissolving the political dead lock which All-India Congress Committee
on the face of it was too ridiculous to demanding what Gandhi called
find acceptance anywhere. was “An Orderly British
• And it was a misfortune that the Withdrawal” from India. This
bearer should have been Sir Stafford forced the British to act
Cripps acclaimed as aradical among immediately and soon all the
radicals and a friend of India.” exposed senior INC leaders were
the real imperialistic character of imprisoned without trial within
Churchill Government which wanted hours of Gandhi’s speech.
only the Balkanization of India. • On 14th July 1942, the Congress
• The Congress could wait no further, Working Committee at Wardha
when the British rule was sure to harm had passed a resolution
India in a disastrous way. Gandhiji demanding complete
therefore came to his final decision independence from the British
that the British rule in India must government.
come to anend. The decision was • On August 8, 1942, Mahatma
thrashed out in the Working Gandhi made a Do or Die call in
Committee during July 1942 and his Quit India speech which
confirmedby a meeting of the All wasdelivered in Bombay at the
Congress Committee in Bombay on 8th Gowalia Tank Maidan. Even
August, 1942. This historicdecision of though the speech caused some
the Congress inaugurated a new turmoilwithin the party and
chapter in the history of Modern India. even leaders like Jawaharlal
Nehru and Maulana Azad were
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT apprehensive and critical of the
• It was in 1942 When the world call, but backed it and stuck
was going through the havoc with Gandhi’s leadership until
caused by World War II. India the end.
toowas facing the heat and after
the Cripps Mission had failed, There was also a difference of
and on 8 August 1942, opinion among the Indian
Mahatma Gandhi made a Do or leaders.
Die call through the Quit India
movement. Large protests and • While Gandhiji demanded that the
demonstrations were held all British should immediately withdraw
over the country. However, as from India, Subhash Chandra Bose
the movement didn’t get too from Berlin urged for co-operation
much support from the outside, with Japan as with this means India
it was crushed and the British would be liberated.

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• The difficulties of Britain would be the depressed class leader Dr. B.R.
the opportunities of India. Since the Ambedkar described the movement
Congress was opposed both to British asirresponsible and an act of madness.
and Japanese imperialism, the call of
Subhas did not appeal to them. The movement collapsed as it lacked
Another eminent leader of the leadership and organisation from the
Congress, C. Rajagopalachari did not beginning.
support the proposal of immediate
withdrawal of Britishers. He was, • Jayaprakash Narayayan said that
rather in favour of accepting the Cripps the movement failed due to lack of co-
proposal and the principle of Pakistan. ordination among the Congress people
Being unable to agree with the agitating in different parts of the
proposals of Gandhiji, Rajagopalachari country. There was absence of aclear
resigned from Congress. cut programme of action. Another
RESPONSE : weakness of the movement was that it
• The people disrupted railway lines, was confined only to students,
burnt out police and railway stations, peasants and lower middle class. But
destroyed telephone and telegraph the upper middle classhad lost their
poles. faith in the Gandhian methods of
• The revolt was spearheaded by the action.
students, peasants, workers and lower • Thus, the movement did not
middle class people. enjoy widespread popularity
• People set up parallel government which greatly contributed to its
at some places. The government was failure. But the movement was
able to crushthe 0pen movement with not a dismal failure; rather the
a heavy hand. movement of 1942 gave the
• But the underground movement death blow to the British rule.
continued for a long period. India’s march towards freedom
• The Socialist Party under the was hastened. This movement
leadership ofJaya Prakash Narain, sparked off an aggressive
Ram Manohar Lohia, and Mrs. Aruna national consciousness. Many
Asaf Ali etc. largely participated in people sacrificed their careers,
organizing underground movement. property and even lives.
• The movement also created a
The Quit India Movement was not World-wide opinion particularly
supported by the Muslim League and in U.S.A. and China in favour
the Communists. ofIndia’s independence.
• When Russia joined the war on • President F.D. Roosevelt of
behalf of the Allies, the communists U.S.A, put pressure on the
began to demand the withdrawal of the British Government to grant the
movement and pleaded all support to right of self-determination to
the government in its wareffort. The India.
Muslim League considered the • On the whole, the movement
movement as the attempt of the had its own importance and
Congress toturn out the British facilitated the freedom
forcefully as a result of which Muslims movement inIndia.
would be enslaved by theHindus. Even

