CONTENT

SL. NO. CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO.

1. Stone Age 3–4

2. Indus Civilization 5–7
3. Vedic Age 8 – 11
4. Buddha & Jainism 12 – 14
5. Magadha Empire 15 – 15
6. Mauryan Dynasty 16 – 18
7. Kingdoms After The Mauryas 19 – 19
8. Gupta Period 20 – 21
8. Sangam Age 20 – 22
9. Harsha Vardhan 23 – 24
10. Delhi Sultanate 25 – 33
11. Mughals 34 – 40
12. Decay of the Mughal Empire 41 – 42
13. European Penetration into India 43 – 48
14. The Revolt of 1857 49 – 56
15. Governors - General 57 – 60
16. Early Nationalists and Militant Nationalists 61 – 64
17. Partition of Bengal 65 – 66
18. Home Rule Leagues 67 – 67
19. Emergence of Gandhi 68 – 74
20. Militant Revolutionary Terrorism 75 – 78
21. Civil Disobedince Movement (1930-34) 79 – 85
22. Quitindia Movement 86 – 88
23. British Policy of Divide and Rule 89 – 92
24. Important Legislations 93 – 100
25. Development of Education in British India 101 – 102

1
2
 1. STONE AGE

Man is said to have appeared on the Earth (first the valley of soan, Narmada and Tugabhadra riv-
in Africa) in early Pleistocene with true ox, true ele- ers.
phant and true horse. Bori in Maharashtra gives the • In the upper Paleolithic Phase, the climate be-
earliest evidence of man in India, in the middle Pleis- came warm and less humid. This stage is marked
tocene period. by burins and scrapers. Such tools have been
In the Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions. found in AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and
• Paleolithic Age (Early Stone Age) upto 8000BC. Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
• Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) 8000- MESOLITHIC ERA
6000BC. • In this age, climate changes brought about changes
• Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) 6000-1000BC. in fauna and flora and made it possible for human
PALEOLITHIC AGE beings to move to new areas.
• The Paleolithic sites are spread in practically all • The people lived on hunting, fishing and food
parts of India except the alluvial plains of Indus gathering; at a later stage they also domesticated
and Ganga. animals.
• The people of this age were food gathering peo- • The characteristics tools of the Mesolithic Age
ple who lived on hunting and gathering wild fruits are known as Microliths – pointed, cresonic
and vegetables. blades, scrapers etc., all made of stone.
• Man during this period used tools of unpolished, • The last phase of this age saw the beginning of
undressed rough stones and lived in a cave and plane cultivation.
rock shelters. They had no knowledge of agricul- • Various Mesolithic sites are found in the
ture, pottery of any material. Chhotanagpur region. Central India and also south
• Homosapiens first appeared in last of this phase. of the Krishna River.
• It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men be- • In the Belan valley of Vindhyas, all the three phas-
longed to the Negrito Race. es of the Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic
and them by the Neolithic have been found in se-
• They mainly used hard axe, cleavers, choppers,
quence. Similar is the case with the middle part
blades, scrappers and burin. Their tools were made
of the Narmada.
of hard rock called “Quartzite” hence Paleolithic
men are also called “quartzite Men”. NEOLITHIC ERA
• The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into • During this phase people were again depending
three phases according to nature of stone tools on stone implements. But now they use stone other
used by the people and also according to the na- than quartzite for making tools, which were more
ture of change in the climate lethal, more finished and more polished.
• Early or lower Paleolithic • Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and
corn like ragi and horse gram. They domesticated
• Middle Paleolithic
cattle, sheep and goat.
• Upper Paleolithic
• They knew about making fire and making pot-
• Early Paleolithic Age covers the greater part of tery, first by hand and then by potter’s wheel. They
the ice age, its characterstics tools are hard axes, also painted and decorated their pottery.
cleavers and choppers, such tools have been found
• They lived in caves and decorated their walls with
in soon and Sohan river valley and in Belan val-
hunting scenes and dancing. They also knew the
ley in the Mirzapur district of UP.
art of making boats. They could also weave cot-
• Middle Paleolithic Phase is characterized by use ton and wool to make cloth.
of stone tools made of flakes mainly scrapers,
• In later phase of Neolithic phase people led a more
borers and blade like tools. The sites are found in

3
 settled life and lived in circular and rectangular SOME FACTS ABOUT STONE AGE
houses made of mud and reed. Kashmir only site where Microlith is completely
• Important sites of this age are Burzahom and absent.
Gulkral in J&K, Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalokota • Burzahom-Domestic dogs were buried with their
in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamilnadu, Piklihal masters in their graves.
and Hallur in AP, Garo hills in Meghalaya, • Gilund: - Stone blade industry was discovered.
Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar, Amri, Kotdihjji
• Copper was first metal used by man.
etc.
• Older evidence from Soan valley (earliest and
CHALCOLITHIC AGE
oldest).
• In this period copper was used at first time.
• Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa twice
• This period also called stone copper phase be- 1853 and 1856 and recorded the existence of se-
cause stone and copper both were used. ries of mounds. He is father of Archeology.
• They used different type of pottery of which Black • Earliest site from where wheat evidence came it
and Red pottery was most popular. It was wheel is Mahergarh site (Now in Pakistan-Afghanistan
made and painted by white line design. border)
• These people were not acquainted with burnt • Earliest rice evidence from Allahabad.
bricks. They generally lived in thatched houses.
• Pallavram (Madras) earliest of early man tools.
It was a village economy.
• Dead Body in North-south position ->
• They venerated the mother goddess and worshiped
Maharashtra.
the bull.
• Dead Body in East-west position -> South India.
• Important sited of this phase are spread in
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, MP • Comple extended burial -> west India.
etc. • Fractional burial -> East India.

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 2. INDUS CIVILIZATION

• Many cultures came together that makes Indus East : Alamgirpur (western UP) river Hindan
valley civilization. Soutth : Daimabad (Maharashtra) Pravara River
• In 1921, Harappa discovered by R.B. Dayaram. TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURE
• In 1922, Mohenjo-Daro discovered by R.D. • Town planning was not uniform. Common fea-
Banerjee. ture was grid system.
• Harappa civilization forms part of Proto history • Towns were divided into two part upper part or
of India and belongs to the Bronze Age. citadel and lower part.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not • The fortifield citadel on the western side housed
iron. public buildings and members of ruling class.
• Indus valley civilization also called Harappa civ- • Below the citadel on the eastern side lay the low-
ilization and Bronze Age civilization. er town inhabited by the common people.
• Duration of Indus civilization. • Elaborate town planning. It followed the Grid
Beginning - 2750 BC system. Roads were well cut, dividing the town
Mature - 2550 BC into large rectangular or square blocks. Lamp
Decline - 1750 BC posts at intervals indicate the existence of street
• Most of the sites have been found at the Hakra- lightning. Used burnt bricks of good quality as
Ghaggar River. the building material. Elsewhere in the contem-
porary world, mud-bricks were used
• Indus civilization script was pictographic.
• Houses followed the grid system. Road made 900
• Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and
angle to each other. Burnt bricks in the ratio of
Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though
4:2:1.
the first two were more numerous.
• Indus valley people famous for good drainage
• Mohenjo-Daro means Mound of the Dead.
system and also for methods of upper and lower
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
town.
• Covered part of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan,
• Drain were made of morter, lime and gypsum and
Gujarat, Rajasthan and some part of western UP.
covered with large bricks slabs for easy cleaning.
• Maximum site is confined to river Saraswati In drains, they made soak pit for deposition of
(Ghaggar, Hakra). garbage.
• Area of Indus valley seems as Triangle. • In Mohenjo-Daro largest building is granary and
• Area of Indus valley 12,9960 sq.km. in citadel of Harappa, we find as many as six gra-
EXTENT OF INDUS CIVILIZATION naries.
• The settlements of sutkagendor on the Makren • Playground was also found.
coast (Pak-Iran Border) represented western Excavations and Excavators
Boundaries. Chanhudaro On Indus
• Alamgirpur in UP-Eastern Boundary. 1931 M.G. Mazumdar
• Manda in Jammu of Daimabad in Maharashtra is Sutkagendor On Dasak
the southern frontier of Harappan civilization. 1927 Sir Aurel stein
• Recent excavation in Rajasthan has revealed a Kot Diji On Indus
4000 year old village settlement of Chalcolithic 1955 Fazl Ahmed khan
age at Balathal, near Udaipur. Ropar On Sutlej
North : Manda (J&k) near Chenab River 1953 Y.D. sharma
West : Sutkangendor (Baluchistan) Pakistan Banawali On Saraswati
Daskk River 1973 R.S. Bhisht

5
 Lothal On Bhogwa and rectangular.
1954 S.R. Rao • They didn’t use metal money. Probably, they trad-
Rangpur On Mahar ed through barter system.
1931-53 M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal, S.R. • They established trading relationship with
Rao Mesopotamia, we know that this through Greek
Amri On Indus source.
1929 M.G. Mazumdar AGRICULTURE
Kalibangan On Ghaggar • They produced wheat and barley.
1961 B.B. Lal • They practiced agriculture. Evidence received
Surkotada from kalibangan. Probably they used wooden fur-
1964 J. Joshi row. Ploughed field found in Kalibangan.
Alamgirpur On Hindan • Indus people were the first people who produced
1958 Y. D. Sharma cotton because cotton was first produced in this
area by Greeks called SINDOM.
RELIGIOUS LIFE OF HARAPPAN DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY (1750 BC)
CIVILIZATION • Harappan culture lasted for around 1000yrs.
• They worshipped Mother Goddess but in lower • Aryan Invasion but it’s a myth.
class and in upper class, worshipped Pashupati • Earthquakes was cause of Indus valley and (Best
Shiva. cause)
They worshipped trees and animal. • Recurrent floods
• Snake IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES
• Bull (humped) (found mostly) Mohenjo-Daro
• Dove Great Bath (most imp. public place of the city). A
• Peepal large granary (the largest building of Mohenjo-
• Unicorn (Most sacred Animal) Daro),Bronze dancing girl, a bearded man, a seal
• They were also worshipped Phallus (Ling puja) with a picture suggesting Pashupati Mahadev, a
piece woven cotton along with spindle whorls and
• They worshipped proto type of Shiva
needles, a college, multi-pillared assembly hall.
(Found seal from Mohenjo-Daro)
HarapPa
• They also worshipped water, Sapatrishi, Angels
• Two rows of six granaries with brick platform,
etc.
12 granaries together had the same areas as great
• They believed in charms and spells, found amu- granary at Mohenjo-Daro.
lets in excavation.
• Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery “H” cul-
• Yoga practice also done by them. ture.
• At kalibangan and lothal fire altars have been • A red sandstorm male torso
found.
• Stone symbols of female genitals.
TRADE, TECHNOLOGY, ART AND CRAFT
• Idol of Natraj
AND SEALS
Kalibangan
• They used bronze (copper : Tin , 9:1)
• Ploughed field
• They bring copper from khetri in Rajasthan, Tin
from Afghanistan, Iron (Badaksha). • 7 fire alters
• They framed seals from steatite. These seals used Lothal
as stamps not money. • An artificial dockyard.
• Maximum no. of seals are square in shape. This • Evidence of hose from doubtful terracotta figu-
is pictographic in language. They used these seals rine.
as “Emblem”. Seals are also in shape of triangle • Fire alters

6
• It is known as Manchester of Harappan civiliza- • 10-alphabet sign board
tion for its cotton trade. • Megalith burial
Ropar • Evidences of irrigation, dams and embankments.
• First site to be excavated after independent. Suktagendor
• Evidence of burying a dog with the human buri- • It was originally a sea port which later cut off
als in very intensely. from the sea due to coastal uplift.
Chanhudaro Amri
• Ikkas of Bronze • Pre-Harappan settlement that gives the impres-
• Imprint of dog’s paw on a brick. sion of existence of transitional cultural between
• Footprints of dog and cat. Pre and Post Harappan culture.
Surkotda Daimabad
• Both citadel and lower town were fortified with • Bronze images of Charioteer with chariot, ox, el-
stone wall. ephant and rhinoceros are excavated from here.
• It provides the first actual remains of horse bones. Kot Diji
Dholavira • It was Pre-Harappan fortified settlement with larg-
• Giant Reservoirs est number of stone implements and stone arrow
heads.

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 3. VEDIC AGE

• The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad • There was no regular revenue system and the king-
chronological strata - The early Vedic (1500-1000 dom was maintained by the voluntary tribute
BC) when most of the hymns of the Rig-Veda were (Bali) of his subjects and the booty won in bottle.
composed, and the Later Vedic (1000-600 BC) • The term varua was used for color, the Aryans
when the remaining these Vedas and their branch- being fair, the dosas dark.
es were composed. ECONOMY
THE ARYANS • Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and
• The word “Aryan” literally means of “high birth”, agricultural – in which cattle played a predomi-
but generally refers to language, though some use nant part.
it as race. • Most of their wars were fought for cow (most
• Many historians have given various theories re- important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a
garding the original place of the Aryans. Howev- sort of currency, and values were reckoned in
er, the Central Asian theory given by Max Muller heads of cattles (man’s life was equivalent to that
is most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at
semi-nomadic pastoral group around the Caspian this time. The horse was almost as important as
Sea in central Asia. the cow.
• Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass • Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the same
(in Hindukush Mountain) around 1500 BC. time coins were also their (gold coins like Nishka,
• The holy book of Iran “Zend Auesta” indicates Krishal and Satwana). Gavyuti was used as a
entry of Aryans to India via Iran. measure of distance and Goghuli as a measure of
EARLY VEDIC AGE (1500-1000) time.
• The early Aryans settled in the Eastern Afghani- • Lived in fortified with settlements.
stan modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of west- • Physicians were there called ‘Bhishakas’.
ern UP. The whole region in which the Aryans • The staple crop was ‘yava’, which meant barley.
first settled in India is called the “land of seven RELIGION
Rivers or Sapta Sindhava” (The Indus and its five
• The Aryans personified the natural forces and
tributaries and the Saraswati).
looked upon them as living beings.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
• The most important divinity was Indra who played
• The Aryans came in conflict with Dasas and the role of warload (breaker of forts Purandar, also
Dasyus. associated wife, stoins and thunder.)
• The Rig-Veda mentions the defeat of sambara • The second position was held by Agni (fire-god).
(dasyus) by a chief called Divodasa of Bharata He considered as an intermediary between gods
clan (Dasas). and men.
• The tribal chief called Rajan was the center of • Varuna occupied the third position he personified
administrative machinery. The king position was water and was supposed to uphold the natural the
hereditary. natural order (Rita). He was ethically the highest
• Rajan was protection of tribe and cattle and not of all Rig-Vedic gods.
the ruler of any specific territory. • Soma was considered to the God of plants. Maruti
• Several tribal assemblies called Vidhata, Sabha, personified the storms. Some female deifies are
Samiti and Gana are mentioned in Rig-Veda. also mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who repre-
Women attended Vidhata and Sabha. sented the appearance of down.
• Important officers: Purohita, sevnai, Kulpati • Didn’t believe in enacting temples or idol wor-
(head of family), Vishpati, Brajpati, Grahini, ship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas.
Sparsa (Spy), Duffac (Messenger).

8
 Other Vedic Gods Rivers in Rig Veda
Diti Mother of Daityas, who were Indus – Sindhu
native tribes opposed to Vedic Jhelum – Vitasa
religion. Chenab – Askini
Aranyani Goddess of forests and wild crea- Ravi – Purushni
ture.
Beas – Vipasa
Lia Mother of the cattle herds.
Satluj – Satudari
Asuniti Personification of the world of
Gomati – Gomul
spirits.
Kurram – Krumu
Pushan Protector of cattle, also the god
of marriages. Ghaggar - Drisshadvati
Aditi Goddess of eternity.
Savitri Stimulator or god of liguf. LATER VEDIC PERIOD
Yama God of death. REGION
Dyans Gods of weaver and father of • Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of
surya western UP covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Tyastri Vedic Vulcan • In the beginning, they cleared the land by burn-
ing later with the use of iron tools which became
Dishana Goddess of vegetables
common by 1000-800 BC.
Ashvins Healer of diseases and exports in
Important Terms associated with the Vedic Age
surgical arts.
Aghanya Not to be killed, referring to cow.
Types of Marriage
Akahavapa Accountant
Brahma Marriage of a duly dowried girl
to a man of the same class. Charmana Blacksmith
Daiva Marriage in which a father gave Datra Sickle
his daughter to a sacrificial Duhitri Daughter
priests as part of his fees. Gavisti Fight/search for cows
Arsa Marriage in which a bride-price Goghana Guest
of a cow is taken and a bull was Hiranyakara Goldsmith
paid to the daughter’s father. Karmara Blacksmith
Prajapatya Marriage in which the father Mahishi Chief Queen
gave the girl without dowry and
Narishta Sabha
without demanding bride price.
Rathakara Chariot-maker
Gandharva Marriage, often clandestine by
Sira Plough
the consent of the two parties.
Sita Furrows
Asura Marriage by purchase.
Suta Court minstrel
Rakshasa Marriage by capture.
Ustra Camel
Paishacha When a maiden is seduced into
marriage. Vapta Carpenter/Barber
Anuloma Was the marriage of higher caste Vrihi Rice
man with a lower caste woman. POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
Marriage • Powers of the king, who was called Samrat in-
Pratiloma creased. Importance of assembles declined. Wom-
en were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.
Marriage Was the marriage of lower caste
The term ‘rashtra’ indicating territory first ap-
man with a higher caste woman.
peared in this period.

9
• References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in Yajur Veda
chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), treasurer • Deals with the procedure for the performance of
(Sangrhita), game companion (Aksavaba). sacrifices.
SOCIAL LIFE • There are two main texts of Yajur Veda. White
• The four fold division of society became clear- Yajur veda (or Shukla Yajur Veda) and Black Yajur
initially based on occupation, which later becomes Veda (or Krishna Yajur Veda). The former con-
hereditary. Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas (war- tains mantras and the latter has commentary in
riors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, trad- prose.
ers and Shudras servers of the upper three). Atharva Veda
POTTERY • Entirely different from other 3 vedas.
• The later Vedic people used four types of pottery • Divided into 20 Kandas (books) and has 711
black and red ware, black-slipped were, painted hymns – mostly dealing with magic (along with
grey ware and red ware. personal problems of people).
• Red ware was most popular with them, and has The Brahmans
been found almost all over western UP. However, • They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an ortho-
the most distinctive pottery of the period is known dox manner.
as painted Grey ware, which comprised bowls and
• Each Veda has several Brahmans attached to it
dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the
upper classes. 1. Rig Veda : Kaushetaki and Aitreya
Religion 2. Yajur Veda : Taitriya and Shatpatha
• Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the 3. Sam Veda : Panchvish and Jaiminiya
creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be con- 4. Atharva Veda : Gopatha
ceived as the preserver and protector of the peo- • The most important is ‘Shatpatha Brahamana’ at-
ple. tached to Yajur Veda, which is most exhaustive
THE VEDIC LITERATURE and important of all. It recommends one hundred
The Veda sacred paths’.
• The word ‘Veda’ comes from the root ‘Vidi’, sig- The Aranyakas
nifying knowledge. • Called ‘forest books’, written mainly be he her-
• Vedas are also known as ‘Shruti’ (to hear) as they mits’ living in the jungles for their pupils.
were passed from generation to generation • These are the concluding portions of the
through verbal transmission. Brahmansa.
• They are four in all Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur • Deals with mysticism and philosophy opposed to
Veda and Atharva Veda. sacrifice and emphasize ‘meditation’.
• The first three vedas are collectively known as • Form a bridge between ‘way of work’ (Karma
‘Tyari’ of ‘Trio’. Each Veda is further divided into Marg) which was the sole concern of the
Samhitas. Upanishads and the way of knowledge’ (Gyan
Rig Veda Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated.
• Oldest religious text in the world. The Upanishads
• Must have been composed around 1500 BC. • The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and
denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn.
Sama Veda
• Called Vedanta (the end of the Vedas) firstly be-
• Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘melody’. It
cause they denote the last phase of the Vedic pe-
is a collection of melodies.
riod and secondly, because they reveal the final
• It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have aim of the Vedas.
been borrowed from Rig Veda.
• They are the main source of Indian Philosophy.
• Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’.
• There are 108 Upanishads.

10
• They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacri- • The Mahabharata attribute to Vyasa, is consid-
fices. ered older than the Ramayana and describes the
• They discuss the various theories of creation of period from the tenth century BC to 4th century
the universe and define the doctrine of action AD. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri
(Karma). Samhita and has 1, 00,000 verses.
Smritis • The Ramayana attributed to Valmiki has 24,000
• Explains rules and regulations in the Vedic life. verses. It composition started in the fifth century
BC and passes through 5 stages.
• Main are Manusmriti, Naradsmriti,
Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti. Other Facts
Vedangas (Six Vedangas) • Reg-veda divided in to 10 mandals. First of all 2
to 7 Mandal was written after that only 8th and
Shiksha deals with Pronunciation
then 1, 9 & 10 were written.
Kalpa – Rituals
• “Om” was used in Reg-veda 108 times and “Jan”
Vyakarana – Grammar was used 275 times.
Nirukta – Etymology • Gaytri Mantra in 3rd mandal which is addressed
Chhanda – Meter to sun.
Jyotisha – Astronomy • Saraswati River was the deity river in Reg-veda
Darshan and most mentioned river in Reg-veda and most
There are 6 schools of Indian Philosophy mentioned river was Indus.
known as Shad-Darshana. • There are 4 Vedas, 18 Puran, 108 Upnishad
Given by 6 philosophers of Ancient India. (Mundukya was important because here we got
Nyaya Darshan – Gautama “Satyamev Jayte”.
Vaishesika Darshana – Kanada Rishi • Upnishad are main source of Indian Philosophy.
Sankhyaya Darshana – kapila • Kulapa – Basic social unit.
Yoga Darshan – Patanjali • Kula – Head of family.
Purva Mimansa – Jaimini • Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance.
Uttara Mimansa – Badaryana or Vyasa • Godhuli as a measure of time.
Upavedas • Physician were there called Bhishakas.
There are four Upvedas • The staple crop was “Yava” which meant barley.
Reg veda – Ayurveda (Medicine) • In Early Vedic Age Tax was known as Bali. Bali
was voluntary taxation.
Sam veda – Gandhrav (Dancing)
• Tax was known as Bhag in later Vedic period.
Yajur Veda – Dhanurveda (Dhanus Art)
• Oldest Grammar is Panini’s Asth Adhyay and 2nd
Athrav veda – Shilap-veda (Architecture)
oldest is Patyanjali’s Mahabhashya.
• Mahabharat attributed to Vyas, is considered old-
EPICS
er than Ramayana.
• Though the two epics – The Mahabharata and
Ramayana were compiled later, they reflect the
state of affairs of the later Vedic period.

11
 4. BUDDHA & JAINISM

BUDDHISM • Then he attained ‘Nirvana’ or Enlightenment at

• Pillars of Buddhism 35 years at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under a Pi-
pal Tree.
Buddha: Its founder
• First sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples
Dhamma: His teachings (Monk/Nun)
has settled.
Sangha: Order of Buddhism monks and nuns
• First sermon is called Dharma Chakrapravartan/
• Five Great events of Buddha’s life Turning of the wheel of Law.
Birth – Lotus and Bull • Attained firstly Mahaparinivana at Kushinagar
Great Renunciation – Horse (village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC
Nirvana – Bodhi tree at the age of 80 years in the Malla repulic.
First sermon – Dharmachakra or wheel THE DHAMMA
Parinirvana or death – stupa Four Great Truths
BUDDHA • The world is full of sorrow and misery.
• Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata. • The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Purnima Day at • Pain and misery can be ended by killing or con-
Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal. trolling desire.
• His father was Suddhodana, who was the Saka • Desire can be controlled by following Eight Fold.
ruler. Eight fold called Ashath Marg/Ashtang Marg/
• His mother – Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty died Maadhmik Marg which are:
after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by step mother 1. Right Faith
Gautmi. 2. Right Thought
• Married at 16 years old to Yashodhara. He en- 3. Right Action
joyed 13 years of marriage. 4. Right Livelihood
• His son was Rahu 5. Right Efforts
• After seeing an old man, sick man, corpse and 6. Right Speech
ascetic he decided to become a wanderer.
7. Right Remembrance
• He left home at 29 years old with Channa, the
8. Right Concentration
charioteer and his favorite horse Kanthaka for
search of truth and wandered for 6 years. BELIEF IN NIRVANA
• Search of truth by Buddha also called The Great • When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and Nirvana
Renunciation and Mahabhinishkramana. is atteand means. If we want to free from death or
birth cycle we kill our desire and follow stold path.
• He first mediated with Alara Kalama but he was
not satisfied by him. Then his second teacher was • According to Buddha, soul is myth because till
Udarka Romputra but again he was not satisfied. when our desire is continue. We are not free from
cycle of death and re-birth. When our desire is
• After that he joined forces with five ascetics –
finish then we are not take birth. Our soul is made
Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi
from desire inside.
who were practicing the most rigorous self-mor-
tification in the nobe of wearing away their Karma BELIEF IN AHIMSA
and obtaining Jinal Blies. • One should not cause injury to any living being,
• For six years Buddha tortured himself, he have animal or man.
nothing to eat and drink, he was walking skele- LAW OF KARMA
ton. Then he felt disappointed and left those • According to Buddha, man reaps the fruits of his
groups. past deeds.