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• Shrimadh Bhagvad Gita Rahasya,
KEY CONCEPTS : popularly also known as Gita Rahasya
or Karmayog Shashtra, is a 1915
“Post-Independent Consolidation Marathi language book authored by
Women members of the Constituent Indian social reformer and
Assembly formed in 1946. independence activist Bal Gangadhar
Tilak while he was in prison at
The contributions and role of the Mandalay, Burma. It is the analysis of
women who helped draft the Karma yoga which finds its source in
constitution of free India was front and the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred book for
centre last week at the release of the Hindus.
Centre for Women’s Development
Studies’ 2018 calendar – ‘Women at • According to him, the real message
the Midnight Hour’. behind the Mahabharata’s Gita is to act
or perform, which is covered in the
The calendar revolves around two of initial parts rather than renounce,
those eminent women members of the which is covered in the later parts of
constituent assembly – Dakshayani the epic Mahabharata. He took the
Velayudhan and Vijaya Lakshmi Mimamsa rule of interpretation as the
Pandit. basis of building up his thesis.
Women members of the Constituent
Assembly formed in 1946 to debate Bengal Famine of 1943 :
and draft a constitution for a soon-to-
be independent India. Among the 299 The worst affected areas were
members, 15 were women. southwest Bengal comprising the
Tamluk- Contai-Diamond Harbour
They were: region, Dacca, Faridpur, Tippera and
Noakhali. Around 1.5 to 3 million
• Ammu Swaminathan people perished in this basically man-
• Annie Mascarane made famine, the epidemics (malaria,
• Begum Aizaz Rasul cholera, small pox), malnutrition and
• Dakshayani Velayudhan starvation.
• Durgabai Deshmukh
• Hansa Mehta The fundamental causes of the
• Kamla Chaudhri famine were as follows:
• Leela Roy
• Malati Choudhury • The need to feed a vast Army
• Purnima Banerji diverted foodstuffs.
• Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur • Rice imports from Burma and
• Renuka Ray South-East Asia had been stopped due
• Sarojini Naidu to fear of Japanese invasion.
• Sucheta Kripalani and • Gross mismanagement and
• Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit. deliberate profiteering aggravated the
famine; rationing methods were
Gita Rahasya belated and were confined to big cities.