12
 THE SANGHA Mahavamsa and Deepvamsa : They are in Pali
• Consists of Monk/Nuns. Monks means Bhikshs language and provide information about Shri
or shramanas. Lanka and also king Ashoka.
• Shramanas means Hetrodox sects (Except Vedic Ashokavandana: These are tables about the dif-
Religion) ferent births of Buddha.
• Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer (Publicity) of • First time we know about 16 Mahajanapadas from
Dhamma. Buddhism Book “Angutra Nikaya”.
• Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called • Followers of Buddhism who lead a married life
upasakes. are known as Lay follower/Laity.
THREE WHEELS/SECTS OF BUDDHISM • “Amrapali” is dancing girl who is join Buddhism
• Mahayana – Idol worship is practiced. It became after the meet Buddha. She is also called Ambapali
popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Tur- in Pali Language.
key and SE countries. • Before the birth of Lord Buddha his mother wit-
• Hinayana – Became popular in Magadha and Sri- nessed a white elephant in her dream. So Buddha
Lanka. Believe in individual salvation not wor- is also called “White Elephant”.
ship. • When Buddhism and Jainism were found 32 new
• Vajrayana –Became popular in Bihar and Ben- religions were found. One of them became fa-
gal. They did not consume meat, fish, wine etc. mous.
This is also called Thunderbolt, Diamond Path/ • Ajivika sect founded by Makhal Gosala
Tantrik Buddhism. • According to this religion life leads according to
BUDDHIST LITERATURE nature. God depicts everything before a birth of a
• Buddhist scriptures in Pali are in commonly re- person. God writes what a person is in present
ferred to as Triptiakas (Three Basket). birth and what will be in next birth period.
Triptiakas are :- • Before the division of follower of Buddhism they
were in a group, name was Theravada. Theravada
Vinaya Pitaka – Rules of discipline Buddhist.
is oldest name of school at Buddhist time.
Sutta Pitaka – Largest contains collection of
• In Hinyana there is no “cast bar’. They are well
Buddha’s sermons.
acquainted of super natural theory. But they do
Abhidhamma Pitaka – Explanation of the Philo- not believe to share their knowledge to anyone.
sophical Principle of the Buddhist religion.
• Bodhisattva came. He told his disciple ot get
• Books in Pali language of Buddhism. knowledge and after completion left the place.
• Then came Lama.

YEAR COUNCIL PLACE PRESIDENT KING PURPOSE

483 BC 1st Rajgriha Mehakassapa Ajatshatru • For Collection of Buddha ser-
mon (suttapitaka
• Monastic Rules (Vinaypitaka)
383 BC 2nd Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka • To solve the disputes of Mo-
nastic
250 BC 3rd Patliputra Mogliputra Tissa Ashoka • To establishment of
Sthavirvadin
72 AD 4th Kundalvan Vasumitra Kanishka • Mahayana
n Ashwagosh (Vice • Hinyana
(Kashmir) President)

13
 NAME OF BODHISATTVA • From now he was called Jaina (Jitendriya) and his
1. Avlokiteshwar (also called Padampani) followers named Jains. He also get the title of
Arihant (worthy).
2. Manjushree (called Buddhi Prasnna)
• At the age of 72, he was died at Pava near Patna in
3. Vajarpani (one who bears thunder)
527 BC.
4. Amitabh (Father of heaven)
• After the death of Mahavira, Chandergupta Maurya,
5. Kshitigarbha (The guardian of Purgatories) led the Jains Monks from Ganga to Deccan.
BODDHISTAVA TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
• Can attain the status of Buddha any time but will • Rejected the authority of Vedas and did not attach
not do so why? any importance to the performance of sacrifices.
• Because I attained Moksh after transfer of Merit. • He believed that every object, even the smallest
• Founded by Rishabhanath his name also appeared particle, possesses a soul and is endowed with con-
in Rig-Veda. sciousness. That is why they observe strict non-vi-
• Parsvanath whose symbol is Hooded serpent. olence.
• Mahavira whose symbol is lion. • Jains reject the concept of universal soul/supreme
power as creator.
• In Jainism, three were 24 tirthankaras (Gurus) all
Kshatriyas. • Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but re-
fuses to give gods any important part in universe
PARSVANATH(EMBLEM – SNAKE)
scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina.
• He was 23rd Tirthankara. He was the son of king
• Universal brotherhood (not-in caste system).
Ashvasena of Banaras. His main teaching was Non-
injury, Non-living, Non-stealing, and Non-posses- • Three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given in Jainism:
sion. They are called the easy to Nirvana.
MAHAVIRA They are Right faith, Right knowledge and Right
• He was 24th and last Tirthankara. His name was conduct.
Vardhman Mahavira. His first addition was celiba- JAIN COUNCILS
cy and second was do not wear any clothes. • First in Paltiputra in early 3rd century BC. Head
• He was born in Kundagram (Distt. Muzaffarpur, was Sthulbhadra. Book – 12 Angas to replace
Bihar) in 599 BC. Purvas.
• His father was Siddhartha the head of Jnatrika clan. • Second was at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 5th century AD
His mother was Trisha, sister of Lichchhavi Prince head was Devridhigani. It resulted in final compi-
Chetak of Vaishali. lation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
• He was related to Bimbisara (Magadh king). • Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta
• Wife – Yashoda, daughter – Priyadarsena. Mauraya’s time. In Kalinga,it was greatly patron-
ized by Kharavela in the first century AD.
• His daughter’s husband Jameli was his first disci-
ple. • Jain literature isin Argh-Magadh and Prakrit dia-
lects.
• After his parent’s death, he became an ascetic at 30
age. • Due to the influence of Jainism many regional lan-
guages emerged out, like sauraseni, out of which
• In 13th year of his asceticism, outside the town of
grew the Marathi, Gujarat, Rajasthani and Kannada.
Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge
KAIVALYA.

14
 5. MAGADHA EMPIRE

6th Century – 4th Century BC the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other
• Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, ruling princes.
Gaya parts of Shahabad and grew to be the lead- • Alexander attacked India during the reign of
ing state of the time. Dhana-Nanda 326 BC.
HARYANKA DYNASTY • Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously
• Originally founded in 566 BC by the Grandfather powerful.
of Bimbisara. But actuaIly founded by Bimbisara. CAUSES OF MAGADHA’S SUCCESS
Bimbisara’s son was Ajatshatru. • Geographical Advantages
BIMBISARA, 544 BC – 492 BC • Fertile land.
• Contemporary of Buddha. • Much agriculture – Much revenue – Income
• He conquered Anga (E. Bihar). bigger.
• His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). • Elephant – used in war at first time.
• He strengthened his position by matrimonial alli- • Iron are available in close proximity. Iron
ance with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali was used in Magadh at first time.
and Madra. • Strategic capitals – Rajgriha and Patliputra (Rajgir
• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills. was first also called Ginivraja).
AJATSHATRU, 492 BC - 460 BC • Patliputra – It is situated at Sangam of three river
• Son of Bimbisara, killed his father, first and last named Ganga, Gandhak, Son.
historical man, who killed his father. • Political advantages.
• Annexed Vaishali and Kosala. Vaishali with the • Ambitious kings.
help of a war engine, which was used to throw • The name of 16 Mahajanapads were first time
stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to known from there.
which a mace was attached thus facilitation mass Buddhist Book – “Angutra Nikaya”
killing. Kosala was ruled by Prasenjit at that time
ALEXANDER INVASION
also called Pitrighata.
• Alexander (356 BC – 326 BC) was the son of
• Buddha died during his reign, arranged the first
Phillip of Macedon (Greece) who invaded India
Buddhist council.
in 326 BC. At that time NW India was split up
UDAYIN 460-444 BC into a number of small independent states like
• He founded the new capital at Patliputra situated Taxila, Punjab (Kingdom of Porus), Gandhara etc.
at the confluence of the Ganga and soan. • Except Porus who fought the famous Battle of
SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY Hydaspes on the bank of Jhelum.
• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was suc- • Alexander was with Navel force (Navy). His ad-
ceeded by Kalasoka (2nd Buddhist council). Dy- miral was Nearchus. He wrote about the geogra-
nasty lasted for two generations only. phy of India.
• Greatest achievement was the destruction of pow- • Alexander joined hand with Ambhi the king of
er of Avanti. Taxila to defeat King Porus.
NANDA DYNASTY Greek/Mosedoins/Helenistic are same
• It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynas- • Alexander returned to his country after handing
ties. other wining India to Selecus Necater.
• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added
Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the Ekarat,

15
 6. MAURYAN DYNASTY

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322-297 BC) 6. Transportation

• With the help of Chanakya/Kautiliya/Vishnugupta • Spy system is superb.
he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule • In the period of Chandragupta Maurya lady body-
of the Maurya Dynasty. guard were also appointed.
• Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by the Greek • Prostitutes were also deputed as spy.
scholars. • Mudra a minister of Nanda’s was use a minister
• Built vast empire, which included not only good of planning.
portion of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and • Mudra joined had with Chandragupta. It was
north western India and the Deccan. Chanakya behind this conspiracy Nanda was de-
• This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greek feated.
ambassador sent by Selecus to the court of • This information receives from Vishakhadutt’s
Chandragupta Maurya) in his book India. We also book Mudra Rakshasa.
get details from the Arthashastra of Kautiliya. This book story line at Maurya’s time and written
• Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (de- in Gupta Age.
scribing Chandragupta enemy) and Debi Source of information about Chandragupta
Chandarguptam in six century AD. Maurya
• Chandragupta Maurya became follower of Kautiya (Arthashastra) – Third best
Jainism. In his period North India experienced a Megasthenes (Indica) – Second
famine, half of the North Indians left their hous- best
es, who stayed there in North India are called
Ashoka’s Inscriptions – Bestest
Aryawat.
BINDUSARA’S (297 – 268 BC)
• The leader of North India was Sthulabhadra.
• Called Amitraghat by Greek writer.
• Chandragupta Maurya went to Sravanbelagola
(near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu where he died • Chandergupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara
by slow starvation. in 297 BC. He is said to have conquered “the land
between the 2 seas (Arabian Sea and Bay of Ben-
• Who were in North India were called Shwetamber.
gal). At the time of his death, almost the entire
(White – clad / clothes).
subcontinent came under the Maurya Rule.
• Who came back from South India were called
• Bindusara was follower of Ajivika.
Digamber (Naked).
• Greek Ambassador Deimachos visited his court.
Administration in Patliputra
• Bindusara wanted wine, fig. and philosopher but
CIVIL
they deny to give the philosopher.
MILITARY
ASHOKA (269 – 232 BC)
1. Welfare of foreigners
1. Army infantry • One who became a forecast before the birth of
King Ashok ‘your son will be a great ruler’.
2. Collection of Taxes
2. Chualry “Pingalavasta” a Ajivika Monk
3. Record of birth and death • In some books it was written Ashok killed his 99
3. Chariots brothers to get the throne. But it is wrong.
4. Manufutured of gods aspection • First king who directly talk to their people through
4. Elephants his inscription.
5. Distribution of goods (sales and purchase) • Ashok was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and
5. Navy Ujjain by his fater, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain
when Bindusara died.
6. Sanitation

16
• One of greatest kings of all times. • Tolerance among all the sects.
• James Princep, told Ashok’s second name in 1837 • Replacement of Bherighosa (sound of war drums)
Devamampiya (beloved of the gods) and by Dhammaghosa (sound of peace).
‘Piyadassi (of pleasing appearance). • Maintenance of constant contact with the rural
• Ashok became the Buddhist under Upagupta people through the system of Dhammayatras.
Monk. ASHOKA’S Inscription
• Ashok’s successor Kunal. Kunal became blind and • Allahabad Inscription – Ashoka
then his son Dasrath said he want to become the • Allahabad Prasasti – Samundragupta writer -
king and there is war between Kunal and Dasrath. Harisen
Due to this war there is a divison and Taxila be-
• In his inscription following language have been
came the capital of Dasrath, and Patliputra be-
used Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramic and Greek.
came the capital of Kunal.
• Allahabad Kasam was written Kosambhi Jahangir
• Asoka’s empire was divided into provinces with
left Allahabad when he was taking it to Delhi. So
a viceroy in each province. He established
it is called Allahabad Kasam.
Dharamshalas, hospitals and Sarai throughout his
kingdom. • Jahangir took this action because Firoj Tughlaq
did the same. Three inscriptions were taken by
• He appointed Dhamma Mahamatras (Publicity of
Ashoka:
Dharam) to propagate dharma among various so-
cial groups including women. Kosabhi, Merath (Meerut), Topara
9 Years of his rule – Kalinga war ALLAHABAD KASAM
11 Years of his rule – Bodhi • Pillar Edicts I – VI
13 Years of his rule – Dhamma • Queen’s Edict (This is only who describe his
queen’s).
15 Years of his rule – Dhamma Mahamatra
• Schism Edict.
• He sent his daughter (Sanghamitra) and son
(Mahindra) to Ceylon (Shri lanka), Burma and BARA BAR HILL CAVES
other South-east Asian regions, notably Thailand • Donatory inscription to the Ajivika sect.
for publiciy of Boddh Dharam. • Ashok’s grandson Dasrath also donates Ajivika
• Ashoka is called “Buddhashakya and Ashok in seet.
Maski edict. • The caves were in a group of hills girdling the
FEATURES OF THE DHAMMA city of Rajagriha.
The edicts gave Ashoka the opportunity to expand DELHI – MEERUT AND DELHI TOPRA
his Dhamma. The Major Rock Edict XI contains • Pillar Edicts I – VI respectively.
an elaborate explanation of the Dhamma, apart • They were transported to Delhi by Firoz shah from
from dealing with charity and Kinship of human- their original sites at Meerut and Topra.
ity. GIRNAR (MAJOR ROCK EDICTS)
Main features:- • Situated at Junagarh in Kathiawar.
• Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gath- • A number of major inscriptions are found here.
ering and avoiding expensive and meaningless
• Its importance was increased by the fact that dur-
ceremonies and rituals.
ing the reign of Chandergupta a dam was con-
• Efficient organization of administration in the di- structed on the Sundarsana Lake in the neighbor-
rection of social welfare. hood of Girnar.
• Consideration and non-violence to animals and • Rudradamans’s Junagarh inscription was first
courtesy to relation and liberality to Brahmins, Sanskrit inscription in Indian history.
Shramanas etc.
• Sudarsana Lake originally built by Pushyagupta,
• Human treatment of servant by masters and of the provincial governor of Chandergupta.
prisoners by the government officials.
• Subsequently conduits were worked from it by

17
 Tusapa in the reign of Ashoka. Kautilya explains the Saptanga theory or the the-
• After him Skanddagupta repair Sudarsana Lake ory of seven elements of the state. According to
dam. him state is constituted by:
• Ruderdaman also repair Sudarsana Lake’s dam Swamin (King) – soul
after Pushyagupta. Amatya (minister)
KANDAHAR Janapada (territory and population)
• Minor Rock edicts. Duga – (Fort)
• Greek Aromic inscription. Kosa (Treasury)
RUMMINDIE / LUMBINI AT BUDDHA TIME Bala (Army)
(NEPAL) Mitra (ally)
• Tax levied on Lumbini people was decreased from PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL
1/6 to 1/8, it is written on Ashoka’s inscription. ADMINISTRATION
• Tax was decreased because it was land of his God • Provinces – Divided into four provinces each
“Buddha”. under viceroy in council.
SANCHI Four are – Uttarapatha (Capital - Taxila)
• Schism Edict. Avantiratha (Ujjain), Dakshinapatha (Sumavagiri)
• Modern name of Sanchi was Kakanandabota. and Kalinga (Tosali).
SARNATH • District – The district was under the charge of
• Schism Edict (addressed to the Mahamattas). the Rajuka (Ashokan edicts), whose position and
• Piller Inscription. function are similar to those of a DC.
• Sarnath is three and a half miles from Banaras. • Intermediate level – This unit, consisting of five
to ten villages was under Gopa and Sthanika.
• In this Ashok is called Dharamasoka.
• Village – It was under the charge of Gramani.
• Schism Edict.
• Municipal Administration – It was maintenance
Allahabad Kasam, Sanchi, Sarnath.
of law and order, Nagarika or City superinten-
• 13 edicts were about klinga (Rock and Pillar). dent’s.
• Lion and wheel on National flag taken from • Land Revenue – Main source of income for state.
Ashoka inscription of Sarnath.
CAUSES OF THE FALL OF MAURYAN EM-
SIGNIFICANT OF MAURYAN RULE PIRE
• Gurukul and Buddhist monasteries developed • Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient
with royal patronage. Universities of Taxila and to maintain such a vast empire as booty from was
Banaras are the gifts of this era. negligible.
• Taxila is oldest university. • Brahmins were against the Ashoka.
• Kautilitya’s Arthasastra, Bhadrabahu’s • Last Mauryan king “Brihadratha” was killed by
Kalpasutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185
and Jain Texts such as Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga BC who started Shunga dynasty in Magadha.
Sutra and Dasavakalik comprise some of the im-
• “Pushyamitra’s son – Agnimitra.
portant literature of this era.
“Malvika Agnimitram” was written by Kalidas.
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
• Best cause of decline of Mauryan Empire:
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Mauryan kings levied tax and everything except
• Saptanga Theory –
air.

18
 7. KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAS

THE SUNGA DYNASTY • Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynas-

ty.
• Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. His dominions
extended to south as far as the Narmada River • The most important king was Gautamiputra
and including cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Satakarni Satakarni (AD 106-130) who raised the
Vidisha. He performed two Ashvamedha sacrific- power and prestige of Satavahans to greater
es. heights. He set up his capital at Paithan on the
Godavari in Aurangabad district.
• He also defeated the Bactrian king Dematrius.
ASPECTS OF SATAVAHANA
• The fifth kind was Bhagabhadra, to whose court
Heliodors, the Greek Ambassador visited. • Mostly issued lead coins (copper + bronze).
• A Sunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of • Acted as a bridge between North and South In-
Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram. dia.
• Palanjali’s classic Mahabhasya was written at • Satavahans ruler called themselves Brahmans.
time. It is Sanskrit grammar; it is based on Ashath Performed Vedic rituals and worshipped gods like
Adhyay older one. Krishna, Vasudeva and other. Also promoted Bud-
dhism.
• He killed last Maurya king.
• Two common religious constructions were the
THE KANVA DYNASTY
Buddhist temple and Monasteries.
• The founder of this short-lived dynasty was
• Buddhist temples were called Chaitya and Mon-
Vasudeva, who killed the last Sunga king
asteries were called Vihara.
Devabhuti.
• Most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in W.
• They were swept away by Satavahanas of the
Deccan.
Deccan.
• Their district was called Ahara as it was in
THE CHETIS OF KALINGA
Ashoka’s time. Their officials were known as
• The Hathigumpha inscription (near
Amatyas and Mahamatras as they were known in
Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the third
Mauryan times.
ruler of the dynasty gives information about the
• Started the practice of granting tax free villages
Chetis.
to Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
• He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to
• Official language was Prakrit and script was
a great extent.
Brahmi as in Ashokan times. One Prakrit text
THE SATAVAHANAS OR THE ANDHRAS
called Gathasattasai is attributed to a satavahana
• They were the successors of the Mauryans in the king called Hala.
Deccan and the Central India.
• They followed Mauryas.

19
 8. Guptan Empire

Shree Gupta — Founder sion up to Kumargupta.

Chandragupta I (319 - 335AD) • Silver coins were came in use in middle Inida dur-
• He has provived gupta dynasty fame. ing his period.
• He took a little of ‘Maharajadhiraj’. • He has takes titles like - Mahendraditya .
• First great ruler was Chandragupta I. He intro- Skandgupta (455 - 467AD)
duced Gupta Era in 319 A.D. • Hun’s were attacked during his rule.
• He started a new calendar - ‘Gupta Era Gupta Ear • He has repaired lake Sudarshana which was es-
is having 241 years gap form Shake samvata. tablished on Mt. Girnar.
Samudragupta (335 - 375 AD) Importent Poinst
• He was son of chandragupta I. • He transferred his capital to Ayodhya.
• Gupta dynasty expanded most during his period. • Gupta period was called the golden phase due to
• Vinsent Smith titled him as “Napoleon of India” cultural progress.
• The details of his victories described in ‘Prayaga • Chandragupta II launched the coins of silver after
Prashashti’written by Harishen. getting the victory on Shaka.
• He was a triumphant as well as a poet & Lyricist • Kumaragupta reconstructed Sudarasan Lake
cum conservator of education. • Huna’s attack started at the time of Skandagupta.
• He has marked playing lute (veena) on the coins. • Ujjain was the most important trade center in
• He has also titled as ‘Dharma Prachar Bandhu’ in Gupta’s period
Allahabad piller inscription. • Bhanugupta was the last Gupta ruler.
• Buddhist Saint - Vasubandhu has given shelter • Gupta ruler launched more gold coins than others
him.
• Gold coins were called Dinara.
• Samudragupta is called the ‘Nepoleon of India’
• Erana inscription describes Sati System in 510 A.D
because of his India’s victory.
(first time). This inscription is of Bhanugupta.
• Samundragupta is called the ‘Kaviraj’.
• Most land grant given in gupta period
Chandragupta II (380 - 412AD)
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS OFFICER
• Udayagiri cave edict tells about his victories.
1. Desh Gopta
• Patliputra and Ujjaini rised as centres of educa-
2. Bhukti Uprika
tion and culture.
3. Vishaya Vishaypati
• Ujjaini was his second capital.
4. Petha Pethapati
• Fahien (Chinese Traveller) came to India during
his period. He says Madhyapradesh as ‘Nation of 5. Gram Grampathi / Mahatar
Brahmins’. OFFICER POST
• This period was peak for Brahmins. 1. Mahabaladhikari Force captain
Kumargupta (415 - 454 AD) 2. Mahadandnayak Chief justice
• Maximum edicts during Gupta period found of 3. Sandhivigrahak Defence minister/
this king. war minister
• Nalanda University established during his period. 4. Dandpashik Police officer
• Vilsad edict gives list of Gupta’s family Succes- 5. Mahakshapattalika Chief of account

20
 department • Taxes were in the form of either in cash or in the
6. Sarthwah Trade chief form of Grain.
Taxation • Forms of Lands
1. Bhag — 1/6 of the total production 1. Kshetra - Farming land
2. Bhog — Gift which given to king in 2. Vastu - Land for Residence
the form of fruits, flow- 3. Khila - Land which were not culti
ers & vegetables vated
3. Udrang— Land Tax from permanent Farmers. 4. Aprahata - Non cultivated forest land.
4. Uprikara— Land tax levied on all Tempo
rary Farmers.