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Despite having a detailed Famine Code • It was a Maratha battalion in
that would have triggered a sizable Bombay that rounded up the ratings
increase in aid, the provincial and restored them to their barracks.
government never formally declared a • The Indian National Army (INA)
state of famine. was originally founded by Capt Mohan
Singh in Singapore in September 1942.
Royal Indian Navy Ratings :
Dickie Bird Plan :
On February 18, 1946, 1100 naval
Ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a In May 1947, Mountbatten came up
strike to protest against: with a plan under which he proposed
• Racial discrimination (demanding that the provinces be declared
equal pay for Indian and white independent successor states and then
soldiers) be allowed to choose whether to join
the constituent assembly or not. This
• Unpalatable food plan was called the ‘Dickie Bird
• Abuse by superior officers Plan’.
• Arrest of a rating for scrawling.
'Quit India' on HMIS Talwar Jawaharlal Nehru, when apprised of
• INA trials the plan, vehemently opposed it saying
• Use of Indian troops in Indonesia, it would lead to balkanisation of the
demanding their withdrawal. country. Hence, this plan was also
called Plan Balkan.
There were sympathetic strikes in
military establishments in Karachi, • Wavell’s Breakdown Plan: It
Madras, Visakhapatnam, Calcutta, was presented before the Cabinet
Delhi, Cochin, Jamnagar, Andamans, Mission and was different than Wavell
Bahrain and Aden. Also, there were Plan, which was decided in Shimla
strikes by the Royal Indian Air Force in Conference.
Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, Jessore and
Arnbala. Patel and Jinnah persuaded Panchsheel The Five Principles of
the ratings to surrender on February Peaceful Coexistence are a series of
23 with an assurance that national agreements between the People’s
parties would prevent any Republic of China and India. They
victimisation. were formed in 1954. The 5 principles
are called the Panchsheel, which form
The leftists claim that the Congress the basis of the Non-Aligned
indifference to the revolutionary Movement, were laid down
situation arose because of two byJawaharlal Nehru.
considerations—that the situation
would go out of its control and that Those are:
disciplined armed forces were vital in a 1. Mutual respect for each other ’s
free India. territorial integrity and sovereignty
2. Mutual non-aggression against
• Gandhi remarked that the mutiny anyone
was badly advised. 3. Mutual non-interference in each
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4. Equality and mutual benefit revolutions, viz., political, social,
5. Peaceful co-existence. economic, cultural, ideological or
intellectual, educational and spiritual;
Vande Mataram is a Bengali poem and the main motive being to bring in
written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee a change in the existing society that is
in 1870s, which he included in his 1881 in tune with the ideals of the
novel Anandamath. Sarvodaya. JP had a very idealistic
notion of society and it is in this
The poem was composed into song by endeavor, he shifted from Marxism to
Rabindranath Tagore. The first two socialism and later towards Sarvodaya.
verses of the song were adopted as the • By the early 1970s, JP completely
National Song ofIndia in October 1937 withdrew from party and power
by Congress Working Committee prior politics, and concentrated more on
to the end of colonial rule inAugust social regeneration through peaceful
1947. means. This did not mean that JP kept
quiet while there was social and
Inquilab Zindabad is an Urdu phrase political degeneration taking root in
which translates to "Long live the political freedom.
revolution!" This slogan was coined by
the Urdu poet and Indian freedom In order to better the situation,
fighter Maulana Hasrat Mohani in despite his old age, he embarked on
1921. It was popularized by Bhagat the task of working towards bringing
Singh (1907 - 1931) during the late in a complete change in the political
1920s through his speeches and and economic life of India.
writings.
Key Events in Post-independent
It was also the official slogan of the India :
Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association. In April 1929, this slogan Year 1947- 1967
was raised by Bhagat Singh and his
accomplice B. K. Dutt who had shouted The division of assets:
this after bombing the Central
Legislative Assembly in Delhi. Tensions stretched to a breaking point
with Pakistan over the division of
Delhi Chalo: assets. According to the Indo- Pakistan
financial settlement of 1947 India had
Subhash Chandra Bose gave the war to pay rupees 55 crores as the latter’s
cry ‘Dilli Chalo’ (On to Delhi) to share of the assets.
motivate the cadres of Indian National
Army. The Refugee Problem:

Jayaprakash Narayan’s Concept The partition of India gave way to the

of Total Revolution: refugee problem. By mid-1948 about
5.5 million non-Muslims had moved
• Jaya Prakash once stated that Total into India and a very large number of
Revolution is a combination of seven Muslims had left India for Pakistan.
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the non-Muslims left behind property The dispute started in 1960. The
worth 500 crores in west Pakistan dispute arose because Indus and its
whereas the Muslim losses in India are tributaries flow through both India
put to 100 crores. and Pakistan. West Pakistan and West
India were both dependent on Indus
Origin of the Kashmir Problem: and its tributaries for water, power
supply, and irrigation. These rivers rise
The Maharaja Hari Singh was a Hindu in India and the canal system is also in
while 75% of the population was that of India.
Muslims. Kashmir was strategically
important for both India and Pakistan, Partition cut through a complex and
however, the famous movement lead unified system of canals.
by Sheik Abdullah waned integration
with India. The Maharaja, on the other Year 1967- 1977
hand, feared democracy in India and
communalism in Pakistan, thus hoping • The Elections of 1967: In 1967
to stay independent. elections were held in February. This
time the popularity of the Indian
Foundation of the Indian National Congress had declined
Democracy: considerably although the INC did win
for the fourth time. The number of
The first general elections in India seats won was less. The reason behind
which were held in 1952 Was a the dismissal show of the Congress was
landmark event in the history of the the death of two prominent leaders,
state which marked the establishment Jawaharlal Nehru, and Lal Bahadur
of the Indian democracy. It was held Shastri. There were also internal
over a period of 4 months from problems in the party.
October 1951 to February 1952. The most important feature of the
Congress got more than 70% of the elections of 1967 was the coming
votes polled. together of the opposition parties.