21
22
23
 9. SANGAM AGE

THE PANDYAS OTHER ASPECTS OF THE THREE KINGDOM

• Their capital was Madurai. • All the gathered information is based on Sangam
• First mentioned by Megasthenes who says that Literature. Sangam was a college assembly of
their kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled Tamil poets held probably under Royal Patron-
by a woman. age (esp. Pandyas).
• The Pandya kings profited from trade with the • Sangam age corresponds to the Post-Mauraya and
Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman the Pre-Gupta period.
emperor Augustus. All expenditure were bared by • Three Sangams were held.
Pandyas. First Sangam – Madurai, Chairman – Agastya
• Their emblem was Fish. Second Sangam – Kapatpuram, Chairman –
THE CHERAS Tolkppiyar
• Emblem was Bow and Arrow. Third Sangam – Madurai, Chairman – Nakkirar
• Also called keralaputra. • It was the third Sangam from which the entire
• Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala coun- corpus of Sangam literature came down to us.
try) • Silappadikaram by IIano Adigal (story of a mar-
• It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. ried couple) and Manimekalai by Sattanar are the
• Fought against the Cholas about 150 AD. famous epics of this time.
• Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera. • Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiryar.
THE CHOLAS • Jivikachintamani by Tirukakkdewar.
• Emblem was tiger. • Kurool by Tiruvalluvar (Kurool called the fifth
Veda/ The Bible of the Tamil land).
• The Kingdom was called Cholamandalam or
Coromondal. The chief centre was Uraiyur famous • The chief local god was Murugan who was also
for cotton. called Sabramanya.
• Capital was Kaveripattnam/Puhar. • ‘Pariyars’ – agricultural laborers who used to work
in animal skin.
• A Chola king named Elora conquered Sri Lanka
and ruled it over for 50 years. Bay of Bengal also • Civil and military offices held by Vellalas (Rich
called Chola Lake. peasants).
• Karikala was their famous king. • The ruling class was called “Arasar”.
• Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth. • Captains of the army were given the title ENADI
They also maintained an efficient navy. in formal funcitons.
• Information about Cholas “Uttanamerur Inscrip- GUPTA DYNASTY
tion”. • The first two kings of Dynasty were Sri Gupta
• Kudovallai system means Election system. and Ghatotkach.
• Admn system runs through Variyam. CHANDRAGUPTA – I, AD 319-335
• Chola Admn Unit. • First important king of Gupta Dynasty.
Provinces divided in to Mandal. • Started the Gupta era in 319-320 AD.
Mandal divided in to Venadu. • He enhanced his power and prestige by marriage
with Kumar Devi, Princess of the Lichchhavi clan
Venadu divided in to Taniyer and ur (villages)
of Nepal.
• Chola Temple was largest temple made by cholas.
• He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj (first to
• Chola’s Temple had a large Gate called get title).
“Gopuram”
• Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his

24
 queen and the Lichchavi nation, there by acknowl- (Navaratna) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha,
edging marriage alliance. Varahmihir and Dhanvantri, Aryabhatt.
• First Iron Pillar Edict of Gupta Age gives first • Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.
evidence of Sati. KUMARAGUPTA – I (AD 413-455)
SAMUDRAGUPTA (AD 335-375) • He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.
• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by • Founded Nalanda University (a renowned univer-
Chandragupta’s son and successor Samudragupta. sity of ancient India).
• His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account • He was worshipper of Lord Kartikeya.
of the military exploits of his pattern. • In the last years of his region, the peace and pros-
• In a long inscription at the Prayag Prashasti Pillar perity of empire was distributed due to the inva-
(Allahabad). sion of Turko-Mongol tribe, Hunas Mihirkula was
• Samudragupta also called Napoleon of India (by the most famous king of Huna. Hieun Tsang men-
V.A. smith) because of his bravery and tions him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He
generalship. was defeated by Yashodharma.
• V.A. Smith book – Oxford History of India. • During the war with the Hunas, Kumargupta died.
• Samudragupta is said to have composed numer- SKANDAGUPTA (AD 455-467)
ous poems of high merit. Some of his coins rep- • Kumargupta-I was followed by Skandagupta. He
resent him playing Vina. faced Hunas effectively.
• He also performed Asvamedha sacrifice. He be- • Restored Sudarshana Lake.
lieved in Vedic Age. • After his death, the great days of the Gupta were
• Vasubandhu, a celebrated Buddhist Scholar was over.
his minister. Mean he believes in Boddh Dharam. REASON OF FALLING OF GUPTA EMPIRE
Then he was liberal. • Weak successor of Skandagupta could not check
• Though a follower of the Brahmanical religion, the growing Huna power.
he was tolerant of other faiths. • Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, MP, Vallabhi
• Received a missionary from Meghavarman, the etc.
ruler of Sri Lanka, seeking his permission to build ADMINISTRATION OF GUPTA
Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he granted.
• Kings were called Parameshwara/Maharajadhiraj/
CHANDRAGUPTA II (AD – 380-413) Paramabattaraka.
• Samundragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but • Most important officers were Kumaramatyas.
Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen
• They issued the largest number of gold coins in
Dhruvadevi.
Ancient India, which were called Dinars.
• He entered into matrimonial alliance with the
• Silver coins were called Rupyakas.
Nagas (of upper and the central provinces) by
marring princess Kubernaga whose daughter SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Prabhawati married to Rudrasena-II of the • The castes were further divided into sub-caste.
Vakataka family. • Position of woman declined further.
• Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating • First instance of Sati took place of Eran, MP.
Rudrasimha III, a Kshatarp king of Ujjain. • The position of Shudras improved substantially.
• He also took the title of Simhavikrama. • The practice of untouchability intensified (espe-
• He was the first ruler to issue silver coins also cially hatred for Chandalas). Faihen mentions that
issued copper coins. the Chandolas lived outside the village and were
• The Iron pillar inscription, fixed near Qutab Minar distanced by the upper class.
in Delhi mention a king Chandra (considered by RELIGION
many as Chandragupta II). • Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time only
• His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems Buddhism declined.

25
• Bhagavatism centered around worshipping Vishnu • Development of Sanskrit grammar based on
or Bhagvat. History was presented as a cycle of Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly
10 incarnations of Vishnu. memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by
• Idol wordhip became a common feature. Amarsimha.
• Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi) a small • Ramayana and Mahabharata were almost complet-
Temple near Sanchi and brick temple at ed by the 4th century AD.
Bhitragaon (near Kanpur) belong to the Gupta SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
architecture. • Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote
ART OF GUPTA AGE Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta.
• 2 meter high bronze image of Buddha belonging • In Aryabhatiya, he described the place value of
to the Mathura school the Gandhara Buddha rep- the first nine number and the use of Zero.
resents mask-like coldness, while the Buddha • He also calculated the value of Pie and invented
from the Mathura school imports a feeling of Algebra.
warmth and vitality. • In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the earth re-
• The Buddha sitting in his Dharam Chakra mudra volves round the sun and rotates on its axis.
belongs to Sarnath. • In this was he discovered the cause of the solar
• Buddha images of Bamiyan belonged to Gupta and lunar eclipses and the methods for calculat-
period. ing the timing of their occurrence.
• Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh near • He also said that the heavenly bodies, like the
Gwalior in MP are of this time, they belong to moon, were spherical and they shone by reflect-
Buddhist art. ing the light.
LITERATURE • Varahamihira wrote Panchasi dhankita and
Kalidasa the great Sanskrit dramatist belonged to Brihatsamhita. He said that the moon moves round
this period. His books are Abhigyanashakuntalam, the earth and earth, together with the moon move
Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarambhava, round the sun.
Malavikamitram, Raghuvansha. • Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He
• It is earliest among translation of Sanskrit into wrote – Brahma-sphutic siddhanta in which he
English Abhigyanashakuntalam. hinted at the law of Gravitation First person who
• Sanskrit was the language of rich people. introduce gravity.
• Apart from Kalidasa other were Sudraka (author • In the field of astronomy, Romakasidhanta were
of Mrichchakatikam), Bharavi (Kiratarjuniya), compiled.
Dandin (Kavyadarshna) and Dasakumaracharita). • Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician
To this period belong 13 plays written by Bhasa. of Ayurvedic system of medicine.
• Most famous of these was Charudatta. • Palakapya wrote Hastyagarved a treatise on the
• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devi- disease of elephants.
Chandraguptam. • Court language was Sanskrit.
• Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchatantra and • Dhanvantri – famous for Ayurveda knowledge.
Hitopdesh.

26
 9. HARSHA VARDHAN (AD 606-647)

• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family and son of Vindhyasakti.

Prabhakar Vardhan originally the feudatories of • Most important king was Pravarsen – I who per-
the Gupta. formed 4 Ashvamedha yagyas.
• Originally belonged to Thaneswer, but shifted to • Rudrasena II was succeeded by Divakarasena,
Kannauj (after Harsha’s death Kannauj was won Damodrasena or Pravarasena, who composed a
from Harsha’s successors by the Prathiharas). Prakit work titled Setubandha in glorification of
• Pajyavardhan succeeded Prabhakarvardhan. Rama, though he was a devotee of lord Shiva.
• Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kannauj and CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI)
husband of Rajyasri (daughter of Prabhakara) was • Founder Pulakesin – I.
murdered by Devgupta (the ruler of Malwa) who • Pulakesin – II was their most famous king, who
in alliance with Sasanka (ruler of Gauda or Ben- was a contemporary of Harsha .He sent on em-
gal) now occupied Kannauj and imprisoned bassy to the Persian king, Khusro – II. His court
Pajyasri. Rajyavardhan undertook a campaign poet, Ravikirti wrote Ailhole inscription. Hiuen
against Devgupta and killed him but he was de- Tsang visited his kingdom.
ceived and killed by Sasanka. • Much of the painting and sculpture of the Ajanta
• Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thanesvar. and Ellora cave were completed during the
• Harsha brought most of north India under his con- Chalukyan reign. They built several magnificent
trol and assumed the title of “Siladitya”. temples in Ailhole and other places.
• In his first expedition, Harsha drawn away • Ailhole is called the cradle of Indian temple ar-
Shashanka from Kannauj. chitecture.
• Pulakesin – II the great Chalukya king. He be- • Vengi dynasty was founded by Pulakesin II’s
stowed the title of “the lord of the entire north” brother Kubja-Vishnu-Vardhana.
on him. • The greatest ruler of Kalyani Chalukyas was
• Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travel- Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanmalla. He was Hero of
ers) visited during his reign. He spent about eight Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva Charita. He introduced
years (635-643) in the dominions of Harsha and the Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076 AD).
earned his friendship. THE RASTRAKUTAS
• Hieun Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand • Founder Dantidurga.
assembly held at Kannauj in 643 attended by rep- • Their king Krishna – I is remembered for con-
resentatives of Hinduism and Jainism. structing the famous rock-cut Kalisha temple at
• Harsh was a great patron of learning. He estab- Ellora.
lished a large patron of learning. He established a • Their king Amoghvarsha is compared to
large monastery at Nalanda. Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of let-
• Banabhatta, who adorned his court, wrote ters.
Harshacharita, Parvatiparinay and Kadambari. • He wrote the first Kannada poetry named Kaviraj
• Harsha himself wrote 3 plays Priyadarshika, marg and Prashnottar Malika. He built a city of
Ratnavali and Nagananda. Manyakheta as his capital.
• After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once • Their king Krishna – III set up a pillar of victory
again broke up into petty states. and a temple at Rameshwaram after defeating the
• I-tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in 670 Cholas.
AD. THE GANGAS
THE VAKATAKAS • Also called Chedagangs of Orissa.
• The founder of this Brahmin Dynasty was • Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun

27
 temple at Konark. • He constructed Rajrajeshwari temple (also called
• Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Brihadeshwar Shiva temple) at Thanjavur.
Jagannath temple at Puri. • His son Rajendra – I annexed the whole of Sri
THE PALLAVAS Lanka. In the North went as far as Ganga and the
• Founder Simhavishnu. They setup their capital at dominions of the Pala king Mahipale. He took the
Kanchi. He bore the title Avanisimha (lion of the title of ‘Gangaikonda’ after that and founded a
earth). capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• Narasimhavarman I Mahamalla. He was the great- THE PALAS OF BENGAL
est king of the dynasty. He defeated and killed • Founder was Gopala (750 AD) who was elected
Pulakesin II and assumed the title Vatapikonda. to the throne as he had proved his valor and capa-
THE CHOLAS AD 846-1279 bility as a leader.
• Founder Vijayalaya capital was Tanjore. • Suleimon, an Arab merchant has termed the Pala
Empire as Rhuni.
• Parantaka I captured Madurai but was defeated
by Rashtrakuta ruler. Krishan III at the battle of • Gopala was an ardent Buddhist.
Takkolam. Although the Rashrakutas were later • He was succeeded by Devapala. He extended his
defeated. control over Pragjoytishpur (Assam). He was a
• Rajaraja founded the largest dominion in south Buddhist.
India. • Ballalasena was written Danasagara and
• He annexed northern Sri-Lanka and named it Adbhutsagara.
Mummadi – Cholamandalam. Also conquered • Founder Samantasena.
Maldives islands.

28
 10. DELHI SULTANATE

MAHMOOD GHAZNI it is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first
• Until the rise of west, India and possibly the rich- Muslim invader of India but he failed due to his
est country in the world, such a country present- premature death.
ed an irresistible target for the ravening Mongols • His first invasion was directed against Multan in
and their descendents who settled in present day 1175 AD, which was successful.
Afghanistan, Uzbekistan Tajikistan, all within • Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at
comparatively easy reach of north-western India. that time, received contingents from other Rajput
• The North West was, at this time, a mish-mash of kings and defeated him in the first Battle of Tarain
warring kingdoms, more interested in settling (1181) but he defeated Prithviraj in the second
scores with their neighbors than in unifying Battle of Tarain in 1182.
against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that • Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the foun-
Mahmood Ghazni’s armies so easily defeated dation of Muslim Rule in India.
those of Indian kings. • Also defeated Jaichandra (ruler of Kannauj) at
• His first expedition was directed against the fron- the Battle of Chhandwar in 1184.
tier towns in 1000 AD. • Died in 1206, leaving Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak the
• His second expedition was against Jaipala, the charge.
Hindustani King of Punjab whom he defeated in The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) had 5 rul-
the first Battle of Waihind. ing dynasties.
• In his 6th expedition was against Anandpala, the 1. The slave Mamlek/Ilbari Dynasty (1206-1290)
successor of Jaipala, Mahmood defeated 2. The Khalji (1290-1320)
Anandpala in IInd Battle of Waihind in 1008 AD.
3. The Tughlaq (1320-1413)
• His 16th expedition was the plunder of Somnath
4. The Sayyid (1414-1415)
temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025, situated on
5. The Lodhis (1451-1526)
the sea coast of Kathiawar.
MAMLUK DYNASTY(1206-90)
• His last invasion was against Jats bcz Jats had
attacked his army when he was going back to QUTUB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)
Ghazni. • He is called the founder of Slave Dynasty. He was
• Objectives of Mahmood’s expeditions were to a Turk of the Aibak tribe which in Turkish lan-
plunder the riches of temples and palaces and were guage means ‘LORD OF MOON’.
not interested in expanding his empire to India. • Md. Ghori could not name his successor because
However he later annexed Punjab and made it a of his sudden death. Aibak assumed reigns of govt.
part of his kingdom just to have easy access. as independent ruler at Lahore on 25 June 1206.
• FIRDUSI (Persian Poet, known as Homer of the • He did not strike coins nor got the Khutba (read
east) who wrote Shahnama. after Namaj) read in his name.
• ALBERUNI (a brilliant scholar from Central • Lahore and later Delhi were his capital.
Asia) who wrote TAHQIQ-i-HIND. • For his generosity he was known as “LAKH
• UTBI (court historian) who wrote Kitab-ud- BAKSH” or giver of Lakhs.
yamni. • Laid the foundation of Qutub Minar after the name
• Died in 1030. of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin
MUHAMMAD GHORI Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• First person who concerned India. • Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing
Chaugan (Polo).
• The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India
was SHIHAB-UD-DIN Muhammad of Ghur. But • Built the first mosque in India – “QUWWAT-UL-
ISLAM” (at Delhi) and “Adhai Din Ka Jhopra

29
 (at Ajmer). stables. She had affair with Jalaluddin Yakut. She
• He was a great person of learning and patronized gave the Title of AMIR-i-AKHUR to Yakut (Mas-
writers like “Hasan Nizami” who wrote Taj-ul- ter of royal stables).
Massir, and Fakhr-Ud-Din, writer of Tarikh-i- • There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda, Malik
Mubarakshahi. IKHTIYARUDDIN ALTUNIA, Governor of
• Aibak was succeeded by Aram shah who ruled at Bhatinda, refused to acknowledge the suzerainty
Lahore for 8 months before being deposited by of Raziya, accompanied by Yakut she marched
Iltutmish. against Altunia, on the way, the Turkish follow-
SHAMS-UD-DIN ILTUTMISH (AD 1211-1230) ers of Altunia murdered Yakut and imprisoned
Raziya. She had the marey Alturia to get out of
• He was son-in-law of Aibak. He is considered
this situation.
the greatest of the slave kings and the real con-
solidator of the Turkish conquest in India. • But she was killed, along with her husband, by
BAHRAM SHAH, a son of Iltutmish, near Kaithal
• Prevented Chengiz khan’s attack by refusing to
(Haryana).
give refuge to an enemy of Khan, JALALUDDIN
MANGABARANI. BAHRAM SHAH (1240-42)
• He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recog- • “The forty” became disorderly and constantly
nized by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa) as a bickered among each other. It was during this pe-
member of world fraternity of Islamic states. riod of unrest that the Mongols invaded Multan
but repelled by the governor.
• Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of
land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his • The Chahalgani besieged him and put him to death
officers, IQTAS were transferable. in 1242 AD.
• He introduced the silver tanks and the copper Jital, Nasiruddin Mahmood (1246-65)
2 basic coins of the sultanate. • He was the grandson of Iltutmish. He was the
• He writer Mihraj-ul-siraj, the author of Tabaqqat- posthumous son of Prince Nasiruddin eldest son
i-Nasiri. of Iltutmish.
• He is called the Father of tomb Building. • From Bahraich, he was rushed to the capital dis-
guised as a woman along with his mother and
• Central Minister
placed on the throne by the conspirators. Balban
1. Wazir –> Prime Minister was one of the Patron of Nasiruddin who hap-
2. Sadr-i-Jahan -> Head of religious affairs. pened to be his son-in-law. Balban was appointed
3. Chief-Qazi -> Head of Judicial affairs for the past of NAIB-i-MAMALIKAT:
• Created Ghiasuddin Balban (1266-1286 AD)
TURKAN-i-CHAHALGANI • He belonged to Ilberi tribe of his master Iltutmish.
BANDGAN-i-SHAMSHI His original name was Bahauddin and was pur-
• RUKNUDDIN FIROZE (Apr-Nov 1236) chased by Iltutmish.
• Son of Iltutmish • He ordered the separation of military department
from the finance department (DIWAN-i-
• After 7 months died in confident
WIZARAT) and the former was placed under a
• Shah Turkan began to meddle (Title of
ministry for military affairs (DIWAN-i-ARIZ)
Ruknuddin)
headed by ARIZ-i-MAMALIK.
• RAZIA BEGUM (1236-40 AD)
• Theory of Kingship
• She was the first and the last Muslim woman rul-
• ZIL-i-ILAHI
er of medieval India.
• Descendent of Afrasiab
• She disregarded Purdah, began to adorn make at-
• Purity of blood
tire and rode out in public on elephant back.
• Sijda and Paibos
• She promoted Jamaluddin Yakut, an Abyssinian
to the important office of superintendent of the • Liquidation of the “THE FORTY”

30
• Nauroj (New Year) himself lot of gold, silver and wealth. When his
• Jharokha Darshan uncle called him he refused to cross the Ganga,
Kaiqubad (AD 1287-1290) then Jaluluddin gone after crossed river and he
killed his uncle.
• Balban was succeeded by his grandson Kaikubad,
the son of Bughra Knan, Governor of Bengal. • Killed his uncle treacherously and won over most
of the nobles to his side by use of gold.
• He was very indolent and Luxury-loving. In 1290,
Firoz Shah the governor of Punjab gor him killed • Declared sultan of Delhi immediately after the
and became king under the title of Jalal-ud-din murder of Jalaluddin at Kara near Allahabad in
Khilji. Thus, the Khilji dynasty began in Delhi. 1296.
KHILJI DYNASTY • Theory of Kingship
• The Khilji were one of the sixty four clans of the • ZIL-i-ILAHI
turks. • I am the state
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96 AD) • Kingship known no kinship
• Mongol leader Abdullah attacked in 1292. These • Chehra and Dagh
Mongols embraced Islam and settled down near • Secular state Policy
Delhi. These converts came to be known as NEO- • Separated Religion from the state for the first
MUSALMANS. time in the Delhi sultanate.
• He sent his nephew Alauddin invaded Deogiri in • First sultan have permanent army.
1294 AD. • His wild aims.
• But Alauddin killed Jalaluddin after robbery at • Founding a new religion.
Kara (Allahabad).
• Launching a conquest like Alexander and
• He was first Sultan of Delhi who clearly put for- called himself “Sikander-i-Saani” and sec-
ward the view that state should be based on the ond Alexander.
willing support of the governed.
• But fissile out later on by the suggestion of
• First king who gave the job of Indian he married ALAUL-MULK (The Kotwal of Delhi)
his daughter to Ulugh khan.
• Also built Hauz khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 AD) Jamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
• Killed his uncle after he came Devgiri. He brought • His imperialism (conquered and annexed)
(Ruler)
1299 Gujrat Kam Baghela
1301 Ranthambhor Hammir Deo
1303 Chittor Ratan Singh
1305 Malwa Mohkol Dev
• South India (only conquered)
(Ruler)
1307 Deogiri Ramchandra Rao
1309 Kakatiyas of Warangal Prataprudra Deo
1311 Hoysala of Dwarsamudra Vir Ballal
1311 Pandyas of Madhurai Vir Pandya, Sudar Pandya

• His Reforms • Abolished pensions and endowments.

• Abolished the Zamindari system in crown • Local chieftains (Khut, Muqaddam,
lands. Mukhiya choudhary) were taxed for cattle,
• Stopped the practices of issuing grants of pastures ground and houses.
land in lieu of state services.

31
 Pasture Tax- known as Chari • Most highly educated of all the preceding sultan
House Tax- known as Ghari of Delhi.
• Estb. Separate Department called DIWAN-i- • Good Calligraphist.
MUSTKARAT for the collection of arrears of • Contempary was China King Kub - Lai – Khan
revenue. of Bin Tughlaq.
• Price control and Market regulation. • Isami (Historians) called him WISEST FOOL OF
• Appointed Malik Qabul to be controller of EASTERN WORLD.
all the grain markets. • His Reforms:-
• Department of SHAHNA-i-MANDI and • Transfer of the capital from Delhi to
DIWAN-i-RIYASAT was made responsible Daulatabad (Devgiri) but not successful.
for the successful implementation of the eco- • He named Daultabad as Qubbat-Ul-Islam.
nomic regulation. • Introduction of Token currency of bronze/
• Land Reforms copper but failure.
• First sultan who insisted that DOAB land • The proposed Khurasan expedition but failed
revenue would be charged on the basis of because MBT could not be maintenance and
measuring the Land under cultivation. equipment caused a heavy drainage of wealth
• BISWA was declared to be the standard unit of army organized by him.
of measurement. • Introduced Gold Dinar and silver Adali.
• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron • For all of these Edward Thomas called him
of learning and Art. There were many great poets “PRINCE OF MONEYERS”.
in his court. Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan • Karachi expedition but failed because of
Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage. snowfall and his mostly soldiers were died.
MUBARAK KHILJI (1316-1320) • Taxation in the Duab:-
• His name was Qutubuddin Mudarak shah. For this purpose he created a department of
• He was one of the sons of Alauddin, who some- agriculture styled DIWAN-I-KOHI. The ex-
how, escaped the praying eyes of Malik Kafur. periment failed by the corrupt officials and
After the death of Kajur be became the king. old traditional pattern of cultivation. The de-
• After seating himself on the throne, he tried to partment was wound up after three years.
win over the goodwill of the people. He cancelled • Rebellion and General upsurge
all harsh regulation started by his father. 1335 -> Maduari became independent under the
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY leadership of Jalaluddin Ahsan shah.
Ghiasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25 AD) 1336-> Foundation of Vijayanagar by Harihar and
• Original name – Ghazi Malik Bukka.
• First Ghazi Raza 1341-47 -> Revolts of Sada Amirs and founda-
• Sultan recovered a part of the royal treasure which tion of Bahmani in 1347 by Hasan Gangu.
had been distributed by Khusrao khan led to the • He died at Thatta.
estrangement of his relations with SHEIKH Firoze Shah Tughlaq (1351-1386)
NIZAMUDDIN AULIA – (sufi saint of Delhi). • Cousin of Mohammad-Bin-Tughlaq.
• Reduced land tax and insisted that the rate should • First person to introduce Jajiya.
not be increased 1/10 or 1/11.
• His father Rajab and mather, Bhatti Rajput.
• Took interest in the construction of canal for irri-
• Strengthened his legal position by obtaining in-
gation.
vestiture from the Khalifa and assumed the title
• Died fall from wooden pavilion. of NAIB-i-AMIR-UL-MOMININ and inscribed
Mohammad-Bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351) Khalifa’s name on the coins.
• Original name – Prince Jauna (son of Ghiasuddin). • Jamindar system started again.