Linguistic Reorganization: Naxal Movement:

Boundaries of the British Indian The Naxalite Movement was a

provinces had been drawn and revolutionary movement that was
redrawn in a haphazard manner started by the Naxalbari in Bengal.
without any thought to cultural and Another group of Maoist themed
linguistic cohesion. Most provinces activities in Andra Pradesh the Andra
were multilingual and multicultural Naxalitess were mainly active in two
and after independence, many former regions Telangana and Srikakulam
princely states were absorbed into bordering Odisha in both the regions
them. There was a demand for the area of dispute was land and forest.
linguistically homogeneous provinces.
• The main victims were the tribals
The Indus Water Dispute: and the peasants. The movement was
violent. In Srikakulam, the struggle
was led by a school teacher. He led the

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tribals in a series of labour strikes, dissolved. JP called for the agitators to
seized grains from the rich farmers and paralyze the government. He wanted to
redistributed it to the needy. set up a parallel “People’s
Government”.
In Telangana, the struggle was led by a
veteran of the communist movement. Emergency:
The Naxalites formed a new party
called the – CPI Maoist. The government responded to the JP
Movement by declaring National
JP Movement: Emergency which was the greatest
threat to India’s democratic
From 1973 there was a sharp recession, foundation. From 1973 there was a
growing unemployment, rampant sharp decline in the economic
inflation and scarcity of basic food. The situation, a combination of growing
oil crisis of the mid 70’s had also unemployment, rampant inflation, and
contributed to the crisis and all of scarcity of basic food and essential
these developments together led to commodities created a serious crisis.
riots and large-scale unrest and strikes
and erosion of support for the
Congress from the poor and the middle Year 1977- 1984
class.
• The Janata Governmen: On 18th
• The students asked Jay Prakash January 1977, Mrs Gandhi suddenly
Narayan, an elderly man who was in announced that elections to the Lok
political retirement, to take over the Sabha will be held in March. The
leadership of the movement. JP, as he election was seen by the people as a
was popularly known as he agreed to referendum on the emergency. JP also
take on the leadership of the campaigned against the Congress.
movement, provided it was non-violent
and not restricted to Bihar. The Janta party and its allies won with
a huge majority. The Congress did not
• He had made a public criticism of do well.
the central government. His entry gave It was virtually wiped out from the
the movement a great morale boost. It north. Sanjay Gandhi and Mrs Gandhi
came to be known as the JP were both defeated however they
movement. He asked students to continued doing well in the south.
boycott their classes and the people to
raise their consciousness against the • Return of the Congress to Power:
corruption of the government. The Even though the Janta Government
result was constant clashes between had won with a huge majority, it was
the students and the police. not able to retain power for a very long
period of time. Soon after the
• On 5th June 1974, at a mammoth elections, there was a tussle for the
meeting in Patna, he called for “total position of the Prime Minister. Their
revolution” against the government. non-performance in administration,
He called for the state legislatures to lack of implementation of policies and
resign, for the assembly to be a non united socio-economic