32
• Appoint Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul as his wazir or • He is said to have inflicted on India more misery
prime minister. than had ever before been inflicted by any con-
• Ikta became hereditary. queror in single invasion. The Tughlaq Empire
• Theocratic tinge to the taxation by abolishing as could never recover from such a terrible blow and
many as 23 cesses and only four taxes were re- came to an end.
tained: THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-51)
1. Kharaj -> land tax imposed on Non-Muslims Khizr khan (1414-1421)
2. Khams -> warboty 1/5 (MBT,AK – 415) • Founded the dynasty and claimed to have descend-
3. Jajiya -> levying it on Brahmans also for the ed from the prophet of Islam.
first time. • He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given
In lieu of exemption for military service. the governorship of Lahore, very weak and he
didn’t take up the title of king and contended him-
4. Zakat -> on Muslims 1/40 part of total in-
self with that of Rayat-i-Ala. The coins were
come.
struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur
• Revived Zagir system and after his death in the name of his successor,
• Welfare Activities Shah Rukh.
• Estb. DIWAN-i-KHAIRAT (Donation) • Khizr Khan’s 3 successors
• DIWAN-i-BANDGAN (slaves) • Mubarak shah
• Granting old age Pension • Muhammad shah
• Opened DARUL SHIFA (Hospital) •
• Estb. Madras Alauddin Alam shah
• Destroyed Mathura temple • Provided opportunity to Bahlul lodhi.
• Construction Activities. THE LODHI DYNASTY
• Founded new cities like Ferozabad, • They were Afghan by race considered the first
Fatehbad, Jaunpur Hissar etc. Afghan dynasty of India.
• Construction of canal for irrigation and im- Bahlul Lodhi (1451-1489)
posed taxes on it. • Conquered Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui Dynasty
• Uses known as HAQ-i-SHARB (1/10 of to- • Founder of Lodhi Dynasty
tal produces) Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD)
• Brought two Ashoka pillar to Delhi • Nizam Khan, son of Hindu goldsmith’s daughter.
From Topra • He shifted his capital in 1504 AD for Delhi to
From Meerut Agra which was developed as a town.
• Estb. 36 state owned factories for manufacture of • Renounced the idea of Sultan as 1st among equals.
various accessories managed by DIWAN-i- • Jaunpur was annexed to Agra to command areas
WIZARAT. of eastern Rajasthan
• Muhmad shah Tughlaz last king of Tughlaq Dy- • Founder of Agra city.
nasty. • Introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari 32 digits for mea-
TIMUR’S INVASION suring cultivated fields.
• He was a great Mongol leader of Central Asia. • Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian
He became the head of the Chaghtai Turks at the under the Pen-name of Gurumukhi.
age of 33. Before reaching India, he had already • Repaired Qutub Minar.
conquered Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. He
• He abolished Octroi duty on grains.
reached Delhi in December 1398. At that time,
Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler. • He reimposed the Jajiya on the Hindus.
• Timur ordered general massacre in Delhi and Ibrahim Lodhi (AD 1517-26)
robbed people mercilessly. • He was the last king of Lodhi dynasty and last

33
 Sultan of Delhi sultanate. • In 1342, Ilyas khan founded a new dynasty.
• Was defeated and killed by Babur in the First • Famous Sultan ws Ghiyas-ud-din Azam who es-
Battle of Panipat in 1526. tablished friendly relations with China and en-
• No Sultan of Delhi Sultanate except Ibrahim had couraged trade and commerce.
been killed on the battlefield. • The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of
• With this the sultanate of Delhi ended. Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronized by the sultan
CAUSES OF DECLINE OF DELHI SULTANATE and was given the title of “Gunaraja Khan”.
• War of succession. Gujarat
• Incompetent ruler like Feroz shah Tughlaq and • Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar Khan
his successors. who assumed the title of sultan Muzaffar shah.
• Greed and incompetency of ruler. • His grandson Ahmed Shah-1 built a new city,
Ahmedabad. He built Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad
• Defective administrative system.
and Teen Darwaza.
• Financial of Timur.
• The next prominent ruler was Mahmud Begarha.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT (13TH-15TH In his reign, Portugese set up a factory at Diu. His
CENTURY) court poet was the Sanskrit Scholar, Udayraja.
Art and Architecture • In 1573, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.
• The use of arch and the dome is the special fea- Malwa
ture of the Muslim architecture. As the arch and
• Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khilji in 1305
dome needed strong cement, finer quality of mor-
and remained a part of Sultanate until its Gover-
tar became wide-spread in north India.
nor, Dhiawan khan Ghuri asserted his indepen-
• The Tughlaq built walls called batter combining dence in 1435.
the principles of arch and the lintel and beam
BUILDINGS OF DELHI SULTANATE
(started first time).
Qutubuddin Aibak
Music
• Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi.
• New musical modes and instruments like rabab
and sarangi were introduced. • Dhai-din-ka – Jhopra mosque in Ajmer.
• Amir Khusrau introduced many Persian Arabic • Started construction of Qutub-Minar.
ragas. Also invented the sitar. Iltutmish
• Kavvali, Ghazal, Sitar, Tabla was first time intro- • Shamshi Madarsa
duced. • Makbra of Iltutmish
Painting • Construction of Qutub Minar
• Paper was introduced by the Arabs in the 15th Alauddin Khalji
century and this patronized painting. • Alai Darwaja (Qutubminar Gateway)
Literature • Started construction of a minor but failed to com-
• Udayaraja wrote Rana Vinoda on Mahmud plete it beyond the 1st story.
Begarha. Ghiasuddin Tughlaq
• Merutanga’s Prabandha Chintamani. • Purana Qila
• A no. of Sanskrit works – Rajatarangani Feroz S. Tughlaq
Mahabharata, Koka shastra – were translated into • Kotla Feroz Shah Fortification.
Persian.
Lodhis
• Zai Nakshabi’s Tuti Nama (a translation of San-
• Tombs
skrit stories into Persian) was very popular.
• Double dome 1st time in Sikandar Lodhi’s tomb.
Provincial Kingdoms
• After that in Humayun’s tomb Taj Mahal.
• Broke away from Delhi under the resign of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Literature of Delhi Sultanate

34
• Alberuni Tarikh-i-Hind or Kitab-ul-Hind in Ara- Harihara-I and Bukka two of the five sons of
bic. Sangama.
In 1018-19 AD he accompanied the invading Deva Raya I
hordes of Mahmud of Ghazni. • He constructed a dam across the river
He made extensive use of the Sanskrit literature. Tungabhadra to bring canal into city to relieve
• Utbi wrote Tarikh-i-yamini or Kitab-ul-yamini. He the shortage of water.
was attached to the personal staff of Mahmud of • His court was adorned by the gifted Telegu poet
Ghazni and never accompanied Mahmud to In- Srinath, the author of Haravilasam.
dia. His book is a fine example of Arabic. Deva Raya II
• Hasan Nizami Taajul Maasir • Was the greatest Sangama ruler, believed to be
• Minhaj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri the incarnation of Indra
• Amir Khusrao (poet can historian) • He wrote Mahanataka sudhaidhi and a commen-
Miftah-ul-futuh (Jalaludin Khalzi) tary on the Brahma Sutras of Badaryana (Both in
Khajain-ul-futuh (Alauddin Khalzi) Sanskrit).
Kiran-us-Sadain • The inscription speak of his title
“Gajabetekara”(The Elephant Hunter)
Nuh Sipihr (Praises India)
• Sangama dynasty was replaced by Salva which
Tughlaqnama (a Ghiasuddin Tughlaq)
lasted for 2 decades. Ultimately, a new dynasty
• He adorned the courts of the Sultans from called Tuluva Dynasty was founded by Vira
Balban to Ghiasuddin Tughlaq. He was the Narsimha
disciple of Nizamuddin Aulia.
TULUVA DYNASTY
• For the first time Amir Khusrao used Hindi
• Founder was Vir Narsimha to avoid anarchy and
words into the Persian literature. He also in-
to save kingdom.
troduced various ragas called Aiman Ghora
of Badal etc. Krishandeva Raya (1509-1529 AD)
• He came to be called as parrot of India (Tuti- • Most prominent and famous ruler of Vijay nagar.
i-Hind) • His political ideas are contained in his Telegu
• Ziauddin Barni wrote Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and work “AMUKTAMALYADA”.
Fatwa-i-Jahandari during the reign of Ferozshah • As a great patron of literature he was known as
Tughlaq. Abhinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra
• Barni was the close associate of Amir bhoja.
Khusrao. • Eight great poets of Telegu, known as Ashta
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq wrote his biography Diggaja adorned his court. Pedanna wrote
Futuhat-i-Feroz Shahi (Futuh = autobiography in Manucharitam, while Tenalirama was author of
Persian) Panduranga Mahamatyam.
• Isami – Futuh-us-Salatain • Built a new city “Nagalapuram” and decorated it
with hazura temple and Vithaswamy temple.
• Ibn-Batuta – He was the inhabitant of Tangier,
Morocco come to Delhi in 1336 during Md-bin- • Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a pup-
Tughlaq and patronized by him He wrote his trav- pet in the hands of his PM, Rama Raya, who was
elogue in Arabic named REHLA. an able but arrogant man.
VIJAYNAGAR KINGDOM • During the reign of Achyuta Raya (king after
Krishandeva Raya) the power vested in Ramraya.
Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and
He fought Battle of Rakshasa Tangodi (1565) with
cultural movement against Tughlaq authority in
four powers of Muslim state excluding Bidar.
the south
Aravidu Dynasty(1570-1649AD)
THE SANGAMS (1336-1485)
• Founded by Tirumal
• The Empire of Vijaynagar was founded by
• Aravidu dynasty lingered on for almost 100 years,

35
 but without any political influence. • His followers were:
Admn. Ravidas – cobbler
• Military fief studded the whole length and breadth Kabir – Weaver
of the empire, each under a Nayak or military lead- Sena – Barber
er authorized to collect revenue and to administer Namdeva – Tailor
a specified area provided, he maintained an agreed
Sadhana - Butcher
number of beast of burden. This system was non
transferrable and hereditary. 5. Guru Nanak Devji
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT • Nanak was born in the village of Talwandi (Now
called Nankana in present day Pakistan).
THE SUFIS
• He laid great emphasis on the purity of character
There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India. The
and conduct as the first condition of approaching
Chisti, the Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
God and the need of a Guru for guidance.
1. The Chisti
• His concept of God was Nirguna and Nirankar.
• The Chisti order was established by Khwaja
• He didn’t believe in the Vedas and the Quran.
Muinuddin Chisti. His two main disciples were
Bhaktiyar Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi 6. Kabir: (1440-1518)
Nizamuddin Auliya was also his disciple. • Kabir was not only concerned with religious re-
2. Suharawadi form but also wished to change the society.
• It was popular in Punjab and Sindh. • He composed Bijak, Sabads and Akhis, Mangal,
Basant, Holi, Rekhtal etc.
• Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin
Suharawardi and Hamid-ud-din Nagory. 7. Chaitanya: (1485-1534)
3. The Firdausi • Chaitanya of Bengal traveled throughout India and
popularized Krishna cult. “Kirtan system” was
• It was a branch of Suhrawardi and its activities
given by Chaitanya only.
were confined to Bihar. It was popularized by
Shaikh Sharfuddin Vahya who was disciple of 8. Meerabai(1498-1546)
Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi. • Meerabai of Rajasthan was follower of lord
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT Krishna.
1. Ramanuja (12th Century) • Rathor princess of Merataand daughter in law of
Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• Earliest exponent of Bhakti movement. Accord-
ing to him, the way of Moksha lies through Karma • Wrote the verse Padavali.
gyan and Bhakti. 9. Surdas (1497 to 1584)
• He gone the concept of Vishishtadvaita • Disciple of Vallabhacharya.
2. Nimbarkara • A blind poet of Agra.
• The next leader of Bhakti Movement was • Sang the glory of Krishna in his “Sursagar”.
Nimbarkara a younger contemporary of 10. Namdeva (AD 1270-1350)
Ramanuja. • He was tailor by caste, opposed caste distinction.
• He was a worshipper of Radha and Krishna. • He founded Vakari sect or the cult of Vithoda.
3. Madhavacharya (1238-1317) 11. Tukaram (1598-1650)
• He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. • He was associated with Dharkari and Varkari sect.
He said that release from transmigration can be • He wrote devotional poems called Abhangas.
secured only by means of knowledge and devo-
• He was the teacher of Shivaji.
tion.
12. Tulsi Das (AD 1532-1623)
4. Ramanand (15th Century)
• Contemporary to Akbar work-Ramcharitamanas,
• First great Bhakti saint of north India.
Kavitawali, Gitawali, Parvati Mangal, Janaki
• Worshipper of Lord Ram. Mangal.

36
13. Dadu Dyal (AD 1554-1603) Saints Philosophies
• Born in Ahmedabad to Muslim parents, brought Saints
by a Hindu. Advaitavad Sankracharya
• Teachings collected in a book called “Bani”. Vishishta Advaita Ramanuja
• Disciple-sundaradasa, Rajjab, Bakham and Warid. Sudha Advaita Ballabhacharya
14. Vallabhacharya (1478-153) Dvaitadvaita Nimbarka
• Tailanga a Brahmana, advocated the worship of Achintya Bhedavedavad Chaitanya
Krishna and dedication of everything of him Dvaitavad Madhavacharya
alone.
15. Narsingh Mehta
• He was a saint from Gujrat who wrote songs in
Gujarati depiction the love of Radha Krishna. He
is author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite Bhajan
“Vishnava jan ko”.
Philosophies of Various Bhakti

37
 11. MUGHALS

Babur (1526-1530) administration of his father Hasan’s IQTA at

• Was a descendent of Timur on his father’s side Sahasram in south Bihar.
and Chengiz Khan on his mother side His family • Later he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler
belonged to Chaghatayids. of Bihar, Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, who gave
• Originally ruled over Farghana (Afghanistan). He him the title “Sher Khan’ for his bravery.
became the sultan at the early age of 12, when his • Died in 1545 while campaigning against Kalinjar
father Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza died. Fort.
Early battles: Sher Shah’s Administration
1. Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526 AD) • For administrative convenience, Sher shah divid-
• Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi ed his whole empire into provinces, which were
• Use of Guns further divided into 47 division called Sarkar (un-
der Shiqdar-Shiqdaran and Munsif-i-Musifan) and
• Tulguma system of warfare
Sarkar into smaller parganas (under Shiqdar and
• Distributed all his wealth among his soldiers and Amin). In the field of central administration, Sher
earn the title Shah Qalandar. Shah followed the sultanate pattern. There were
2. Battle of Khanwah (March 1527 AD) four main central departments viz Diwan-i-
• Defeated Rana Sana wizarat, Diwan-i-arz, Diwan-i-insha and Diwan-
• Declared Jehad for this battle. i-rasalat.
3. Battle of Chanderi (January 1528 AD) • Admin: Central -> Provincial ->Sarkars(shiq) ->
• Defeated Medini Rai Pargana -> village.
• Sher Shah Suri fought for Babur. Reforms
4. Battle of Ghaghra (May 1529 AD) • Restored the old imperial road from the river Indus
to Sonar gaon in Bengal.
• Against the ruler of Bengal Nusrat Shah.
• We are told that Sher Shah built 1700 Sarais (Rest
• Wrote his memoir in Turkey as “TUJUK-i-
houses).
BABRI”
• He struck fine coins of silver (Rupya) and copper
HUMAYUN (1530-40 AD) & Again 1555 to 1556 AD
of uniform standard.
• Full Name – Nasiruddin Mohammad
AKBAR (1556-1605 AD)
Humayun.
• Jalaluddin Muhmmad Akbar.
• Battle of Dadrah in 1532 AD against Afghans.
• Had been born at Amarkot on 15 oct 1542 when
• An expedition against the ruler of Gujarat
Humayun was in hight from Bikaner.
Bahadur Shah in 1535-36.
Cordination 1556 AD
• Battle of Kannauj 1540: Humayun was defeat-
ed by Sher Suri and rule of Afghan began in 1540 • When Akbar was at Kalanaur camp aining against
and continued up to 1555 A.D. After two success- Sikandaar sur news was received of Humayun’s
ful battle (Macchiwara and Sirhind) death at Delhi after a fall from his library. Nobles
raised Akbar to the throne and Bairam khan was
• Humayun regained his empire in 1555 but died
appointed Wakil Mutlaq (Regent).
soon in 1556 after a fall from the stairs of his per-
sonal library. Akbar’s conquests and Annexation :
• Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister wrote Humayun- • 2ndBattle of Panipat (1556 AD) -> Hemu VS
nama. Bairam Khan and Hemu was defeated.
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) • 1561 Malwa - Baz Bahadur
(The Afghan Interlude) • 1564 Garh Katanga – Rani Durgawati
• Real name was Farid. Began his career with the • 1568-69 Chittor, Ranthambhor, Kalinger

38
• Acceptance of Mughal suzerainty: Amber, in Akbar’s court.
Marwar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer 3. Tansen –> One of the greatest musician.
• 1573 Gujarat 4. Raja Birbal –> courtier in the administration of
• 1574-76 Conquest of Bihar and Bengal Akbar. He was poet and author Akbar also con-
• 1576 Attempt to conquest Mewar Battle of ferred on him the title of “Raja”.
Haldighati with Rana Pratap. 5. Raja Todar Mal –> was Akbar’s finance minis-
Akbar’s Policy and Reform: ter Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan-i-
1. Rajput Policy – Growth of a composite ruling Ashraf.
class. 6. Raja Man singh –> was the Kacchawaha raja
2. Religious Policy of Amber. He was mansabdar and trusted gener-
al of Akbar.
3. Land revenue Policy
7. Abdul Rahim khan-E-Khana –> was a poet and
4. Admin Policy and Reform
the son of Akbar’s caretaker, Bairam khan.
5. Theory of Kingship
8. Faqir Aziao Din –> was one of Akbar’s chief
Important Aspects of Akbar’s Rule: advisors.
• Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to 9. Mullah Do Piaza –> was among the Mughal
visit Akbar’s court. Emperor Akbar’s chief advisors. Akbar regard-
• Abolished Jaziya in 1564 and the tax on pilgrims. ed his advice in high esteem.
The use of beef was also forbidden. Highlights of Akbar’s Reign
• Believed in Sul-i-Kul or peace to all. • Abolition of the practice of converting Pows to
• Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of Prayers) at Fatehpur Islam - 1562.
Sikri. • Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax – 1563
• In 1579 Akbar issued the Decree of Infallibility. • Abolition of Jajiya – 1564
• Formulated an order called Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid- • Establishment of Ibadat Khana – 1575
i-Ilahi in 1581.
• Issue of Mahzar – 1578
• His land revenue system was known as Todar Mal
• Foundation of Din-i-Ilahi – 1581
bandobast or Zabti system.
• Ban on killing animals on certain day - 1583
• Under the Dahsala system land was classified into
four categories viz Polaj, Parvati, Chachar and JAHANGIR(1605-1627)
Banjar. • Akbar’s eldest surviving son Salim assumed the
Polaj -> annually cultivated title of Nur-ud-din-Muhammad Jahangir.
Parvati -> left fallow for short period • The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped
Khusrau, so he was also executed of after 5 days
Chachar -> left fallow for 3 to 4 years
of torture.
Banjar -> uncultivated for 5 years
• Rana Amar singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of
• Also introduced the Mansabdari system to orga- Mewar submitted before Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s
nize the nobility as well as the army. Mansabdar son Karan singh was made a mansabdar in the
meant halder of a rank. There were two ranks Zat Mughal court.
and Sawar.
• Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in
• Zat fixed the status and standing in the adminis- his expedition to Ahmednagar.
trative hierarchy while sawar fixed the number of
• His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to
troopers held by the Mansabdar. It wasn’t a he-
Persia in 1622.
reditary system.
• The most important event in Jahangir’s life was
AKBAR’S NAVRATNAS
his marriage to Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of Sher
1. Abul Fazl –> Wazir of Akbar and author of the Afghani in 1611. The title of Nur Jahan was con-
Akbar’s reign. ferred on her.
2. Faizi –> Abul Fazl’s brother. He was historian

39
• She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she provinces from 1636 to 1644. In 1652, he was
was given the status of Padshsh Begum, coins appointed the viceroy of Deccan again. He made
were struck in her name and all royal Farmans Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of
beared her name. Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad.
• She got high positions for her father (Itmad-ud- • The financial bickering between the father and
daulah), and her brother (Asaf khan). She mar- son formed a large part of Aurangzeb’s correspon-
ried Asaf’s daughter, Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram dence known as Adab-i-Alamgiri.
(later Shahjahan). • Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the
• Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe empire into a civil war.
(1615-1619) visited his court. Due to the efforts • Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was
of Sir Thomas Roe English factories were estab- made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked
lished at Surat and some other places. after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in
• Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra 1666.
(called Zinzir-i-Adil). He also laid a number of • His reign is considered the “Golden Age” of the
gardens, such as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens Mughal Empire.
in Kashmir. • 2 frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and Italian
• He forbade the killing of animals for food on adventurer Monucci , visited during his reign.
Thursdays and Fridays. AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707)
• Died in 1627 at Bhimbar in Kashmir. Body bur- • At the time of shahjanjan’s illness, Darawas in
ied in Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. Delhi and the other brothers were in different plac-
• In his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography) he de- es. Shuja in Bengal, Murad in Gujarat and
scribed his drinking habit. Aurangzeb in Deccan.
SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658) • Aurangzeb first defeated the imperial army at
• Jahangir’s death made the struggle for the throne Dharmat and then defeated a force led by Dara in
imminent. Nur Jahan alerted Shahryar to prepare the Battle of Samugarh. Thereafter, he entered
for war. Asaf Khan sent messangers to Khurram, Agra and crowned himself with the title of
urging him to come to Agra. Asaf Played for time ‘Alamgir’ (conquer of the world).
by proclaiming one of Jahangir’s favorites, • Under him the Mughal Empire reached its great-
Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, king Shahryar pro- est extent, and the largest single state ever known
claimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated him. in India from the down of history to the rise of
• Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from British power was formed.
Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privi- • His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 years.
leges. Perids: first in the affairs of North India when
• In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar and imme- the Maratha power under Shivaji emerged, and
diately fortified it. But Persia wrested Kandhahar second marked by his preoccupations about the
from the Mughals in 1649. Shahjahan sent three affairs of Deccan.
expeditions to recover Knadahar, but all failed. • He caused serious rift in the Mughal Rajput alli-
• Shah Jahan appointed Shahiji Bhonsle into his ance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in
service. 1639 after the death Raja Jaswant singh.
• In 1636 Shah Jahan arrived in Daulatabad. The • In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of
Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur.
Mughal on slaught and lost its independence. • In 1679, he reimposed Jaziyah. Also, Zauroj, sing-
• Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with ing in the court, and the practice of Jharokha-
emperor. Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and darshah were banned. Also forbade inscription of
Daulatabad were made into four Mughal prov- Kalma (the Muslim credo) on the coins.
inces. • When he was conduction the campaign against
• The first viceroy, Aurangzeb,controlled all four Marwar, his son Akbar rebelled in 1681.

40
• The Mughal conquests reached the territorial cli- MUGHAL LITERATURE
max during his reign, as Bijapur (1686) and • Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk-i-
Golcunda (1687) were annexed to the Mughal Buburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar’s reign.
Empire. The Mughal Empire stretched from Kash- • Abdul Fazal composed Ain-i-Akbari and
mir in the west to Chittagong in the east. Akbarnamah.
• Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in • Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar’s court,
India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri. wrote: Kitab-ul-Tawarikh, Tarikh-Alfi and
• He was called a ‘Darvesh or a ‘Zinda Pir’. Muntakhab-ul-Akbari.
• He also forbade Sati. • Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
MUGHAL’S PAINTING (in Persian language), and patronized the valu-
HUMAYUN able dictionary, Farhang-i-Jahangiri.
• He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and • During Jahangir’s reign Hamid wrote Padshah
Abdus Samad who became his court painters. Namah and Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab-i-
AKBAR Luhab.
• Organized painting in imperial Karkhanas and also • Dara Shikoh was a great scholar. He translated
introduced European style. Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita. He also wrote
Majm-ul-Bahrain, Safi-ul-Auliya, Sainat-ul-
• Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Bhusrau Kuli,
Auliya, Hasanat-ul-Arifin, and Majma-ul-
Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc. were the prom-
Bahrain.
inent painters.
• Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama.
• Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian
Mahabharata). • Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatunat-i-Alamgiri.
JAHANGIR • Nimat Khan Ali wrote Waqai-i-Hyderabad (con-
quest of Golconda by Aurangzeb).
• Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir.
TAJ MAHAL
• Special progress was made in portrait painting and
painting of animals. Bishan Das was master of • Shah Jahan commissioned its construction for his
portraits while Ustad Mansur specialized in ani- wife Arjuman Bano, better known as Mumtaz
mal painting. Mahal, in 1631. It was constructed in 22 years.
• Use of ‘Halo’ or Divine Lights started under • Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi are credit-
Jahangir. ed with a key role in the architectural design of
the complex.
• The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan.

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

Babur • Mosque at Kabulibagh in Panipat.

• Mosque at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.
Humayun • Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah of Delhi.
• Built Jamali Mosque and Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
• Humayun’s tomb is called prototype of Taj Mahal. It
was built by his widow Haji Begum.
Akbar • Built Agra for (in red sandstone).
• He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra.
In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas,
Diwan-i-Aam, Jodhabai’s Palace and Sheikh Salim
Chishti’s tomb. Buland Darwaza (53m high) is locat-
ed Agra.