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programme declined support among Sikhs- Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale a
the masses by the end of 1977. fundamentalist preacher, who
• There was violence between Hindus preached violence and attracted a lot of
and Muslims. The difference in support.
ideologies paralyzed the government
both at the center and the states. In the In 1978 his sermons had incited a riot
1980’s elections, the Congress in the golden temple between the Sikhs
capitalized on the infighting of the and the followers of the Nirankari sect.
Janta Government and returned
topower with a 2/3rd majority. The terrorist movement led by
Bhindranwale and Amrik Singh was
The Punjab Crisis: started by the murder of the head of
the Nirankari sect.
During the 80’s the separatist
movement in Punjab constituted the Operation Blue Star:
greatest threat to the unity and
integrity of India, the more so as In June 1984, Mrs Gandhi and her
Punjab bordered Pakistan. advisors decided to take some drastic
action against the militants in the
After partition, the eastern part of the Golden temple. The Akali leadership
old Punjab province was now was becoming very militant and there
predominantly Sikh and Hindu. Until was a fear of rebellion in the
this time, there had been a little countryside.
conflict between the Hindus and the • On 3rd June the Indian army led by
Sikhs, but now the Akali Dal began to General K S Brar surrounded the
agitate for a “Punjabi Suba”- or a state golden templeand on 5th June they
for the Sikh in Punjab. were entered. Many temple employees
• In the elections, the Akali Dal was and devotees died inthe crossfire.
unable to get a majority to form a
government in Punjab even after the The Akal Takht was destroyed and
formation of a Punjabi State. Having even the temple itself was damaged.
lost the elections of 1980, and to widen Among the dead were Bhindranwale
their base among the Sikhs the Akali (the terrorist leader of the Akali Dal)
dal began to escalate its demands. and his Followers.
The failure of agitations led the Akali
Dal to resort to violence and QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT 1942
established the beginning of militancy
in Punjab. Why not immediately in 1939?
• In 1980, the Congress came to
power. From 1980, the Akali Dal under • Congress felt cause of Allies was
the leadership of Harcharan Singh just.
Longowal decided to choose the path • Lack of Hindu Muslim unity.
of confrontation. He installed in the • The atmosphere was not conducive.
Golden temple and began to preach his • So around the end of 1940, Gandhi
separatist message. organized Individual Satyagraha –
• Parallel to his movement a new Delhi Chalo Movement before a full
charismatic leader emerged among the blow movement in 1942.

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Party and others like Australian
Reasons for QIM - Council of Trade Unions.
• Failure of Cripps Mission in 1942 – • Parallel Governments sprung up
showed British wasn’t willing to cede across states –
to Congress demands of constitutional • Satara in MH
autonomy. • Ballia in UP
• War impact on rising prices, food • Tamluk in Midnapore.
shortages, increasing public • Students from college and school
discontent. were most visible elements.
• Heavy defeats suffered by British in • Women too played important role –
South East Asia boosted the morale. Aruna Asif Ali and Sucheta Kriplani
were leaders of the underground
Aim - movement.
• Immediate end to British rule. • Peasants , Zamindars (usual fillers)
• Form a provisional government of • Erosion of British Loyalists
India. • Underground activities o By
• Sanction of CDM against British socialists, forward bloc, revolutionaries
rule. etc.
o Famous names – Ram Manohar
Gandhiji’s instruction to Lohia, JP Narayan, Aruna Asif Ali,
different sections : Usha Mehta(ran underground radio).
• Government servants – do not
resign but declare allegiance to How was violence in QIM
Congress. tolerated by Congress?
• Soldiers – do not leave Army but do • Even in 1920 and 1930-31
not fire on compatriot. movements Congress allowed a
• Student – if confident, leave studies. considerable room for popular
• Princes – support the masses and methods. But the element of
accept sovereignty of your people. spontaneity was much larger in 1942.
• Princely State People – support the • In earlier movements too like CDM,
ruler only if he is anti-government. Gandhi signaled launching of the
struggle by breaking the Salt Law,
FEATURES QUIT INDIA refusal to pay rent and revenue by
MOVEMENT 1942 peasants, picketing of liquor shops etc.
• Theme of QIM was such – Do or
• “Do or Die” slogan. Die. This was meant to be the final nail
• 8th August 1942 formally launched. in the coffin of British Rule and people
• 9th August all congress leaders went all out to achieve that.
arrested.
• Unprecedented mass upsurge. C.RAJAGOPALACHARI
• Satyagrahis offered themselves for FORMULA – 1944
arrests.
• Removal of tracks, blow up of In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed
bridges, cutting telephone lines. that after the termination of the war, a
• Over 60,000 arrested by end 1942. Commission could be appointed for
• There was international demand to demarcating contiguous districts in the
release Gandhi by British Communist