41
 • Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.
• Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.
Jahangir • With Jahangir’s reign, the practice of putting up build-
ings in marble and decorating the walls with floral
designs made of semi-precious stones started. This
method of decoration was known as Pieta durra.
• Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra.
• Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own
Mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
Shahjahan • Built Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid
and Red Fort at Delhi, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and
city of Shahjahanabad.
• Also built Bussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent
his last years in captivity), Sheesh Mahal etc.
• He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on
which Amir Khusrau’s couplet – ‘It there is a paradise
on earth, it is here, are inscribed.
Aurangzeb • Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at
Lahore.
LATER MUGHALS/FALL OF THE MUGHALS • Shah Alam II joined hand with Mir Qasim of Ben-
The empire lost power after Aurangazeb’s rule. gal and Suja-ud-Daula of Awadh in the Battle of
His successors were weak and incapable ruler. Buxar againt the Brithish in 1764. They were de-
feated.
Bahadur shah (1707-1712)
Akbar II (1806-37)
• Assumed the title of Shah Alam I. was also known
as Shah-i-Bekhabar. He made peace with Guru • He gave Rammohan the title “Raja”.
Gobind singh and Chhatrasal. • He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to seek
• He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also a raise in his allowance.
released Shanu. Bahadur Shah II (1837-57)
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) • He was confined by British to the Red fort, dur-
• First puppet Mughal emperor ing the revolt of 1857; he was proclaimed the
Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to
• He abolished Jaziya
Rangoon after that.
Farrukhsiyar (1713-18)
MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
• Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid broth-
• The entire kingdom was divided into Suba or
ers.
Pranta, Suba into Sarkar, Sarkar into Pargana and
• He excepected Banda Bahadur. the Pargana into villages.
• Furrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid • Babur and Humayun had a Prime Minister known
brothers with Maratha help in 1718. as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was however, dis-
Mohammad Shah (1718-48) continued after Bairam Khan.
• Nadir shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of • Wazir was the Prime Minister.
Karnal. During his tenure, Chin Kilich Khan • Diwan was the head of the revenue department.
founded Hyderabad, Murship Quli khan founded
• Mir Bakshi: Military Department.
and Saddat khan laid down the foundation of
Awadh out of realms of Mughal Empire. • Jhan-i-Saman: Royal house-hold.
Alamgir II (1754-59) • Qazi-ul-qazat: Judicial Department. The Qazis
were helped by the Muftis.
Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

42
• Sadr-us-Sadr: Charitable and religious endow- • He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of
ments. Salherin 1672.
• Mustaufi: Auditor-General • He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed
• Amil: Judicial officer in civil and judicial dis- the titles of Chhatrapati he became the sovereign
putes. ruler of Maharashtra.
• Quanungo: Head accountant. • Unfortunately, Shivaji didn’t live long he died
• Lambardar: Village headman. 1680 at the age of 53.
• Patwari: Village accountant. MARATHAS AFTER SHIVAJI
• During Akbar’s reign the empore was divided into • After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680-9) succeed-
Khalisa (crown lands), Jagirs (land granted to ed throne (although a lot many supported his step-
nobles) and inam (Land granted to religious and brother, Rajaram). He was a man of loose charac-
learned men). ter and spent all his time in merry-making. When
Aurangzeb was busy in his campaigns against
THE MARATHAS
Bijapur and Golconda, he and his followers did
• Rose to prominence under Shivaji. not take full advantage of the opportunity. When
• He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai n 1627 Sambhaji gave shelter to Aurangzeb’s rebel son,
at fortress of Shivner in Poona. Shahji was a mil- Akbar, he was executed and his infant son, Shivaji
itary officer in the state of Bijapur and he owned II, better known as Shahu, was taken captive by
the territory of Poona as a Jagir. Aurnagazeb.
• He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji • Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689.
Kondadeo (his guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth Rajaram also lacked the qualities of his father.
and Tuka Ram, both Bhakti Saints. He was hardly ten when his father died and he
• From 1656 he started capturing many forts from was kept a prisoner by his brother Sambhaji. The
the local officers of Bijapur. result was that he failed to get the education which
• Ali Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal khan was necessary for his status. However, he was
to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed fortunate in having brilliant advisors and helpers.
him in a meeting with his tiger claws. Initially, he was successful against the Mughals.
• Ultimately, in 1662 the Sultan of Bijapur made But he was killed 1700 when Aurangzeb himself
peace with shivaji and acknowledge him as an conducted an expedition against him. After Raja
independent ruler of his conquered territories. Ram’s death, his widow Tarabi put her infant son,
shivaji III on the throne.
• Aurangazeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive
conquests. He sent Shaishta Khan (Viceroy of • After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Shahu was
Mughal Deccan) to kill him. Here again, in a dar- released by Aurangzeb’s successor, Bahadur Shah
ing manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp I now he claimed the government. His release led
in night, injuring him. to the Maratha civil war between Shahu and
Tarabai. In the Civil war Shahu emerged victori-
• Then Aurangazeb send Raja Jai Singh (of Am-
ous (Battle of Khed) with the help of Balaji
ber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of Purnadar
Vishwanath, the founder of the live of Peshwas.
in 1665. Under the treaty, Shivaji had to surren-
After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kolhapur with
der 23 of his major fort out of the total 35 forts.
her son.
Shivaji also agreed to help the Mughals in their
attack of Bijapur. • In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwas or Prime Min-
ister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually became the ruler
• Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in
of the state. From now onward sbegan the rule of
1666. There he was put on a house arrest. But he
the Peshwas who had their seat of Powar at Poona.
escaped from there, concealing in a basket of
(Shahu’s capital was Satara).
sweets.
• In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely:
• He very soon conquered all the forts which he
had surrendered to the Mughals. • Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)

43
• Balaji Baji Rao I (1720-40) 5. Samant or Dabir (Foreign Minister).
• Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) 6. Senapati (Commander in chief).
• Madho Rao (1761-72) 7. Pandit Rao (Chief Religious Advisor).
• Narayana Rao (1772-73) 8. Nyayadnish (Administration of Justice).
• Madho Rao Narayana (1773-95) • With the exception of Nyayadnish and Pandit
• Baji Rao II (1795-1818) Rao,all other ministers were required to command
• Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao armies and lead expeditions.
I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji • Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi,
Rao II. thus taking the total ministers to nine.
• Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 MYSORE
with the British, which gave the British effective • In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of
control of not only the Maratha region but also of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan and their
the Deccan and western India. alliance with the French was seen as a danger to
• Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed the British Power in India.
into an empire based on the principle of confed- • Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under
eracy, in which prominent Maratha chiefs were Haider Ali who became the king in 1761.
assigned a territory as their ‘sphere of influence’, • He used western military training to strengthen
which they were supposed to conquer on their own his army.
and which they can administer autonomously. • In the I Anglo-Mysore war (1767-1769), Haider
• Consequently, several Maratha families became Ali faced the Triple Alliance of English, the Nizam
prominent in different parts of India: and the Marathas. As Haider Ali was a great dip-
• Gaekwad in Baroda, Bhonsle at Nagur, Holkar at lomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over
Indore, Scindia at Gwalior, Peshwa at Poona. the Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war
MARATHA ADMINISTRATION was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of
• Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land Madras 1769.
revenue was the main revenue. • Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo-Mysore
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war till
those lands of Maharashtra over which the 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by sign-
Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which ing the Treaty of Mangalore.
formed part of the Mughal Empire. • Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam.
• Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers of Ashta He employed French officers to train his army and
Pradhana. showed a keen interest in French revolution and
became a member of the Jacobin Club.
1. Peshwa or Mukhya Prahdan (Prime Minis-
ter). • He assumed the title of PADSHAH in 1797.
2. Majumdar or Amatya (Finance Minister) • In the III Anglo-Mysore war (1789-1792) he was
defeated by the triple alliance of British, Nizam
3. Mantri or Waquinavis (Personal safety of
and the Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of
royal secretariat).
Srirangapatnam. By this treaty, Tipu ceded half
4. Sachiva or surunovis (Incharge of Royal of his territory to the English and paid a large
Secretariat) Amount as war indemnity.
• He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo-
Mysore war by Lord Wellesley (1799).

44
 12. DECAY OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Aurangazeb's death in 1707 in Deccan led to war liam Hamilton. Hamilton was successful in curing the
of succession among his three sons : Price Muazzam, emperor from ceetain disease. In 1719, Saiyids with
Muhammad Azam and Kam Bakhsh. Muazzam de- help of Maratha troops under Balaji Vishwanath killed
feated and Killed Muhammad Azam at Jajau and Kam Farrukhsiyar.
Baksh near Hyderabad. SAIYIDS
BAHADUR SHAH (1707-12) Saiyid brothers raised 2 young princes Refi-ud
Prince Muazzam asumed the title Bahadur Shah Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daula one after the other but both
I. He pursued pacific policy of conciliation with Rajputs died of consumption. Saiyid brothers then raised 18 year
(Jai Singh (Amber) and Ajit Singh (Marwar). Jat chief old Roshan Akhtar as Muhammad shah to throne.
Churaman and Bundela chief Chattrasat were taken into Saiyids adopted the policy of religious tolerance and
Mughal service. With Marathas there was half hearted are known as King-makers. Saiyids abolished Jiziyah
reconciliation, Shahu was released and given and pilgrim tax, made peace with Rajputs and Jats. They
Sardeshmukhi of Deccan but not Chauth and was also also reached pact with Shahu by granting him the
not recognized as Maratha sovereign-leading to civil Swarjya (territories of Shivaji) and right to collect
war between Shahu and Trabal. He reconciled with Chauth and Sardesmukhi of 6 provinces of Deccan.
Sikhs by giving Guru Gobind Singh a Mansab. But af- Saiyid due to murder of Farrukhsiyyar and their toler-
ter Guru's death Skihs under Banda revolted who was ant policies were declared as anti-Isalm and anti-
defeated at Lohgarh (fort built by Guru Gobind) but Mughal by the anti-Saiyid faction. They murdered
the continued to fight Mughals. The historian khafi Hussain Ali and Abdullah khan was made prisoner. But
khan, called him 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' Bahadur shah gave Saiyid could not save the disintegration of the Empire
away large number of Jagirs to Nobels, thus creating as this was period of intenser rivalry and factionalism
poor finanicial condition. at Mughal court.
JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13) MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748) (Roshan Akhatr)
His period reflected increasing influence of nobels He was put on thrown by the king maker saiyid
and administrators such as Zulfigar khan who along brothers. He was under the influence of his queen
with Lal Kanwar the Mistress took all important deci- qadriya Begum (Udham Bai). Also called Rangila due
sions. The war of succession broks out again in 1712 to his indulgent nature. He supported anti-Saiyid fac-
amongst sons of Bahadur Shah. One of them Jahandar tion of Nizam-ul-Mulk & his uncle Mohd. Amin Khan.
Shah became emperor with the help of zulfikar khan, In spite of 30 years of rule Rangila could not save the
senior-most noble of Aurangzeb.Zulfikar khan abol- empire. He intrigued against able Wazir Nizam-ul-Mulk
ished Jiziyah. Jahandar Shah become the first mughal who tried to bring in reforms but left to Deccan frus-
emperor to be killed in captivity. trated by court intrigues. "His departure was symbolic
FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-19) (Shahid-i-Mazlum) flight of loyalty and virtue from Empire" Autonomus
He killed his uncle Jahandar Shah with the help states of Deccan (Nizam), Bengal (Murshid Quli) and
of Saiyid brothers-Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali who Awadh (Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk) were carved out
dominated the court till 1720. He appointed Abdulla during his reign. Khayal (New poem of classical sing-
khan as wazir and Hussain Ali as the Mir Bakshi. In ing), ghajal and Kathak (Classical dance) were greatly
1717 he granted to the East India Company many trad- supported by rangeela.
ing privileges (called Golden Farman). including the INVASIONS ON THE EMPIRE
exemption from custom duties for its trade through Pashwa Baji Rao I become the First peshwa to
Bengal. Constant struggle between Emperor and Saiyid invade delhi in 1737. In 1739 Nadir Shah, ruler of persia
Borthers for domination. Banda bahadur was captured invaded India and inflicted heavy defeat at Karnal.
and killed by Mughal in July 1715 at gurdaspur fort. Nadir Shah plundered Delhi, took away Kohinoor and
Johan surman who laid inenglish ambassy consisting Peacock throne. The provinces west of Indus including
of huge backer, edward stephenson and a surgeon wil- Kabul were also acquired from Ranglia thus leaving

45
open the north-west frontier for further invasions. Bihar and Orissa in return, he received the territories
Ahmad Shah Abdali India for the first time during his of kara and Allahabad and an annual tribute of 26 Lakhs
reign in 1748 he invaded and repeated this practice eight from Bengal. He left the British shelter in 1772 and
times. returned to Delhi under the protection of Maratha chief
AHMAD SHAH (1758-54) Mahadaji Scindia. But he was soon blineded by Rohilla
He was able to come to thrown with help of queen leader Ghulam Qadir. When British captured Delhi in
mother udham Bai. Abdli attacked and ceded Punjab 1803 he was bouned to rule over delhi only as emparor.
and north west frontier region. AKBAR SHAH II (1806-1837)
ALAMGIR II (1754-59) Symbolic rule continude but limited to red fort
He was merely the puppet of his wazir imad-ul- and surrounding Area. Lord hasting attacked over delhi
mulk. He went on to have a pactwith marathas so as to and wrested all ceremoncial power and title which pro-
capture north west frontier against the invasion of claimed Mughal empiror as superior. He gave title of
Ahamad Shah.This was one of Major Reason behind Raja to Rammohum Roy and sent him to England to
the III battle of panipat. plead for hike in emperor's pension.
SHAH ALAM II (1759-1806) BAHADUR SHAH II (1837-1862)
Prince Ali Gauhar crowned himself as Shah Alam he was last Mughal ruler. The son of Akagar Ii
II' In Bihar but he did not enter Delhi fearing his Wazir and Rajput Princess Lal bai. He was a passionate urdu
Imad-ul-Mulk who had killed earlier emperors. After poet. Who patroni sed Mirza galib. Dalhousie declared
Panipat, Abdali nominated Shah Alam as the Emperor that his successors would have to leave the Red Fort.
but power remained inhands of Abdali protege Najib Canning declared that his successors would not be rec-
Khan Rohilla. He was defeated at Battle of Buxar (Oct. ognized as kings but only as princes. After revolt of
1764) by English. He singned the treaty of Allahabad 1857, he was deported to Rangoon.
with English and granted them the Diwani of Bengal,

46
 13. EUROPEAN PENETRATION INTO INDIA

The arrival of Portuguese in India Portuguese dominance would only extend to the coasts,
The arrival of Vasco da Gama, a nobleman from since they were ever able to make any significant
the household of the King of Portugal, at the port of inroads into the Indian interior. The Portuguese ships
Calicut in south-west India on 27 May 1498 inaugurated carried cannon, but the significance of this is not
a new chapter in Indian history. For some time, the commonly realized, especially by those who are merely
Portuguese, among other Europeans, had been looking inclined to view the Portuguese as one of a series of
for a sea route to India, but they had been unable to invaders of India, or even as specimens of ‘enterprising’
break free of the stranglehold exercised by Egyptian Europeans.
rulers over the trade between Europe and Asia. The For centuries, the numerous participants in the
Red Sea trade route was a state monopoly from which Indian Ocean trading system- Indians, Arabs, Africans
Islamic rulers earned tremendous revenues. from the east coast, Chinese, Javanese, Sumatrans,
In the fifteenth century, the mantle of among others - had ploughed the sea routes and ered to
Christendom’s resistance to Islam had fallen upon various tacit rules of conduct. Though all were in the
Portugal; moreover, the Portuguese had inherited the trade for profit, as might be expected, lit) sought to
Genoese tradition of exploration. It is reported that the have overwheIming dominance: certainly no one had
idea of finding an ocean route to Ocean had become an sought to enforce their pow er through anns. Trade
obsession for Henry the Navigator (1394- 1460), and flourished, and all the parties played their role in putting
he was also keen to find a way to circumvent the down piracy: this was a free trade zone. Into this arena
Muslim domination of the eastern Mediterranean and stepped forth the Portuguese, who at once declared their
all the routes that connected India to Europe. In 1454, intention to abide by no rules except their own, and
Henry received a bull (Papal charter) from Pope who sought immediate and decisive advantage over the
Nicholas V, which conferred on him the right to Indians and over the Indian Ocean’trading system.
navigate the “sea to the distant shores of-the Orient”, The conduct of the Portuguese in India was
more specifically “as far as India”, whose inhabitants ‘barbaric’. Vasco da Gama’s initial conduct set the tone.
were to be brought to help Christians “againstthe On his way to India,”he encountered an unarmed vessel
enemies of the faith”. returning from Mecca; as a contemporary
By the terms of the Treaty of Trodesilhas (1494), Portuguesesouree states, da Gaina ordered the ship
all new territories were divided between Spain and emptied of its-goods, and then fiad it set on fire,
Portugal. The stage was thus set for the Portuguese prohibiting “any Moor” being taken from it alive. He
incursions into the waters surrounding India. 1 n 1487, then spent four months in India. Having waited out-
the Portuguese navigator, Bartholomew Dias, rounded the monsoons, he set out toretum to Portugal with a
the “Cape of Good Hope”, and so opened the sea route cargo worth sixty times what he had brought with him,
to India. An expedition of four ships headed out to India and raised to pay the customary port duties to the
in 1497, and arrived in India in slightly less than eleven Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut. To ensure that his way
months’ time. The coming of the Portuguese introduced would not be obstructed, he took a few hostages With
several new factors into Indian history. As almost every | him. When he returned to Portugal in 1499, the pepper
historian has observed, it not only initiated what might he brought with him was sold at an enormous profit;
be called the European era, it marked the emergence and nothing underscores the importance of direct access
of naval power. Doubtless, the Ch’olas, among others, to the pepper trade as much as the fact that elsewhere
had been a naval power, but for the first time a foreign the Europeans, who relied on Muslim middlemen,
power had come to- India by ay of the sea; moreover, would have to spend ten times as much for the same

47
amount ofpepper. Emboldened by this success, King of Cannanore, the Battle ofCannanore (1506), an
Dom Manuel sent another expedition ofsix ships important setback for the fleet of the Zamorin.
headed by Pedro Cabral. With their usual ignorance Thereupon Lourenco de Almeida explored the coastal
of, and disdain for, local customs, Cabral and the waters southwards to Colombo, in what is now Sri
Portuguese sent a low-caste Hindu as a messenger to Lanka. In Cannanore, however, a new ruler, hostile to
the Zamorin i upon their arrival at port. Meanwhile, the Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked
the Portuguese were claiming the sole right to the sea. the Portuguese garrison, leading to the Siege of
Cabral attacked all Arab vessels within his reach, which Cannanore (1507)
provoked a riot at the port that led to the destruction of In 1507 Alme ia’s mission was strengthened by
the Portuguese factory. Cabral retaliated in the only the arrival of Tristao da Cunha’s squadron. Afonso de
way known to a Portuguese marauder and bandit of his Aobuquerque's squadron had, however, split from that
times: he massacred the crews of the boats, and burnt of Cunha off East Africa and was independently
all the ships that were not his own. The intent, which conquering territories in the Persian Gulf to the west.
would be repeatedly witnessed in the history of In March 1508 a Portuguese squadron under command
Portuguese interactions with the Indian’s (and.with of Louren?o de Almeida,was attacked by a combined
others), was to brutalize and terrorize the native Mameluk Egyptian.and Gujarat Sultanate fleet at Chaul
population, and with evident . justice, that Cabral’s and Dabul respectively, led by admirals Mirocem and
behavior persuaded the Indians that “the intruders were Meliqueaz in the Battle of Chaul (1508). Lourenco de
uncivilised barbarians, ‘ treacherous and Almeida lost his life after a fierce fight in this battle.
untrustworthy”. Mamluk-Indian resistance was,,however, to
Portuguese Governors in India bedecisTvely defeatedat the-Battleof Diu (1509).
In March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was Alforte o De Albuquerque (1509-15) was the
appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he second Portuguese governor. He was the real founder
would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian of Portuguese empire in India. He encouraged his
coast: at Anjediva Island, Cannanore, Cochin and Qui countrymen to marry Indian women to increase the
Ion. Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of number of his supporters. The products of these
22 vessels with 1,500 men. In September, Francisco marriages were known as Feringhees. Albuquerque
de Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he made provisions for the education of the natives and
immediately started the - construction of Fort Anjediva. retained Indian system of government (Village
In October, with the permission of the friendly ruler of Panchayats) in the villages. He took steps to prohibit
Cannanore, he started building St. Angelo Fort at the practice of Sati.
Cannanore, leaving Lourengo de Brito in charge with A new fleet under Marshal Femao Coutinho
150 men and two ships. Francisco de Almeida then arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power
reached Cochin in October 1505 with only 8 vessels , of Zamorin’s Calicut. The Zamorin’s palace was
left. There he learned that the Portuguese traders at captured and destroyed and the city was set on fire.
Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son But the king’s forces rallied fast to kill Marshal Cutinho
Louren^o de Almeida with 6 ships, who destroyed 27 and wounded Albuquerque. Albuquerque nevertheless
Calicut vessels in the harbor of Quilon. Almeida took was clever enough to patch up his quanel and entered
up residence in Cochin. He strengthened the Portuguese into a treaty with the Zamorin in 1513 to protect
fortifications of fort . Manuel on Cochin. Portuguese interests in Malabar. Hostilities were
The Zamorin prepared a large fleet of 200 ships renewed when the Portuguese attempted to assassinate
to oppose the Portuguese, but in March S 1506 L the Zamorin sometime between 1515 and 1518. In
ourengo de Almeida (son of Francisco de Almeida) was 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Bijapur
victorious in a sea battle at the entrance to the harbor sultans with the help of Timayya, on behalf of the Hindu

48
Vijayanagara Empire, leading to the establishment of or natives with high status. Thus there are Portuguese
a permanent settlement in Velh’a Goa (or Old Goa). footprints all over the western and eastern coasts of
The Southern Produce, also known simply as Goa, was India, though Goa became the capital of Portuguese
the headquarters of Portuguese India, and seat of the Goa from 1530 onwards until the annexation of Goa
Portuguese viceroy who governed the Portuguese proper and the entire Estado da India Portuguesa, and
possessions in Asia.-There were Portuguese- its merger with the Indian Union in 1961.
settlements in and around Mylapore. The Luz Church The arrival-of Dutch in India
in Mylapore, Madras (Chennai) was the first church In 1593 AD under William Barents the Dutch
that the Portuguese built in Madras in 1516. Later in made their fust determined effort to reach Asia.
1522, the Sao Tome church was built on the grave of Huyghen /| Van Linscfioten was the first Dutch national
Saint Thomas. The Portuguese acquired several to reach India: He reached Goa in 1583 AD and stayed
territories from the Sultans of Gujarat: Daman there till 1589 AD. Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch citizen
(occupied 1531, formally ceded 1539); Salsette, reached India in 1596 AD and returned with large cargo
Bombay, and Bacaim (occupied 1534); and Diu (cedfd in 1597AD. Between 1595 AD and 1601 AD fifteen
1535). voyages b^d been by the Dutch to East Indies. The
These possessions became the Northern Province Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602 AD
of Portuguese India, which extended almost 100 km by~an order of the government of Holland. This
along the coast from Daman to Chaul, and in places company’s name was Vereenigdde Oost Indische
30-50 km inland. The province was ruled from the Compagnie (VOC).
fortress-town of Bagaim. The Dutch got favourable response from the rulers
From the 16th century, the Portuguese meddled ot Golkunda. They got the right to mint coin in the
in the church affairs of the Syrian Christians of Malabar. Pulicat mint in 1657 from Golkunda king. By the fannan
The Udayamperoor Synod (1599) was a major attempt of 1676 the Golkunda ruler granted the Dutch complete
by the Portuguese Archbishop Menezes to Latinize the freedom from tariffs in Golkunda. The Dutch succeeded
Syrian rite. Later in 1653, Coonan Cross Oath led to in getting farman from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir
the division ofthe local church into Syrian Catholics for trading along the west cost. They were exempted
and Syrian Christians (Jacobites). Bombay (present day from tolls from Burhanpur to Cambay and Ahmadabad.
Mumbai) was given to Britain in 1661 as part of the Shah Jahan granted total exemption to the company
Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza’s dowiy to from -: paying transit throughoutthe Mughal Empire.
Charles II of England. Most of the Northern Province Aurangzeb confirmed all the privileges granted by
was lost to the Marathas in 1739, and Portugal acquired Shahjahan to the Dutch in Bengal in 1662. Jahandar
Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1779. In 1843 the capital Shah confirmed all the privileges granted by Aurangzeb
was shifted to Panjim, then renamed “Nova Goa”, when in Coromandal in 1712.
it officially became the administrative seat of Initially the headquarters of Dutch was at Pulicat
Portuguese India, replacing the city of Velha Goa (now after obtaining permission from king of Chandragir
Old Goa), although the Viceroys lived there already Venkat l and in 1690 Negapattnam became their
since December 1759. Before moving to the city, the headquarters. The Dutch minted a gold coin named
viceroy remodeled the fortress of Adil Khan, Pagoda. The Dutch established their first factory at
transforming it into a palace. Masulipattnam in 1605 AD. Their first factory in
The Portuguese also shipped over many Orfas del Bengal was established at Pipli. After some time
Rei to Portuguese colonies in India, Goa in particular. Balasore replaced Pipli. The Dutch used to exchange
Orfas del Rei literally translates to “Orphans of the spices of Malaya A°rchipelago for cotton goods from
King”, and they were Portuguese girl orphans sent to Gujrat and the Coromandal coast. The Dutch used to
overseas colonies to many either Portuguese settlers export Cotton cloths, silk, saltpetre and opium from