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north-west and east where Muslims On June 25, 1945, Lord Wavell, the
were in absolute majority. Viceroy and governor General (1934 –
47) called a meeting of all political at
In the areas thus demarcated, a Simla. The purpose was to resolve the
plebiscite would be held on the basis of deadlock in India.
adult suffrage that would ultimately For friendly environment all the
decide the issue of separation from political prisoners were released
Hindustan. If the majority decided in including Gandhi. The meeting was
favour of forming a separate Sovereign presided over by Lord Wavell in which
State, such decision could be accepted. representatives of Congress, League,
Gandhiji supported CR formula. Sikh, depressed class and European
• Implicit acceptance of Muslim were invited.
League’s demand for Pakistan.
• In return ML to endorse Congress Aim – reconstruction of the executive
demand for complete freedom. council which would act as an interim
• ML to cooperate with Congress to government.
form an interim government.
• Muslim dominant area of NWFP
and North East to decide by Plebiscite Main proposals:
to form Pakistan.
• All members except the governor-
Muslim League response: general and commander in chief would
be Indians.
o Wanted Congress to accept the 2- • Muslims and Hindus to be given
Nation theory. equal representation.
o Only Muslims to vote in the • All parties to submit their nominees
plebiscite. for executive council to Viceroy.
o Opposed the idea of a Common • To reconstruct the Governor
Centre. General’s executive council in which all
o Wasn’t interested in Indian the members if executive council were
Independence, only Pakistan Muslim to be Indians except the Governor
League was expected to endorse the General and Commander – in – chief.
Congress demand for independence • All the foreign affairs were to be
and cooperate with it in the formation given to Indians.
of provisional government for the • Governor General would retain 1
interim period. veto power but would exercise his veto
power on the advice of ministers.
M. Jinnah objected, as he wanted • Representatives of different parties
congress to accept two-nation theory had to submit a joint list to the viceroy
and wanted only Muslims of the North for nominations to the executive
West and east of India to vote in the council.
Plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by VD • The new council had to decide the
Savarkar condemned the plan. procedure for the making of the
constitution.
WAVELL PLAN, 1945
Why it broke down?

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
• Muslim League wanted all Muslim • Rejection to the demand of an
to be ONLY nominated by the League. Independent Pakistan as it would
• Congress insisted on the right to include a large non- Muslim
nominate members of all communities population too.
Muslim League insisted that all the • Grouping of existing provinces into
Muslim members for the executive 3 groups: (This was rejected by
council must come Congress)
from league’s platform, not from other o A = Madras, Bombay, Central
parties i.e., Congress or any regional Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and
parties. Orissa
o B = Punjab, NWFP, and Sindh o C =
That could have made Congress only a Bengal and Assam.
party of Hindus, so naturally Congress
opposes Jinnah’s claim. Even Lord • Constituent Assembly to be elected
Wavell wanted to bring Khizr Hayat by provincial assemblies by
Khan of Punjab in the executive proportional representation (389
council who was a non-League leader. member from PA , 92 from princely
But Viceroy called off the meeting on states)- Democratic Principles.
July 1, 1945, which was interpreted as • A common center to control
Jinnah’s victory for he emerged as the defense, communication and external
sole spokesman of Muslims in India. affairs.
• A province was free to come out of
CABINET MISSION 1946: the groups after 1 year and from the
Union after 10 years.
The Cabinet Mission Plan was a • Accepted by Congress on June 24th
statement made by the Cabinet 1946.
Mission and the Viceroy, Lord Wavell,
on May 16, 1946, that contained Muslim League rejected the plan after
proposals regarding the constitutional accepting it initially when Congress
future of India in the wake of Indian declared that it could change the
political parties and representatives scheme through its majority in the
not coming to an agreement. Constituent Assembly.

The members of the Cabinet Mission: Direct Action Day- 16th August
Lord Penthick-Lawrence, Secretary of 1946
State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps,
President of the Board of Trade, and The 'Direct Action' was announced by
A.V Alexander, First Lord of the Muslim League Council to show
Admiralty. the strength of Muslim feelings
towards its demand for an
Aim: Discussion on how to form an "autonomous and sovereign" Pakistan.
interim government and the principles
for framing a newConstitution giving The Action resulted in the worst
freedom to India. communal riots that British India had
seen.
Main Points:

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
‘Direct Action Day’ marked the • The question of the division of the
beginning of several acts of violence Punjab and Bengal and also the
spread over a couple of days in what Constituent Assembly they wanted to
came to be known as the Week of the join will be decided by their respective
Long Knives. Legislative Assemblies.
• The Sind Legislative Assembly will
While it was ostensibly established decide whether it wanted to join the
none of the politicians had expected present Constituent Assembly or the
the violence to reach as massive a scale new one.
as it did, it went ahead to become a • Referendum was to be held in
brutality-ridden microcosm of the Sylhet District (Assam) and North
political struggle that had the entire West Frontier Province.
country in its throes later in 1947. • A Boundary Commission in each
province shall decide the final lines of
ATLEE STATEMENT- 1947 demarcation.
• If the Legislative Assemblies of
The Prime Minister of Britain Clement Bengal and Punjab took their decisions
Atlee declared in the House of in favour of the division of the
Commons that the British would quit provinces, fresh elections would be
India after transferring power into the held for the Pakistan Constituent
responsible hand not later than 1948. Assembly.
• Deadline of 30th June 1948 to • Power was to be transferred to India
transfer power by 15th of August, 1947. Paramountcy
• British would give power to either a was to be lapse. The Princely States
central government or provincial would be free to join India or Pakistan
governments if Constituent Assembly or to proclaim their independence, and
wasn’t fully represented. establish their new relationship with
• Hints at partition and Balkanization Britain.
of India. A Bill was prepared by the British
• He announced the appointment of Government containing the main
Lord Mountbatten as Viceroy. provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of
June 3, 1947 and it was introduced in
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN – 1947 British Parliament on July 3, 1947.
This Bill was passed as the Indian
Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy Independence Act of 1947. On 15Th
of India and the first Governor General August, 1947 India attained
of free India. independence, and Pakistan was
created as a new Dominion on 14th
Main Points - August, 1947.

• The Constitution framed by the Partition Committee was formed which

Indian Constituent Assembly will not was later replaced by Partition Council
apply to Muslim-majority provinces. Members of Partition Committee: Dr.
• The Muslim-majority provinces will Rajendra Prasad, Liaqat Ali Khan,
decide for themselves the question of a Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, Abdur-rab
separate Constituent Assembly. Nishtar, chaired by Lord Mountbatten.