49
Bengal. They shattered the Portuguese commercial The first English factoiy in south was established
monopoly in India. The Dutch dominated the trade at Masulipattnam in 1611 AD. Another factory was
between India and Java during l T century. They established at Armagaon (near Pulicat) in 1626AD. In
popularized spice and textile trade, besides they 1632 AD the Sultan of Golkunda issued the company
exported indigo, saltpetre and Raw Silk. The Dutch theGolden FamianXThis farman allowed them to trade
commercial activities began to dec line by the beginning within-the ports of the kingdom freely on lump sum
of I8th century?’ payment of 500 pagodas a year. In 1639 AD Francis
The Dutch were defeated by the English in the Day obtained the site of. Madras from the Raja
Battle of Bedera in 1759 and with this defeat th Dutch ofChandragiri with pennission to build a fortified
influence in India almost came to an end. The English factory. This factoiy was named Fort St. George. In
decided to drive the Dutch away from their Indian Sep. 1641 AD Madras replaced Masulipattnam as the
possessions. The English joined hands with the headquarters of the English on the Coromandal coast.
Portuguese in India to drive the Dutch out. By 1795, All the English settlements in Eastern India (Bengal,
the English succeeded in expelling the Dutch Bihar and Orissa) and the Coromandal were placed
completely. under the control of the President and Council of Fort
English East India Company St. George. The Portuguese gave the island to Bombay
to King Charles II of England in dowiy in 1661 AD.
The “English Trading Company” was formed by
Bombay was given to company in 1668 AD on annual
a group of merchants known as the ‘Merchant
rent of £ 10. Thereafter Bombay replaced Surat as the
Adventures’in 1599AD. This company was granted a
headquarters on the west coast. Bombay was fortified
charier by Queen Elizabeth Ion 3151 Dec. 1600 AD.
in 1720 by Charles Boon.
‘The Governor and the Company of Merchants of
London trading into East Indies’ was the name of Expansion of the factories of English East India
English company. This company was given monopoly Company
rights over eastern trade for fifteen years. The English established their first factory in Orissa
In 1608 AD Captain William Hawkins reached at Hariharpur (near the mouth of river Mahanadij,
the court of Jahangir. Hawkins was the ambassador of Balasoreand Pipli in 1633 AD. In 1651 ShahShuja, the
King James I. He lived at the court for three years. He governor of Bengal, granted the English Trading
was given the title of English Khan and Mansab of400 Company a Nishan through which they received trading
Jat by Jahangir. But because of Portuguese influence privileges in return for a fixed annual” payment of Rs.
at the court. Hawkins failed to get permission to erect 3000. By another Nishan the Engl ish Company was
a factory at Surat. exempted from Custom duties in 1656 First English
factoiy inBengal was established at Hughli in 1651 AD.
In 1611 Capt. Middleton landed at Swally near
In 1667ADAurangzeb confirmed the privileges enjoyed
Surat in spite of Portuguese opposition and got
by the company. In 1672 AD Shayista Khan, the Mughal
permission to trade from the Mughal governor. In 1612
governor of Bengal confirmed the privileges enjoyed
AD Capt. Best defeated the Portuguese at Swally near
by the company.
Surat and this defeat broke their naval supremacy.
Captain Best succeeded in getting a royal Farman to In 1686 two pirate ships (Ships of English free
open factoriea in the Est Coast, Surat, Cambay, traders) captured several Mughal ships in Red Sea.
Ahamadabad and Goa 1913 AD. Sir Thomas Roe Upon this the Mughal governor of Surat attacked the
(1615-18) came to the court of Jahangir as the Royal English. Hostilities broke out in Bengal also. Hughli
ambassador of King James I and received permission was sacked by the Mughals,ThtfEnglish were forced
to trade and establish factories in different parts of the to leave Hughli. Aurangzeb granted them pennission
empire. to trade, on payment of Rs. 1,50,000 as compensation.
In 1691 AD Job Charnock established a factoiy at

50
Sutanati. In 1691 AD Aurangzeb granted a farman-by The internal management of the English company
which they were exempted from the of custom dutiesrin was administered by a court of committees whose
Bengal in return for an annual payment of Rs 3000. nomenclature later was changed to court of directors.
The rebellion of Shoba Singh, a Zamindarof Burdwan It consisted of a governor, a deputy governor, | and 24
provided opportunity to the English to fortify the members to be elected annually by a general body of
settlement at Sutanati. the merchants fonning the company. Besides, there was
Sir William Noris was sent as a special envoy by a secretary and a treasurer/The company’s superior
the English king to Aurangzeb’s court to secure the body court of directors was based in London while its
formal grant of the trading concessions and the right to subordinate body was in Asia. The Directors to be
exercise full English jurisdiction over the English annually elected by the | shareholders of the company.
settlements in 1698 AD. In the same year British Each shareholder, irrespective of the value of the share
acquired the Zamindari of the villages of Sutanati, had only one vote. The membership of the company
Kalikata and Govindpur from Mughal governor was not confined to shareholders only but it could be
Azimush Shah on payment of Rs 1200 to the original secured through inheritance or presentation by paying
proprietors. These three villages crested the nucleus of an entrance fee through apprenticeship, services etc.
modem Calcutta. The rebellion of Afghan Rahini Khan Company enjoyed extensive powers to issue orders and
provided the English opportunity to fortify Calcutta. It to make laws in accordance with the laws and customs
was named Fort William (1700 AD). Sir Charles Eyre of the realm. The company also possessed judicial
was the first president of Fort William. All settlements powers to punish its servants for : their offences by
in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were placed under Fort imprisonment or fine.
William (1700 AD) In India, each factory was administered by a
Emperor Farruksivar’s Farman Governor- in- council. The governor was the President
In 1717 AD the Presidencies of Bombay, Madras of the council with no extra privileges. Eveiything was
and Calcutta sent a cpmbined mission to the court ‘ of decided inthe council by majority Vote T: members of
Emperor Farruksiyar. The mission was led by John the council consisted of senior merchants of the
Sunnan. Dr. William Hamilton was a member of the company. The Court of Directors wa the supreme
Surman commission. He cured Fanuksiyar of a painful authority in framing policies for the company.
disease. The relieved Farruksiyar @ ias academy Queen Elizabeth was one ofthe shareholders of
granted the company three Farmans.in 1717 AD for the company. After Queen Elizabeth’s death, Jame. I
duty free trade. These Fannans of Fanuksiyar (1717) renewed the charter though it could be revoked at any
are called the Magna Carta of the Company. time at three year notice. The company go! the power
By this farman the Company was granted right to to enforce law to maintain discipline on long voyages.
duty free trade in Bengal in lieu of an annual” payment The Charter Act of 1683 AD gave the company full
of Rs. 3000. The Company was also allowed to power to declare war and make peace ^vith any power.
wherever they pleased and rent addition,: i territory In spite of all opposition English independent
around Calcutta. In case of province of Hyderabad, the merchants, known as Interlopers continued to defy the
English Company was allowed freedom from all dues monopoly ofthe company by indulging in the East
except rent paid for Madras. The Company was granted Indian trade of their own. These Free Merchants tried
right to duty free’ trade at Surat in lieu of an annual to press their demands in public as well as in Parliament.
payment of Rs. 10000. The currency coined by In 1694 AD the Parliament passed the resolution that
company was made current throughout the Mughal all the citizens of England had equal right to trade in
Empire. the East. In 1698 AD British Govt, sold the monopoly
rights of East Indies trade to a new company named
Development of the East India Company
General Society. The London Company was given a

51
notice of three to wind up the business. The Old a Director-General. The Supreme Council composed
Company refused to surrender their privileges. After of five members was presided over by the governor.
long drawn conflict both the companies agreed to join French East India Company was a state controlled
hands in 1702 AD. In 1708 AD a new I . mpany named organization and thus differed from the Chartered
The united Company of Merchants of England Trading Companies of England and the Netherlands. It was
to the East Indies’ was £ f r ed by amalgamating both highly dependent on the French § government for its
the companies. grants, subsidies, loans etc.
French East India Company The French maintained close ties with Dost-ali
The French were the last European traders to the Nawab of Camatic. On the basis of a strong
arrive in India. French East India Compan a fonaed recommendation by Dost-Ali the Mughal emperor
mder state patronage by Colbert in 1664 AD. The Muhammad Shah issued a farman granting permission
French company was named the i r iwyijif Des Indes to the French to mint and issue gold and silver currency
Orientals. In Dec 1667 AD the first French factors was bearing the stamp of the Mughal g emperor and the
set up at Surat by In 1669 AD Marcara set up a factory name ofthe place of minting.
at Masulij)attnam by securing a patent from the Sultan The Dutch blocked the French commercial
of Golkunda. They also succeeded in getting a farman activities at Hugli. They seized San Thome near Madras
from Aurangzeb in 1669 AD to open their factory at in 1672 but were soon defeated by combined forces of
Surat. In 1673 AD the French (Francois Martin & Sultan of Golkunda and the Dutch Later. Dutch
Bellanger De Lespinary acquired from the Muslim established their control over San Thome. In the Dutch-
governor of Valikoindapuram Sher Khan Lodi a small French rivalry t’ie Dutch were always I . supported by
village. This village developed into Pondichery and its the English. The Dutch captured Pondichery in 1692
first governor was Francois Martin. Fort Louis was AD from the French but later . gave back in 1697 by
established here. They acquired site of Chandemagore the Treaty of Ryswick.
in Bengal from he Mughal governor Shayista Khan in After 1742, the political motives began to
1674 AD. French factory was established here in 1690 overshadow commercial gains. The French governor
AD. Pondichery (Fort Louis) was made the %Duplex began the policy ofextending territorial
headquarters of all the French settlements in India and empire in India. This led to a series of conflict will the
Francois Martin become the governor general of French English. The French fought three Camatic wars with
affairs in India. the English. During the third Camatic War the French
French commander Martin readily acknowledged lost badly in the battle of Wandiwash in 1760 AD. With
the authority of Shivaji andagreed to pay him an-fj- 1 this defeat the French lost almost all their possessions
amount in lieu of license to trade in his dominions: in India. The battle ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1763
The French gotfye pennission to fortify Pondichery in AD. Pondichery and some . other French settlements
1689 from Sambhaji. Duplex was the most important were returned to’the French but they were not allowed
French Governor in India. to fortify their . settlements. The French continued to
The supreme body of the French Company was exist in India but they were no more a challenge to
known as superior council of the Indies and headed by English hegemony.

52
 14. THE REVOLT OF 1857

GENERAL SURVEY revolt; whether it was limited to the army or was it a

There was no aspect of public life which was popular rebellion.
untouched or unexploited by the colonial power. It However, the revolt of 1857 was the first and the
completely disrupted the traditional economy. The most severe outburst of anger and discontent
colonial regime hurt the religious sentiments of both accumulated in the hearts of Indian people ever since
the Hindus and Muslims in India and activities of the advent of British following the Battles of Plassey
Christian missionaries created suspicion. Politically, and Buxar. Though the apologists of imperialism
the arrogance and dictatorial attitude of Lord Dalhousie dubbed it as a ‘Sepoy Mutiny’, the Indian historians
and his predecessors shocked the traditional rulers of have praised it as the ‘First War of Indian
the country. His policy of annexation sent a wave of Independence’. In the words of Nehru: “It was much
resentment over the country. The annexation of Awadh more than a military mutiny and it rapidly spread and
for misgovernment was the most dangerous step which assumed the character of a popular rebellion and a war
put the government in bad faith. The conditions of of Indian independence”.
Indian sepoys, employed in the British army, were DETAILED ANALYSIS
heinous and unbearable. Slightest pretext was enough Causes of the Revolt of 1857
to play havoc, and this was supplied by the introduction It is in the very nature of colonial rule to exploit
of greased cartridges. The greased cartridges alone the conquered land. To quote Lenin: “There is no end
would not have, however, sufficed to provoke such an to the violence and plunder which is called British rule
explosion, there was a mix of political, social, economic in India”. When the English established their authority
as well as religious factors. through dual ‘government’ in Bengal, the financial
The Revolt began and spread like wild fire through bleeding of India began. Introduction of Permanent
most of north India. It was put down only after severe Settlement, huge and revenue assessment, burden of
military operations. The important incidents were: debt. The legal system, over-crowding and pressure on
• the siege of Delhi and its recovery by the British agriculture (due to de-industrialization) all led to the
force in late September, stagnation and determination of the peasants thus
• the military operations around Kanpur and alienating them from the British. The machine-made
Lucknow and; cotton goods from England ruined the weavers. In fact,
• the central Indian campaign in 1858 of Tantia Tope India underwent a commercial transformation and not
and the Rani of Jhansi. an industrial revolution. Introduction of England and
change in the nature of administration deprived the
In these events, several native Princes, Sikhs and
middle and upper classes of highly-paid posts. Those
certain other sections supported British operations.
who enjoyed the power and privilege under the
Besides, Deccan and south India was largely passive.
patronage of Indian States were now crumbled and
It was fought with great ferocity on both sides, and
crushed by the mighty British army.
reprisals were often savage.
The British Company confiscated a number of
There is also a general controversy on the nature
Jagirs form landlords and talukdars, especially from
and character of the revolt. Like - whether it was just a
Awadh (this shows why the revolt was so strong in this
mutiny as the British called it or the first national war
province). Even in the Deccan, the Inam Commission
of Indian Independence as characterized by nationalist
at Bombay, appointed by Lord Dalhousie, confiscated
historians; whether it was a spontaneous outburst of
some 20,000 estates in the early fifties of the 19th
sepoy discontent or an organized and premeditated
century. Following the annexation of native states,

53
thousands of soldiers serving them became jobless. For of Indian society as an attack on their time- honoured
instance, as many as 60,000 families lost their customs and practices. The people at large were alarmed
livelihood when Awadh’s army was disbanded. Even at the rapid spread of English education and Western
religious preachers, pandits and moulvis were divested civilization.
of their livelihood with the extinction of native SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES
kingdoms. Thus peasants, artisans, and a large number • Like every conqueror, English rulers of India were
of traditional zamindars and chiefs were seething with rude and arrogant towards the subjects and
anger and were seeking an opportunity to strike at the described the Hindus as barbarians with hardly
new regime which had deprived them of their traditional any trait of culture and civilization, while the
hold and livelihood. Muslims were dubbed as bigots, cruel and
ADMINISTRATIVE AND ECONOMIC CAUSES faithless.
• Annexation of Indian states deprived the Indian • There was discrimination on the basis of religion
aristocracy of the power and position which they in the administration and Judiciary between the
were enjoying earlier. Under the British rule all Indian and Europeans.
High Posts were reserved for the Europeans. • Indians were called as ‘nigger’ and ‘Suar’.
• New land revenue settlements made by the East • In the Religions Disabilities Act of 1850, provision
India Company in the newly-annexed states drove was made that change of religion did not debar a
poverty in the ranks or aristocracy and the peasants son from inheriting the property of his father. This
were the worst affected class due to the heavy was seen by the Indians as an act of conversion to
assessments and ruthless manner of collection. Christianity.
• The East India Company destroyed Indian • Further, strange rumours were current in the India
handicraft and industry by using its power and that Lord Canning is specially charged to convert
made Indian industry an appendage of a foreign Indians into Christianity.
exploitative system.
• Activities of Christian padris and Bethune towards
• Further, the Indian Handicraft and Industry was woman education made Indian’s feel that through
adversely affected due to the loss of its consumers education, the British were going to conquer their
in the country in the form of princes and civilization.
aristocrats.
The Indians were considered no better than the
The new regime created suspicion among the drawers of water and hewers of wood’. The foreignness
Indians that they would be converted to Christianity. of British was exposed by its treatment of Indians who
The activities of Christian missionaries and were subjected to the racial prejudices of he
establishments of Chaplains and Churches strengthened Englishmen. The later took pleasure in calling Indian
this fear. The religious sentiments of the people were the creatures of an inferior breed, ‘half Negro’. Dr.
further hurt when a tax was levied on property held by Majumdar points out the mood of the Indians when he
temples and mosques. An Act was passed in 1856 called says: “The impurity with which the members of the
the ‘General Services Enlistment Act’. which imposed royal race could insult, humiliate, injure and even kill
on the Indian sepoys the obligation to serve wherever the Indian subjects was far more galling to the people
required. They dreaded sea voyage and considered this than their political or even the more material losses
measure to be against their religious customs. By they suffered at the hands of the British.”
passing the Convert Inheritance Act in 1850, the Britsh
A wave of resentment rocked the country as a
made no secret of Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act of
sequel to Lord Dalhousie’s policy of annexation. Nana
1856, the abolition of the practices like Sati and
Sahib, the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II,
infanticide and even the introduction of railways and
was refused the pension which his father had been
the telegraph were viewed by the conservative sections
getting. Rani Laxmi Bai was not allowed to install her

54
adopted son on the throne after the death of her husband the ancestral Mughal palaces, this greatly angered
(1853). Nagpur met the same fate. The abolition of titles the Muslims.
of the Nawab of Carnatic and the Raja of Travancore • The Indians held that the existence of all states
was rude shock to the native princes. The house of the was threatened and absorption of all states was a
Mughals was humiliated when Lord Dalhousie question of time.
announced in 1849 that the successors of Bahadur Shah • The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur was
Zafar would not be allowed to use the historic Red Fort cancelled and they were restored to their rulers.
which is their Palace and must move to a place near
• When Dalhousie wanted to apply Doctrine of
the Qutub Minar. To add insult to injury, Lord Canning
lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was overruled
announced in 1856 that after the death of Bahadur Shah
by the Court of Directors.
Zafar, his successor would not be allowed to use the
They groused when they were required to go to
title of king. Awadh was annexed to the Company’s
strange and distant countries. The Bengal army
dominions in 1856 without satisfactory reason,
consisted of Hindu sepoys of high caste who disliked
although its ruler had always been faithful to the British
menial services and dreaded sea voyage which, they
Government (in fact, it was the immense potential of
believed, endangered their caste. Their discontent was
Awadh as a market of Manchester goods that prompted
expressed on many occasions before the Revolt of 1857
the imperialists to annex it).
also. The pent-up emotions of the Indian sepoys burst
The impression regarding the invincibility of the
forth in 1856 when they were ordered to use the new
British army was shattered when they were badly beaten
Enfield Rifles. The cartridges of which were greased
in the First Afghan War, the Anglo-Sindh wars and the
with the fat of cows and pigs. The sepoys had to remove
Santhal rebellion.
the greased covers of the cartridges with their teeth
The Indian soldiers who became the ladder for before loading them into the rifles. Both Hindu and
the Britishers to climb to the paramountcy were looked Muslim sepoys refused to use these cartridges and felt
down upon as inferiors by their superiors. They were that the English were defiling their religions. The issue
poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed. Indian soldiers, of cartridges fell on the already existing grievances as
formerly occupying high positions in the armies of spark on dry timber and very soon the whole country
native princes, could not rise above the rank of Risaldar from the Sutlej to the Narmada was ablaze.
or Subedar. They were grievously shocked when they
MILITARY CAUSES
were deprived even of their foreign service allowance.
• Three-fifth of the recruits of the Bengal Army was
POLITICAL CAUSES
drawn from Awadh and North-Western province
• Lord Dalhousie annexed Punjab, Pegu and Sikkim and most of them came from high castes such as
by the right to conquest. Brahmins and Rajputs who were averse to
• Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Baghat, Udaipur, accepting that part of the army discipline which
Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed by the treated them on par with the low caste recruits.
application of the Doctrine of Lapse. • Since most of the recruits in Army were from
• Awadh was the only state which was annexed on Awadh, the annexation of Awadh on the pretext
the pretext of the ‘mis-governance’. of mal-administration marked the rebellion mood
• The Regal titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic and in the army.
Tanjore were abolished. • In 1856, Lord Canning’s government passed the
• The Pension of Peshwa Baji Rao II’s adapted son General Service Enlistment Act which declared
called Nana Saheb was stopped. that all future recruits for the Bengal Army would
• Lord Canning declared that the next Mughal have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere
prince would have to renounce the regal title and even outside India. This was considered by the
caste Hindus as defiling of their religion because

55
 going oversea was considered by the Hindu’s as The tide of revolt touched its zenith in Awadh
being polluted religiously. where the common people the taluqdars to help the
• By the passing of the Post Office Act of 1854, the dispossessed Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. General Collin
privilege of free postage, so long enjoyed by the Campbell himself marched towards Lucknow at the
sepoys, was withdrawn. head of English and Gorkha soldiers. Finally, Lucknow
• In 1856, the Government decided to replace the fell into the hands of the British after a fierce battle in
old-fashioned musket “Brown Bess” by the March 1858.
“Enfield rifle”. The loading process of the Enfield Sir Hugh Rosled the British forces against the
rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth rebels in central India. The Rani of Jhansi was holding
and biting off the top paper with mouth. out with the help of Tantia Tope. Jhansi was taken by
In February 1857, the 19th Native Infantry at heavy attack in April 1858, but Rani Lakhshmi Bai
Berhampur refused to use the cartridges but, before slipped away and managed to occupy the stronghold
the tide could turn against the British, it was disbanded. of Gwalior. Finally, the Rani; ‘the best and bravest’ of
In March 1857, Mangal Pande, a young officer of 34th the rebel leaders, as Sir Hugh Rose described her, fell
N.I. at Barrackpur wounded his officer, an Englishman. fighting in June and Gwalior fell into the hands of the
He was hanged and even this unit was disbanded. This English. Tantia Tope carried on a guerrilla campaign
news travelled to Meerut cantonment. In May 1857, in the traditional Maratha fashion with great skill until
when the new cartridges were issued to 90 Indians in April 1859 when he was caught and hanged.
Meerut, 85 of them refused to use them. These 85 In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a
soldiers were court-martialled and sentenced to ten Zamindar of Jagdishpur, who played a dominant part
years imprisonment. After a few days the excited in the revolt despite his old age. He fought the British
cavalrymen attacked the jail where the 85 persons were in Bihar and then joined Nana Sahib’s forces and took
imprisoned. The sky was rent with deafening shouts of part in various encounters with the English in Awadh
‘Maro Firangee Ko’. The same night the mutineers and central India. He died in April 1858 leaving behind
marched to Delhi and thousand able- bodied civilians a glorious record of valour and bravery.
also joined them. Maulvi Ahmadullah, a native of Madras, led the
The British Garrison at Delhi could not resist the revolt at Faizabad. The Muslim community under his
rebels and consequently fell into their hands. The command took part in various battles in Awadh and
Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, joined the Rohilkhand. He was, however treacherously killed.
revolutionaries after initial vacillations and was At Kanpur, the struggle was led by Nana Sahib.
proclaimed Emperor of India. Here, the mutineers were The British commander Hugh Wheeler, finding the
headed by General Bakht Khan, the person responsible odds heavy against him, surrendered in June 1857. Only
for leading the Bareilly troops to Delhi. The loss of with the arrival of a large force under General Havelock
Delhi lowered the prestige of the British in India. To was Kanpur recaptured after defeating Nana Sahib in
retrieve their prestige they put everything at stake and a hotly contested battle in June 1858. In the meantime,
Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British contingent Tantia Tope was successful in winning over the troops
under John Nicholson. After a long siege of four at Shivajinagar and Moral by appealing to their sense
months, the British were able to recover Delhi in of patriotism. With the concerted strength of these
September 1857. Bhadur Shah II was captured at the troops, Nana Sahib and Tantia Tope recaptured Kanpur
tomb of Humayun. Two of his sons and a grandson in November 1858. But this was only a short term
were shot in cold blood before his eyes. The emperor victory. The British under Campbell, won a decisive
was deported to Rangoon where he died in the year victory against the force of Nana Sahib in a battle. Nana
1862. The other highlights were the operations around Sahib fled toward Nepal where he probably died after
Kanpur, Lucknow, Gwalior, Jhansi, Bihar and Faizabad. sometime.