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INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT
1947 - • Emergence of two new dominions
from the Indian Empire-The two new
India Independence Act 1947 was an dominions,India and Pakistan came
Act passed by the Parliament of the into existence after the formulation of
United Kingdom(UK) that divided the this Act.
British India into two new Dominion of India will represent the
independent dominions of India and desire of the all people in India for self-
Pakistan. government, while the Dominion of
Pakistan would express the demand of
The Act received the assent of the royal the Muslims for the selfgovernment.
family on July 18, 1947 after which, • Territories: Pakistan-East Bengal,
India came into existence on August 15 West Punjab, Sind, Northwest Frontier
and Pakistan on August 14 in the year Provinces,Sylhet divisions in Assam,
1947. Bahawalpur, Khairpur, Chief
Commissioner’s Province of
Baluchistan and its eight other princely
states.
• Bengal-The province of Bengal
Important provisions - ceased to exist. Two new provinces
came into existence-East Bengal and
• Partition of the British India into West Bengal.
two new and fully sovereign dominions- • Punjab: Two new provinces came
India and Pakistan with effect from 15th into being-West Punjab and East
August 1947; Punjab
• Division of the provinces of Bengal • Boundaries of new provinces would
& Punjab among the two newly formed be determined by a committee headed
countries by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
• The offices of Governor-General in • Constitution of India and Pakistan:
both the countries would be set up. The Government of India Act 1935
These Governor-General would be governed the two dominions until the
representing the Crown; new constitutions were framed for
• The complete legislative authority both the countries.
would be conferred in the hands of the • Governor-General of India and
Constituent Assemblies of the two new Pakistan: For each of the countries, a
countries; separate Governor-General was
• The British suzerainty over the required to be appointed by the Crown
princely states would be terminated subject to the laws of the legislature of
from August 15, 1947; either of the new dominions.
• Abolishing the use of title “Emperor • The Act also provided critical
of India” by the British monarch; directions on the armed forces of India
• The Act includes the division of the as well as the steps to be taken in
armed forces between the two regards to British forces in India.
countries. Naval forces were also a critical area
that was dealt with by this Act.
Features of Indian Independence
Act 1947 -

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
Other significant facts about
Indian Independence Act 1947 - Naval forces were also a critical area
that was dealt with by this Act.
• The Act also created the legislatures
of both the new countries formed. It POST WAR NATIONAL
also stated that the British would cease UPSURGE 1945 :
to have any control at all in any affairs
of India and Pakistan from August 15, INA TRIALS – SIGNIFICANCE
1947 onwards.
• Unprecedented intensity of
The Indian Independence Act of 1947 campaign for the release of INA
was repealed in Article 395 of the prisoners – daily editorials,
Constitution of India and in Article 221 pamphlets, participation of
of the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956. diverse social groups all over
India and Indians living
The Act also created the legislatures of abroad.
both the new countries to be formed. It • In varying degrees, even
also stated that the British would cease Muslim League, Communist
to have any control at all in any affairs Party, RSS and Hindu
of India from August 14, 1947, Mahasabha supported the INA
onwards. The same applied for release campaign.
Pakistan as well. It also made • The loyalists too urged the
provisions for the constituent British to abandon the trials for
assemblies of both India and Pakistan. good India-Britain relations in
It was decided that the constituent the future.
assemblies in both these countries
would have all the powers vested in RIN MUTINY – 1946
them.
SIGNIFICANCE of RIN Mutiny
They would also create the respective
constitutions in any way that they • Background – 1100 Naval
deemed fit. Indian Independence Act Ratings of HIS Talwar went on a
1947 also decided the governor- strike to protest against racial
generals for the new countries. discrimination, subordination,
demand equal pay and show
It also dealt with the results of forming support to the INA Trial
the new dominions. This Act also dealt Movement.
with the orders that were needed to • Revolt within the armed forced
make sure that it was executed in the had a liberating effect on Indian
way it was supposed to be. people.
• Hoisting of Indian Flag on
It looked into the services that were to
HMIS Talwar was seen as an
be provided by the Secretary of State.
event marking the end of British
The Act also provided critical
Rule.
directions on the armed forces of India
• Government announced that
as well as the steps to be taken with
only those INA members
regards to British forces in India.

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 MODERN HISTORY 2021
accused of murder would face
trial.
• Overall, the event signified the
losing grip and inability of the
British to rule over India any
further.

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