56
 Officers Places where they suppresed rebellion
John Nicholson Delhi
Havelok, Outram Lucknow
& Sri Colion Campbell
Sir Colin Campbell Kanpur
Sir Hugh Rose Jhansi
Col Neill Banaras
Leaders Their fate after the revolt
Bahadur Shah Zafar Imprisoned and deported to Rangoon where he died natural death.
Nana Saheb Fled to Nepal
Begum Hazrat Mahal Fled to Nepal
Khan Bahadur Died Fighting
Rani Laxmibai Died Fighting
Kunwar Singh Died Fighting
Maulvi Ahmadullah Died Fighting
Tantia Tope Treacherously Murdered in the forest of central india.

By mid-1853 the revolt was violently crushed. It this comforting belief were that the Sikhs remained
is not necessary to follow the complicated operations loyal and that the native states which had escaped
of the British to put down the Great Revolt. But it can annexation were mostly neutral. The British
be said that it was a popular revolt in north India, as concentrated on the greased cartridges, the activities
was evidenced by the British operations against entire of the rebellious sepoys, and the British campaigns of
villages in almost all the places where the uprising took 1857-58. The civil unrest which accompanied the
place. mutiny was made to look insignificant or ignored
Nature of Revolt: Divergent views altogether. But the popular participation in the revolt
Divergent opinions have been expressed regarding is an open secret. The speed with which it spread and
the nature or the great out break of 1857. These views the swelling mass sympathies cannot be ignored in
may be broadly divided into two categories. One section characterizing the revolt. The fact that the British army
considers it as primarily a mutiny of sepoys though in burnt and massacred villages in large numbers shows
certain areas it drifted into a revolt of the people. The how popular the revolt was.
other category expresses a feeling that the revolt was Indians, generally speaking, subscribe to the view
really a rebellion of the people rather than merely a of V.D. Savarkar who called it the \'First War of Indian
mutiny of the soldiers and goes further to state that it Independence\’. But a general revolt or a war of
was indeed the first war of Indian independence. Both independence necessarily implies definite plan and
these views need a detailed examination before coming organization. The circumstances, under which Bahadur
to a conclusion. Shah, Nana Saheb, Rani Lakshmi and other cast in their
After much uneasy and unconvincing argument, lot, with the mutinous sepoys, were rebelling, are
British historians, anxious to minimize Indian sufficient to expose the limitations of the theory that it
grievances and to preserve the good faith of their was a struggle for independence. All the leaders had
country, for many years insisted that the rising was their own axes to grind. Bahadur Shah\’s association
nothing more than a sepoy mutiny. They viewed it as a with the rebels was half-hearted. Rani Lakshmi of
wholly unpatriotic and selfish attempt with no native Jhansi offered to stop her resistance if her adopted son
leadership and no popular support. The main pillars of was recognized as the legal heir to the throne.

57
 The sudden and unexpected way in which the conspiracy. But this mysterious circulation of chapattis
unity spread across the country has always excited the in the villages of northern India does not provide any
suspicion that it must have been planned in advance. satisfactory explanation. The chapattis apparently
Many Englishmen could, in fact find no explanation meant differently to different people and to many
for this baffling outbreak other that deliberate signified nothing at all. Thus, it will be totally
conspiracy. The wide circulations of chapattis just misleading to say that the revolt was the result of careful
before the outbreak of 1857 is regarded by many as an and secret organization.
important evidence in favour of an organized

Western Historians Their Views about the nature of Revolt

Sir John Lawrence and Seeley "Sepoy's Mutiny"
L.E.R. Rees "A war of fanatic religion ists against Christians."
T.R. Holmes "Conflict between civilization and barbarism."
Sri James Outram "A result of Hindu-Muslim conspiracy".
W. Taylor" It was a Mohammedan Conspiracy making capital of Hindu grievances."
Benjamin Disraeli "A National rising."
Prof. Stanley Wolpert "It was far more than a muting... yet much less than a first war
of independence."

It would also be a travesty of truth to describe the A large section of people, in fact, actively cooperated
Revolt of 1857 as a national war of independence. with British during the revolt. Thus it can be said that
National, it certainly was not, for the upsurge of the the so-called first war of independence was neither first
people was limited to mainly North India. Moreover, nor national nor a war of independence. It was definitely
nationalism of the modern type was yet to come. No something more than a sepoy mutiny but something
leader of the revolt had even the slightest idea of what less than a national revolt. It took place everywhere in
sort of power should replace British authority once it the name of one sovereign and under one flag. The
was overthrown. Moreover, in this violent upheaval, rapidity with which the revolt progressed and the vast
the civil participants were not so much against the area over which it spread proves that it enjoyed, in that
political supremacy of British as against the whole new area at least, strong mass support.
order of things which they were importing into India.
Modern Indian Historians Their views about the Revolt
V.D. Sararkar "A planned war of National Independence."
R.C. Majumdar "Neither first nor National nor War of Independence."
Dr. S.N. Sen "What began as mutiny ended as a war of Independence."
Dr. S.B. Chaudhary "Revolt of 1857 can be bifurcated into two sub-divisions;
mutiny and rebellion."

Religious flavour: The war was fought as much in the espionage services of the rebels. Though religious
for Swadharma as against the discontentment. Religious feelings strengthened the courage and compose of the
grievances formed an important ingredient of the rebels, it did not make them fanatical. Religion
dynamite that caused the explosion. A ‘maulvi’ aur a heightened the appeal of the revolt but its content
‘pundit’ used to be attached to every regiment to remained predominantly political. Its leaders were
minister to the spiritual needs of the men. Fakirs temporal, not spiritual, spokesmen of society.
(beggars) are reported to have played an important part

58
Was it backward looking? Reasons of Failure
The revolt reflected the social ethos of the time. • The Revolt of 1857 was limited to the areas of
It was infused with traditional as well modernist ideas. Awadh, Rohilkhand, Delhi, Kanpur, Western
Any assessment of its character must carefully review Bihar and some portion of Central India. A large
this duality at its core. This revolution, however, was part of country remained not only unaffected, but
an attempt to return to the earlier and traditional relation also helped in suppression of the revolt.
in rejecting the new classes who had supplanted them, • A large section of society, particularly the middle
the old and traditional ruling classes were assisted by class intelligentsia and barring the peasantry class
their former subjects. In fzact, it can be said that it was of Oudh the peasants as well as the lower castes
the decaying reactionary element, the discontented were totally kept away from the revolt.
princes and feudal forces, which led the opposition.
• The Superior weapons and better discipline in the
They were joined by common people who were
British Army and use of Electric telegraph was
groaning under the burden of over taxation, rack-renting
far advanced against the old-fashioned and
and social humiliation. The revolt was thus a feudal
traditional weapons of Indian soldiers.
upheaval.
• The Revolt was ill-organized.
Failure of the Revolt
Lack of planning, organization and leadership • Indians had no match to the exceptional military
were some of the most important causes for the failure leader’s the East India Company had in the form
of the revolt. The leaders had no clear cut plans and of Lawrence, Nicholson, Outram, Havelok and
targets. The movement lacked a leader who could Edwards.
command obedience from all and put up a concerted Significance
action. The leaders of the revolt could never agree on a It was a glorious landmark in in history in as much
common plan. They were mutually jealous and as Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder
continually intrigued against one another. In fact, these against a common enemy. Though the revolt was
personal jealousies and intrigues were largely unsuccessful, the spirit of the people remained
responsible for the Indian defeat. unshaken. The revolt left an indelible impression on
It was a tragedy that some of the princes helped the minds of the Indian people and thus paved the way
the British to suppress a bid for freedom by their for the rise of a strong national movement. In the words
compatriots. Sikh princes of Nabha, Patiala and of Dr. Majumdar - ‘It has been said that Julius Caesar
Kapurthala and the rulers of Hyderabad and Gwalior when dead was more powerful than when he was alive.
openly helped the British with men and money. Holkar The same thing may be said about the revolt of 1857.
and Sindhia remained loyal to the British. Regarding Whatever might have been its original character, it soon
Sindhia’s help, General Innes says: “His loyalty saved became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British
India for the British”. power in India. It remained a shining example before
The money lenders (who were the targets of attack the nascent nationalism in India in its struggle for
by the villagers) and educated Indians (who thought freedom from the British yoke’
that the British would destroy the feudal forces) also After the revolt of 1857, the British rule in India
did support the revolt. Besides, Bombay, Madras, underwent major transformation in its policy. It started
Bengal, Rajputana and western Punjab did not protecting and fostering the princes as its puppets. The
participate in the revolt. reactionary social and religious survivals were jealously
The superior resources of the British in men, guarded and preserved against the demands of
money and materials, their control over the seas, better progressive Indian opinion for their reform. After initial
means of communication at their command and the help harsh treatment of Muslims, the rulers started talking
from the natives put them definitely in an advantageous for the betterment of the Muslim subjects. Realising
position. that Hindu-Muslim unity would pose a serious danger

59
to them, the British re-employed the policy of “Divide 65,000 and the number of Indian troops reduced
and Rule” from the pre-1857 figure of 238,000 to 140,000.
Impact of the Revolt All higher posts in the army and police were
• The Administration of the India was transferred reserved for Europeans.
from the East India Company to the Crown by the Direct consequence: The direct result of the revolt
Government of India Act, 1858. The Act of 1858 was the end of the Company’s rule and the passing of
provided for the appointment of a Secretary of the responsibility of the Indian administration of British
State for India, who was to be assisted by an India into the hands of the British Queen and the
Advisory Council of Fifteen. Eight members are Parliament. The Board of Control was abolished and
to be nominated by the Crown and seven members the Board of Directors was done away with. An Office
are to be selected by the Court of Directors. of Secretary of State for India with a 15-member council
• The Queen’s announcement declared against any was constituted for the administration of India. The
desire for extension of territorial possessions and designation of the Governor-General was changed to
promised to respect the rights, dignity and honour Viceroy. While he remained Governor General for the
of native princes. provinces under his rule, he came to be known as
• Indian army was thoroughly re-organized, the Viceroy while dealing with Nawab, Rajas and native
strength of European troops in Indian army was princes. The army was reorganized thoroughly. The
increased from the pre-1857 figure of 45,000 to economic exploitation of India became more serious
and much wider.

60
 15. GOVERNORS-GENERAL

GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS OF (v) Treaty of Bassein (1802).

INDIA : SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THEIR 5. Sir George Barlow 1805-1807
RULE Vellore Mutiny (1806).
Governors-Genera I 6. Lord Minto I 1807-1813
1. Warren Hastings 1773-1785 Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).
(i) Regulating Act of 1773. 7. Lord Hastings 1813-1823
(ii) Act of 1781, under which the powers of (i) Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) and the Treaty
jurisdiction between the governor-general- of Sagauli, 1816.
in-council and the Su-preme Court at (ii) Third Maratha War (1817-19) and
Calcutta, were clearly divided. dissolution of Maratha Confederacy;
(iii) Pitt’s India Act of 1784. creation of Bombay Presidency (1818).
(iv) The Rohilla War of 1774. (iii) Strife with Pindaris (1817-1818).
(v) The First Maratha War in 1775-82 and the (iv) Treaty with Sindhia (1817).
Treaty of Salbai in 1782. (v) Establishment of Ryotwari System by
(vi) Second Mysore War in 1780-84. Thomas Munro, governor of Madras (1820).
(vii) Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the 8. Lord Amherst 1823-1828
Maharaja of Benaras, which led to Hastings’ (i) First Burmese War (1824-1826).
subsequent im-peachment in England. (ii) Capture of Bharatpur (1826).
(viii)Foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 9. Lord William Bentinck 1828-1835
(1784). (i) Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829).
2. Lord Comwallis 1786-1793 (ii) Suppression of thugi (1830).
(i) Third Mysore War (1790-92) and Treaty of (iii) Charter Act of 1833.
Seringa- patam (1792).
(iv) Resolution of 1835, and educational reforms
(ii) Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating and introduction of English as the official
several judicial reforms, and separation of language.
revenue administration and civil jurisdiction.
(v) Annexation of Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834)
(iii) Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 1793. and Cen-tral Cachar (1834).
(iv) Europeanisation of administrative machinery (vi) Treaty of ‘perpetual friendship’ with Ranjeet
and in-troduction of civil services. Singh.
3. Sir John Shore 1793-1798 (vii) Abolition of the provincial courts of appeal
(i) Charter Act of 1793. and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment
(ii) Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the of commissioners of revenue and circuit.
Marathas (1795). 10. Lord Metcalfe 1835-1836
4. Lord Wellesley 1798-1805 New press law removing restrictions on the press
(i) Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance in India.
System (1798); first alliance with Nizam of 11. Lord Auckland 1836-1842
Hyderabad. (i) First Afghan War (1838-42).
(ii) Fourth Mysore War (1799). (ii) Death of Ranjit Singh (1839).
(iii) Second Maratha War (1803-05). 12. Lord Ellenborough 1842-1844
(iv) Took over the administration of Tanjore (i) Annexation of Sindh (1843).
(1799), Surat (1800) and Carnatic (1801).
(ii) War with Gwalior (1843).

61
13. Lord Hardinge I 1844-1848 4. Lord Mayo 1869-1872
(i) First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and the (i) Opening of the Rajkot College in Kathiawar
Treaty of Lahore (1846). and the Mayo College at Ajmer for political
(ii) Social reforms including abolition of female training of Indian princes.
infanti-cide and human sacrifice. (ii) Establishment of Statistical Survey of India.
14. Lord Dalhousie 1848-1856 (iii) Establishment of Department of Agriculture
(i) Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and and Com-merce.
annexation of Punjab (1849). (iv) Introduction of state railways.
(ii) Annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu (1852). 5. Lord Northbrook 1872-1876
(iii) Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse and (i) Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875.
annexation of Satara (1848)/ Jaitpur and (ii) Trial of Gaekwar of Baroda.
Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (iii) Kuka Movement in Punjab.
(1853), Nagpur (1854) and Awadh (1856).
6. Lord Lytton 1876-1880
(iv) “Wood’s (Charles Wood, President of the
(i) Famine of 1876-78 affecting Madras,
Board of Control) Educational Despatch” of
Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of
1854 and opening of Anglo-vernacular
central India and Punjab; ap-pointment of
schools and government colleges.
Famine Commission under the presiden-cy
(v) Railway Minute of 1853; and laying down of Richard Strachey (1878).
of first railway line connecting Bombay and
(ii) Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria
Thane in 1853.
assuming the title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ or
(vi) Telegraph (4000 miles of telegraph lines to Queen Empress of India.
connect Calcutta with Bombay, Madras and
(iii) The Vernacular Press Act (1878).
Peshawar) and postal (Post Office Act, 1854)
reforms. (iv) The Arms Act (1878).
(vii) Ganges Canal declared open (1854); (v) The Second Afghan War (1878-80).
establishment of separate public works 7. Lord Ripon 1880-1884
department in every province. (i) Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882).
(viii)Widow Remarriage Ait (1856). (ii) The first Factory Act (1881) to improve
15. Lord Canning 1856-1857 labour con-ditions.
(i) Establishment of three universities at (iii) Continuation of financial decentralisation.
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857. (iv) Government resolution on local self-
(ii) Revolt of 1857. government (1882).
Viceroys (v) Appointment of Education Commission
1. Lord Canning 1858-1862 under chair-manship of Sir William Hunter
(1882).
(i) Transfer of control from East India Company
to the Crown, the Government of India Act, (vi) The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883-84).
1858. (vii) Rendition of Mysore.
(ii) ‘White Mutiny’ by European troops in 1859. 8. Lord Dufferin 1884-1888
(iii) Indian Councils Act of 1861. (i) The Third Burmese War (1885-86).
2. Lord Elgin I 1862-1863 (ii) Establishment of the Indian National
Wahabi Movement Congress.
3. Lord John Lawrence 1864-1869 9. Lord Lansdowne 1888-1894
(i) Bhutan War (1865) (i) Factory Act (1891).
(ii) Setting up of the High Courts at Calcutta, (ii) Categorisation of civil services into imperial,
Bombay and Madras (1865). provi-sional and subordinate.
(iii) Indian Councils Act (1892).

62
 (iv) Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to (iv) Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916)
define the Durand Line between India and after Gandhi’s return; launch of Champaran
Afghanistan (now between Pakistan and Satyagraha (1916), Kheda Satyagraha
Afghanistan). (1918), and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad
10. Lord Elgin II 1894-1899 (1918).
Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar (v) Montagu’s August Declaration (1917).
broth-ers (1897). (vi) Government of India Act (1919).
11. Lord Curzon 1899-1905 (vii) The Rowlatt Act (1919).
(i) Appointment of Police Commission (1902) (viii)Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (1919).
under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police (ix) Launch of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat
administration. Movements.
(ii) Appointment of Universities Commission (x) Foundation of Women’s University at Poona
(1902) and passing of Indian Universities Act (1916) and appointment of Saddler ’s
(1904). Commission (1917) for reforms in
(iii) Establishment of Department of Commerce educational policy.
and Industry. (xi) Death of Tilak (August 1, 1920).
(iv) Calcutta Corporation Ac’ (1899). (xii) Appointment of S.P. Sinha as governor of
(v) Ancient Monuments Preservation Act Bihar (the first Indian to become a governor).
(1904). 15. Lord Reading 1921-1926
(vi) Partition of Bengal (1905). (i) Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922)
(vii) Curzon-Kitchener coi troversy. and the subsequent withdrawal of Non-
(viii)Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet 1904). Cooperation Move-ment.
12. Lord Minto II 1905-1910 (ii) Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921).
(i) Popularisation of anti-partition and Swadeshi (iii) Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the
Move-ments. Rowlatt Act of 1919.
(ii) Split in Congress in the annual session of (iv) Criminal Law Amendment Act and abolition
1907 in Surat. of cotton excise.
(iii) Establishment of Muslim League by Aga (v) Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi,
Khan (1906). Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta.
13. Lord Hardinge II 1910-1916 (vi) Kakori train robbery (1925).
(i) Creation of Bengal Presidency (like Bombay (vii) Murder of Swami Shraddhanand (1926).
and Madras) in 1911. (viii)Establishment of Swaraj Party by C.R. Das
(ii) Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi and Motilal Nehru (1922).
(1911). (ix) Decision to hold simultaneous examinations
(iii) Establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha for the ICS both in Delhi and London, with
(1915) by Madan Mohan Malaviya. effect from 1923.
(iv) Coronation durbar of King George V held 16. Lord Irwin 1926-1931
in Delhi (1911). (i) Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928)
14. Lord Chelmsford 1916-1921 and the boycott of the commission by the
(i) Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Indians.
Besant and Tilak (1916). (ii) An All-Parties Conference held at Lucknow
(ii) Lucknow session of the Congress (1916). (1928) for suggestions for the (future)
Constitution of India, the report of which was
(iii) Lucknow pact between the Congress and
called the Nehru Report or the Nehru
Muslim League (1916).
Constitution.

63
 (iii) Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian (iv) Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation
States Commission (1927). of the Forward Bloc (1939).
(iv) Murder of Saunders, the assistant (v) Lahore Resolution (March 1940) by the
superintendent of police of Lahore; bomb Muslim League, demand for separate state
blast in the Assembly Hall of Delhi (1929); for Muslims.
the Lahore Conspiracy Case and death of (vi) ‘August Offer” (1940) by the viceroy; its
Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike criticism by the Congress and endorsement
(1929), and bomb accident in train in Delhi by the Mulsim League.
(1929). (vii) Winston Churchill elected prime minister of
(v) Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Puma England (1940).
Swaraj Resolution. (viii)Escape of Subhash Chandra Bose from India
(vi) Dandi March (March 12, 1930) by Gandhi (1941) and organisation of the Indian
to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. National Army.
(vii) ‘Deepavali Declaration’ by Lord Irwin (ix) Cripps Mission’s Cripps Plan to offer
(1929). dominion status to India and setting up of a
(viii) Boycott of the First Round Table Conference Constituent Assembly; its rejection by the
(1930), Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) and Congress.
suspension of Civil Disobedience (x) Passing of the ‘Quit India Resolution’ by the
Movement. Congress (1942); outbreak of ‘August
17. Lord Willingdon 1931-1936 Revolution’; or Revolt of 1942 after the
(i) Second Round Table Conference (1931) and arrest of national leaders.
failure of the conference, resumption of Civil (xi) ‘Divide and Quit’ slogan at the Karachi
Disobedience Movement. session (1944) of the Muslim League.
(ii) Announcement of Communal Award (1932) 19. Lord Wavell 1944-1947
under which separate communal electorates (i) C. Rajagopalachari’s CR Formula (1944),
were set up. failure of Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944).
(iii) ‘Fast unto death’ by Gandhi in Yeravada (ii) Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference
prison, broken after the Poona Pact (1932). (1942).
(iv) Third Round Table Conference (1932). (iii) End of Second World War (1945).
(v) Launch of Individual Civil Disobedience (iv) Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and
(1933). its acceptance by the Congress.
(vi) The Government of India Act of 1935. (v) Observance of ‘Direct Action Day’ (August
(vii) Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
(1936) and Congress Socialist Party by (vi) Elections to the Constituent Assembly,
Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash formation of Interim Government by the
Narayan (1934). Congress (September 1946).
(viii)Burma separated from India (1935).. (vii) Announcement of end of British rule jft
18. Lord Linlithgow 1936-1944 fn.dia by Clement Attlee (prime minister of
(i) First general elections (1936-37); Congress England) on Feb-ruary 20, 1947.
attained absolute majority. 20. Lord Mountbatten 1947-1948
(ii) Resignation of the Congress ministries after (i) June Third Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
the out-break of the Second World War (ii) Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in
(1939). the House of Commons.
(iii) Subhash Chandra Bose elected as the (iii) Appointment of two boundary commissions
president of Congress at the fifty-first session under Sir Cyril Radcliff for the partition of
of the Congress (1938). Bengal and Punjab.

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 16. EARLY NATIONALISTS AND MILITANT NATIONALISTS

A fundamental difference existed between the with a view to unite the Indian people on the basis of
policy and programmes of the early nationalists and common economic and political programme.
the militant nationalists. It is essentially due to this that Moderates’ Programme
the first group of nationalists (early nationalists) are Moderates desired to create a national political
described as the ‘moderates’, and the second group platform on which all Indians belonging to different
(militant nationalists) as the ‘extremists’ and the regions, religions and social classes could agree and
consequent periodisation of the Indian nationalist which could serve as the basis for all-India political
movement into the moderates era (1885-1905), the activity whose basic aim was not just good government,
extremist era (1905-1919) and the Gandhian era (1919- but democratic self government. The Indian National
1947). Though much can be said in favour of this Congress, for instance, was established apart from other
division of the Indian nationalist movement, the basic reasons with the hope to provide a national political
continuities and changes involved in this periodisation platform and thus promote close contact and friendly
are subject to diverse opinions. As a matter of fact, relations among active nationalists from different parts
there has existed a general tendency to overlook some of the country.
of the basic continuities from the early nationalist or From the beginning the moderates believed that
the so called moderate era to the militant nationalist India should eventually move towards democratic self-
era or the extremist era. To see discontinuities or government. But they did not demand immediate
changes where none existed, and to over emphasize or fulfillment of this goal. Instead, they suggested a
wrongly interpret the change that did occur. gradual approach towards it. Their immediate political
THE MODERATES demands were extremely moderate. Initially, they
The moderates did not advocate a direct struggle demanded that Indians should be given a large share in
for the political emancipation of the country, instead, the government by expanding and reforming the
they worked towards a number of political existing legislative Councils. They also demanded the
achievements. The most important of these activities widening of the powers of the councils and an increase
were: in the powers of the members who were to be the elected
• completion of the process of unifying Indian representatives of the people. The Indian Councils Acts
people into a nation, of 1892 and 1909 were passed mainly due to the efforts
• creation of a national political platform, of the moderates, though these Acts did not secure much
for the Indians. But by the turn of the 19th century, the
• exposing the exploitative character of British
moderates made good progress in their political,
imperialism,
demands. Their demands were no longer confined to
• introduction of modern politics, petty reforms but were extended to full self-
• creation of a feeling of self-confidence among government, including full Indian control over all
Indians, legislation and finances, on the model of the self-
• promotion of the growth of a modern capitalist government colonies of Canada and Australia. This
economy in India, etc. demand was initially made by Dadabhai Naoraji in 1904
They were fully aware of the fact that India was a and later by Gokhale in 1905.
nation in making and Indian nationhood was gradually Economic Critique: Exposing the exploitative
coming into being and could not, therefore, be taken character of British imperialism and spreading their
for granted. They were also aware that the political understanding of the British rule in India among the
leaders had to constantly work for the development and people was another important item on the agenda of
consolidation of the feeling of national unity the moderates. They took note of all the three forms of
irrespective of region, caste or religion. The economic contemporary economic exploitation, namely, through
and political demands of the moderates were formulated trade, industry and finance. Realizing that the essence

65
of British imperialism lay into subordination of the in the hold of the British over India’s economy and
Indian economy to that of Britain, they strongly polity.
opposed the British attempts to develop in India the Remedy: The chief remedy they suggested for
basic characteristics of the economy, viz., the the removal of poverty was the modernization of Indian
transformation of India into a supplier of raw materials, life in all fields and, in particular, the development of
a market for British manufacturers and a field of modern industries, which are essential for the proper
investment for capital. Moreover, in every sphere of growth of a capitalist economy. But rapid
economic life they advocated the lessening and even industrialization required active state assistance and a
severance of India’s economic dependence on England. policy of tariff protection. So, they urged the British
Agitations: Besides, they organized many government to aid Indian industries through financial
agitations against all the important official economic subsidies, loans and guarantees through state-aided or
policies based on the colonial structure. For instance, controlled banks, by borrowing abroad and lending in
they organized a powerful all-India agitation against India, by pioneering state-owned industries in fields
the abandonment of tariff duties on imports from 1857 such as steel and mining which Indian capitalists were
to 1880 and against the imposition of cotton excise too weak to enter, but which were essential for
duties in 1849-96. This agitation played a major role industrial development, by collecting and disseminating
in arousing country-wide national feelings and in industrial and commercial information and by
educating the people regarding the real aims and promoting technical education.
purpose of British rule in India. Thus, all the efforts of Constraints: The task was difficult for Moderates
the moderates finally resulted in the growth of an all- since Indians were utterly unfamiliar with modern
India opinion that the British were exploiting India and politics. Even the notion that people could organize
thus leading to its impoverishment, economic themselves politically in opposition to their rulers was
backwardness and under development. a novel one. Consequently their work proceeded rather
Sovereignty: Another important programme of slowly and it took more than half a century to bring the
the moderates was the introduction of modern politics common people within the fold of modern politics.
based on the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people THE EXTERMISTS
and on the notion that politics is not the preserve of the
The programmes of the militant nationalist or the
ruling class only. They formed several political
extremists were almost similar to those of the
associations, including the Indian National Congress,
moderates. Their programmes were built on their
to spread political education and to initiate political
predecessors’ programmes and their i.e., the moderates
work in the country. This work was to be based on new
concrete exposure of the character of the British rule
political ideas, a new intellectual perception of reality,
in India. But they differed from the latter in one
new socio-economic and political objectives, new
important respect, i.e., the extremists demanded
forces of struggle and resistance and new techniques
complete independence, while the moderates were
of political organization. It was to represent a turning
content with democratic self-government as in the
point in ideology, policy, organization and leadership.
colonies of Australia and Canada.
Capitalism: They also wanted to promote the
However, this difference in their political goals
growth of modern capitalist economy in India. They
was not substantial as the moderates were as much
rightly believed that the British economic policies were
interested in the question of political power as the
responsible for bringing about the ruin of India\’s
extremists. In fact, Tilak himself repeatedly pointed
traditional handicraft industries and for obstructing the
out that there were no real difference between him and
development of modern industries. Most of them
the moderates regarding the goals of the national
opposed the large scale import of foreign capital for
movement. The moderates did not strive for complete
investment in the Indian railways, plantations and
independence mainly because of the feeling that the
industries on the ground that it would lead to the
time was not yet ripe for it. It is interesting to note here
suppression of Indian capitalists and a further increase
that even Tilak had no hesitation in going back time

66
and again from the demand for complete independence Different Concept: The extremists evolved a
to dominion status. higher concept of the forms of political struggle in order
Thus, the basis difference between the early to improve the techniques of political action. In other
nationalist and the militant nationalists did not lie in words, the extremists apart from employing the
their programme or in a different definition of the moderate forms of agitation gave a call for passive
nationalist political goal. The real difference, if there resistance, to cooperate with the government and to
was any, lay in their policies or the methods of struggle boycott, government service, government courts and
to achieve the agreed goals. In other words, the government schools and colleges. But they were unable
difference was not in the programmes or what was to to implement this concept fully and as a result, not
be done, but in the policies or how it was to be done. transcend agitation (the form adopted by the
moderates,) though their agitation was much more
What were the Extremists’ policies?
militant and effective than that of the moderates because
Some of the extremists deviated from the the former had a broader base than the latter.
moderate method of peaceful and bloodless struggle
P-C-P strategy: The extremists too like the
in theory. In practice, however they too operated within
moderates, had adopted the P-C-P (pressure-
its basic framework. The tenet was to serve as a basic
compromise-pressure) strategy in order to attain
guarantee to the propertied class that they would at no
completed independence, Because the extremists gave
time be faced with a situation in which their interests
several calls for immediate independence, it is easy to
might be put in jeopardy even temporarily. The only
be misled into thinking that their strategic approach
difference between the moderates and the extremists
was deferent. In fact, such calls were part of the same
in this matter was in their attitude towards non-violence.
overall strategy. Every such call was succeeded by a
It was a matter of personal conviction for most of the
set of immediate demands which had little direct
moderates though practical considerations too played
relation to the demand for immediate and complete
an important role in determining their attitude towards
independence. So what changed after 1905 was not the
non-violence. To the extremists, it was mostly a
basic strategy of P-C-P. The extremists were not
practical expedient. The extremists, therefore, did not
working for the direct overthrow of British rule. They
condemn violence as such, though they themselves did
too emphasized the technique of negotiations backed
not resort to violent methods.
by controlled mass action.
More importantly, the extremists advocated the
Different Mode: The extremists did, however,
organization of mass struggle against British
change the mode of persuasion or putting pressure.
imperialism. This was, in fact, the most important and,
They put greater mass pressure behind demands. They
perhaps the only significant difference between the
shifted from intellectuals to the masses to a significant
policies of the extremists and those of the moderates.
extent; and from memorials, petitions and resolutions;
Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai and other
to processions, demonstration and large mass
extremists had infinite faith in the power of the masses
movements. The sanctions behind their demand were
for action and in the Indian people\’s capacity to bear
different and far stronger. But the political advance was
the strain of a prolonged political struggle against
still to occur by stages and through compromise, that
imperialism. They believed that suppression by the
is, ultimately through British consent and action.
government would not throttle the mass movement. It
would instead, educate the people, arouse them further, Short-comings: While recognizing this different
strengthen their resolve to overthrow imperialism and between the moderate and the extremist eras; we should
lead to a heightened political struggle. They therefore, also make a distinction between hope and the
advocated the organization of a mass struggle against fulfillment. For one even at the height of the extremist
imperialism as a first step in making the masses movement in Bengal, the peasantry was not mobilized.
politically active. They talked of bridging the gulf The alienation between the educated extremist political
between the educated people and the masses though workers and the masses was not lessened to any
not all of them. significant extent. In fact, the extremists did not even
know how to go about the task. In practice what they

67
succeeded in doing was to spread the movement deeper with the moderates (they had concentrated on ‘action’
among the lower middle classes who were already and sacrifices rather than on the need to evolve a
brought within the ambit of nationalism in the moderate different type of politics), the young men brought upon
era. an ideology of ‘action’ and sacrifice were soon
Failure: The failure of the extremists inevitably disenchanted with militant agitation, demanded ‘action’
led to revolutionary terrorism. Since most of the and took recourse to individual terrorism.
extremist leaders had wrongly defined their differences

68
 17. PARTITION OF BENGAL

They hoped to stem the rising tide of nationalism • The Anti-Partition Movement was initiated on 7
in Bengal, considered at the time to be the rerve centre August 1905. On the day a massive demonstration
of Indian nationalism. against partition was organised in the Town Hall
Risely, Home Secretary to the Government of in Calcutta.
India, broke in an official note on 6 December 1904 as • From this meeting delegates dispersed to spread
Bengal united is a power. Bengal divided will pull the movement to the rest of the province.
in several different ways. One of our main objective is • The partition took effect on 16 October 1905.
to split up and thereby to weaken a solid body of • The leaders of the protest movement declared it
opponents to our rule. to be a day of national mourning throughout
The Indian National Congress and the Nationalists Bengal.
of Bengal firmly opposed the partition. • It was observed as a day of fasting. There was a
Within Bengal, different sections of the population Hartal in Calcutta.
- zamindars, merchants, lawyers, students, the city poor, • People walked barefooted and bathed in the Ganga
and even women - rose up in spontaneous opposition in the morning hours.
to the partition of their province. • Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song,
The nationalists saw the act of partition as a Amar Sonar Bangla\’, for the occasion which was
challenge to Indian nationalism and not merely an sung by huge crowds parading the streets.
administrative measure. • This song was adopted as its national anthem by
They saw that it was a deliberate attempt to divide Bangladesh in 1971 after Liberation.
the Bengali territorial and on religious grounds - for in • The streets of Calcutta were full of the cries of
the Eastern part Muslims would be in a big majority \’Bande Mataram\’ which overnight became the
and in the western part Hindus - and thus to disrupt national song of Bengal and which was sung to
and weaken nationalism in Bengal. become the theme song of the national movement.
It would also be a big blow to the growth of • The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was utilized
Bengali language and culture. in a new way.
They pointed out that administrative efficiency • Hindus and Muslims tied the rakhi on one
could have been better secured by separating the Hindi another\’s wrists as a symbol of the unbreakable
speaking Bihar and the Oriya-speaking Orissa from the unity of the Bengalis and of the two halves of
Bengali speaking part of the province. Bengal.
Moreover, the official step had been taken in utter • In the afternoon, there was a great demonstration
disregard of public opinion. when the veteran leader Ananda Mohan Bose laid
Thus the vehemence of Bengal\’s protest against the foundation of a Federation Hall to mark the
the partition is explained by the fact that it was a blow indestructible unity of Bengal.
to the sentiments of very sensitive and courageous The Swadeshi and Boycott
people. • The Bengal leaders felt that more demonstrations,
The Anti-Partition Movement public meetings and revolutions were not likely
• The Anti-Partition Movement was the work of the to have much effect on the rulers.
entire national leadership of Bengal and not of • More positive action that would reveal the
any one section. intensity of popular feelings and exhibit them at
• Its most prominent leaders at the initial stage were their best was needed.
moderate leaders like Surendra Nath Banerjee and • The answer was Swadeshi and Boycott.
Krishna Kumar Mitra; militants and revolutionary • Mass meetings were held all over Bengal where
nationalists took over in the later stages. Swadeshi or the use of Indian goods and the
• In fact, both the moderate and militant nationalists boycott of British goods were proclaimed and
co-operated with one another during the course pledged.
of the movement.

69
• In many places public burning of foreign cloth permitted to compete for scholarships and were
were organised and shops selling foreign cloth to be barred from all services under the
were picketed. The Swadeshi Movement was an government.
immense success. • Disciplinary action was taken against students
• An important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement found guilty of participating in the nationalist
was the emphasis placed on self-reliance or agitation. Many of them were fined, expelled from
‘Atmasakti’. schools and colleges, arrested and sometimes
• Self-reliance meant assertion of national dignity, beaten by the police with lathis.
honour and self-confidence. • A remarkable aspect of the Swadeshi agitation was
• In the economic field, it meant fostering the active participation of women in the
indigenous industrial and other enterprises. movement.
• Many textile mills, soda and match factories, • The traditionally home-centred women of the
handloom weaving concerns, national banks and urban middle classes joined processions and
insurance companies were opened. picketing. From then on they were to take an active
• Acharya P.C. Ray Organised his famous Bengal part in the nationalist movement.
Chemical Swadeshi Stores. • Many prominent Muslims joined the Swadeshi
• Even the great Rabindranath Tagore helped to Movement including Abdul Rasul, the famous
open a Swadeshi store. barrister, Liaquat Hussain, the popular agitator and
• The Swadeshi Movement had several Guznavi, the businessman.
consequences in the realm of Culture. • Maulana Abul Kalam Azad joined one of the
• There was a flowering of nationalist poetry, prose revolutionary terrorist groups.
and journalism. • Many other middle and upper class Muslims,
• The patriotic songs written at the time by poets however, remained neutral or, led by the Nawab
like Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kant Sen. Syed of Dhaka (who was given a loan of Rs. 14 lakh by
Abu Mohammed and Mukunda Das are sung in the Government of India), even supported
Bengal to this day. Partition on the plea that East Bengal would have
• Another self-reliant, constructive activity a Muslim majority.
undertaken at the time was that of National • In this communal attitude, the Nawab of Dhaka
Education. National Educational Institutes where and others were encouraged by the officials.
literary, technical or physical education was • In a speech at Dhaka, Lord Curzon declared that
imparted were opened by nationalists who one of the reasons for the partition was to invest
regarded the existing system of education as the Mohammedams in Eastern Bengal with a unity
denationalising and, in any case, inadequate. which they had not enjoyed since the days of the
• On 15 August 1906, a National Council of old Musalman Viceroys and Kings.
Education was set up. A National College with All-India Aspect of the Movement
Aurobindo Ghose as Principal was started in • The cry to Swadeshi and Swaraj was soon taken
Calcutta. up by other provinces of India.
Role of Students, Women, Muslims and the Masses • Movements in support of Bengal’s unity and
• A prominent part in the Swadeshi agitation was boycott of foreign goods were organised in
played by the students of Bengal. Bombay, Madras and northern India.
• They practised and propagated Swadeshi and took • The leading role in spreading the Swadeshi
the lead in organising picketing of shops setting Movement to the rest of the country was played
foreign cloth. by Tilak.
• The government made every attempt to suppress • Tilak quickly saw that with the inauguration of
the students. this movement in Bengal a new chapter in the
• Orders were issued to penalise those schools and history of Indian rationalism had opened.
colleges whose students took an active part in the • Here was a challenge and an opportunity to lead
Swadeshi agitation; their grants-in-aid and other to a popular struggle against the British Raj and
privileges were to be withdrawn, they were to be to unite the entire country in one bond of common
disaffiliated, their students were not to be sympathy.

70
 18. HOME RULE LEAGUES

• During the First World War, the nationalist India. The branches of the league were set up all
feelings grew stronger, which outburst into rise over the country.
of two Home Rule Leagues in India. One was • Tilak made a whirlwind tour of the country in 1916
founded by Tilak at Poona and the other by Mrs. and in his speeches he said, “Swaraj is my
Annie Besant at Madras. birthright and I shall have it.” He said that Home
• Mrs. Annie Besant was one of the firebrand Rule was the only cure of India\’s political ills
politicians of the national movement. She was one and the grievances of the Indians. He preached
of the leaders of the Theosophical movement and the idea of Home Rule through his two newspapers
had adopted India as her home and worked for its - Kesari and Maratha.
social, educational and religious regeneration. She • Annie Besant also toured the country and created
was disillusioned with the tone of the moderates. a lot of enthusiasm among the people for the cause
• Like a true patriot, she wanted to do something of Home Rule. She carried on the propaganda in
tangible and concrete for the political liberation favour of it in the newspapers named New India
of India. It was with this aim in view that she and Commonwealth.
organized the Home Rule Movement. • The movement reached its peak in 1917. The
• Annie Besant was inspired by the Irish Home Rule Government got panicky at the activities of the
Movement. In the Congress session of 1915, she Home Rule Movement and it thought of
proposed that a similar movement should be suppressing it with a heavy hand. The Government
started in India. Bal Gangadhar Tilak and other made use of Defence of India Act to curb the
extremists supported the move whole-heartedly. activities of the agitators. Students were prohibited
They felt that under the Moderates, the Congress from attending Home Rule meetings.
organization had become lifeless and that it should • Tilak was prosecuted for his fiery and exciting
be made more vigorous so as to win over mass speeches and his entry in Punjab and Delhi was
sympathy. banned. Important leaders of the movement
• Tilak and Mrs. Annie Besant decided to put a new including Annie Besant were interned.
life in the national movement of India. They • Various restrictions were imposed on the press
started two separate Home Rule Leagues to carry by using the Indian Press Act of 1910. But the
on propaganda all over the country in favour of repressive policy followed by the Government
the demand for the grant of Home Rule after the only added fuel to the fire. Strikes, agitation and
First World War. Tilak set up the Home Rule protest meetings were organized throughout the
League in December 1915. Its headquarters were country.
at Poona. Annie Besant set up a similar Home Rule • The government realized the seriousness of the
League in September 1916. Its headquarters were demonstrations that broke out in support of the
at Adyar near Madras. Home Rule League. The Indians seemed to be
• The leaders of the Home Rule Movement followed prepared to pay any price to achieve the Home
constitutional means to achieve their aim. They Rule. Therefore, to appease the nationalists, the
shunned violent and revolutionary methods Secretary of State for India made a declaration on
because they did not like to embarrass the British August 20, 1917 announcing the British policy
Government during the war. towards India.
• Tilak\’s activities were confined to Bombay • As a result, the Home Rule Movement died out
Presidency and the Central province while Annie gradually.
Besant popularized this movement in the rest of

71
 19. EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

because, in their opinion, the masses were not yet

M.K. Gandhi had not played any leading role in
sufficiently educated and enlightened to take part in
the Congress and was unknown to the masses before
the nationalist movement. Their achievements also did
his arrival in India in 1915. But, surprisingly, he became
not bring about any substantial relief to the masses in
the undisputed leader of the Congress and the leader
general and the peasants and the workers in particular.
of masses within a short span of 5 years, i.e. from 1915
So, the masses were eagerly waiting for a leader who
to 1920. Was this phenomenon an outcome of a skilful
could lead them in a movement aimed at removing their
political game on the part of Gandhi or was it due to
hardships.
the circumstances? A number of factors contributed to
the rise of Gandhi as the undisputed leader of the Inability of Extremists: Equally important was
Congress. the failure of the Extremists to reach and mobilize the
masses. Though the extremists made a departure in
Reasons for his rise
theory from the methods of the Moderates by including
Satyagraha: A major factor responsible for the
mass participation in their methods and techniques of
emergence of Gandhi in Indian politics was the success
political agitation, they could not put it into practice
of his resistance, namely Satyagraha, based on truth
essentially because they had doubts about their ability
and non-violence in South Africa. The South African
to control the masses once they are aroused. Thus, the
experience (1893-1914) contributed in a number of
Extremists too, like the Moderates, did not provide
ways to the foundations of Gandhi’s ideology and
leadership to the eagerly waiting masses, though they
methods as well as to his later achievements in India.
believed that mass action could be a variable weapon
Till 1906, Gandhi was a rising lawyer-politician. He
for achieving their aims.
followed the ‘moderate’ techniques of prayers and
Failure of Revolutionaries: The failure of the
petitions in the struggle against racial discrimination,
Revolutionary Terrorists to achieve their main goal of
a totally new departure began with three campaigns of
expelling the British from India through the use of force
Satyagraha during 1907-1908, 1908-1911 and 1913-
was as much responsible as the above factors for the
1914. The peculiar conditions of South Africa enabled
emergence of Gandhi. The Revolutionary Terrorists did
Gandhi to bring together people of different religions,
not bother to involve the masses in their activities. Even
communities and classes.
if they wanted to do so, they would not have succeeded
South African experience: This South African
in their goals because of the essentially peaceful nature
experience projected Gandhi as an all India figure from
of the Indian masses.
the beginning of his work in India more than any other
Personality: Above all, the personality of Gandhi
politician all of whom (like Tilak, Lajpat Rai or Bipin
and his simple and saintly habits were also responsible
Chandra Pal) had essentially regional bases. The South
of his emergence in Indian politics. Gandhi had a good
African experience made him an international celebrity.
knowledge of the people and hence deliberately
Further, the connections which many South African
cultivated certain simple and saintly habits or what the
Indians had with their original homes in different parts
non-disciples usually consider Gandhian Fads such as
of the country helped to spread the name of Gandhi
vegetarianism, nature therapy, experiments in sexual
throughout India. Thirteen out of the first 25 inmates
self-restrain, etc. Also, his use of simple Hindustani in
of the Sabarmati Ashram (1915) came from Tamilnadu,
preference to English and of religious texts, travelling
something which would have been inconceivable then
in third class, wearing simple cloth from 1921 onwards
for any other Indian leader.
etc., had the same impact on the minds of the common
Disappointment from Moderates: The
people who at once took him to their hearts. Gandhi
disillusionment of the people with the methods and
was thus firmly rooted in the Indian traditions and it
failures of the Moderates was another contributory
was from that fact that he drew his immense strength.
factor. The methods and techniques of the moderates
did not include any technique for mass mobilization

72
What is Satyagraha? Gujarat in order to force the British government to meet
‘Satyagraha’ was based on truth and non-violence the peasants’ demand of suspension of land revenue
(ahimsa). Though Gandhi’s ‘Satyagraha’ revised for the famine period. All these Satyagrahas were
considerate originality and was, in fact a meticulously launched to solve the local issues. But they provided
worked out philosophy, nevertheless was influenced him with the required experience to launch future
by Thoreau, Emerson, and Tolstoy. movements at an all-India level.
The term, Satyagraha was coined by Gandhi to The technique of Satyagraha, being based on non-
express the nature of non-violent direct action of the violence, could easily attract the masses to participate
Indians in South Africa against the racial policy of the in the nationalist movement. However, as a politician,
government there. The literal meaning of Satyagraha Gandhi in practice sometimes settled for less than
is holding on to truth. He was anxious to distinguish complete non-violence. This was evident in his
Satyagraha from passive resistance (the method campaign for military recruitment in 1918 in the hope
adopted by the Moderates). Passive resistance is an act of winning post-war political concessions, Further, his
of expediency where as Satyagraha is a moral weapon repeated insistence that even violence was preferable
based on the superiority of soul-force or love-force over to cowardly surrender to injustice sometimes created
physical force. Passive resistance is the weapon of the delicate problems of interpretation. But historically
weak, while ‘Satyagraha’ can be practiced only by the much more significant than this personal philosophy
bravest who have the courage to die without killing. (fully accepted only by a relatively small group of
While in passive resistance the aim is to embarrass the disciples) was the way in which the resultant
opponent into submission, the aim of Satyagraha is to perspective on controlled mass participation objectively
wean the opponent away from error by love and patient fitted in with the interests and sentiments of socially-
suffering. Passive resistance is static, while Satyagraha decisive sections of the Indian people. Indian
is dynamic. While passive resistance is a negative politicians, before Gandhi, had tended to oscillate
approach, Satyagraha is positive in content and it between moderate mendicancy and individual terrorism
emphasized internal strength of character. basically because of their inhibition about uncontrolled
Techniques: There are different techniques of mass movements. The Gandhian model proved
Satyagraha. Fasting is one technique, but it has to be acceptable to business groups as well as to the relatively
applied generally against those who are bound by ties better-off or locally dominant sections of the peasantry,
of close personal affection. Hijrat or voluntary all of whom stood to lose something if political struggle
migration is another technique of Satyagraha. Gandhi, turned into uninhibited and violent social revolution.
however, made it very clear that people who adopt this In more general terms, the doctrine of ‘ahimsa’ lay at
technique should only aim at getting their legitimate the heart of the essentially unifying role assumed by
rights and status and not be hostile to the other party. Gandhi, mediating internal social conflicts, contributing
Thus, he felt that strikes and hartals could be effective greatly to the joint national struggle against foreign
weapons if they did not aim at destruction and sabotage. rule, but also leading to periodic retreats and sometimes
Gandhi would not consider scorched earth policy to be major reverses.
a technique of Satyagraha. He also ruled out Gandhi’s idea of ‘non-cooperation’
underground activities. For him, means were as To Gandhi, non-cooperation with the evil-doers;
important as the end. in this case the British government, was the duty of the
Satyagraha in India virtuous man. It was considered by Gandhi as a mild
In India, the first time Gandhi was obliged to resort form of agitation, and it was resorted to by him
to Satyagraha was in Champaran district in Bihar where between1921-1922 during the Non-cooperation
he got the grievances of the indigo cultivators redressed Movement. This technique, with its programmes like
in 1917. For the second time, he put the technique of the surrender of titles by the patriotic Indians conferred
Satyagraha into practice in 1918 at Ahmedabad in order on them by the British, boycott of government schools
to solve a dispute between the textile mill workers and and colleges by students as well as teachers, boycott
the owners there. In the same year, he launched of courts and other government services, boycott of
Satyagraha for the third time in the Khera district of foreign goods etc, had an immediate appeal to the
masses who were suffering under the British rule.

73
Gandhi’s views about ‘civil disobedience’ Punjab wrong: Indian leadership wanted the
Civil disobedience of the laws of the unjust and British to remedy the ‘Punjab wrong’, i.e., the British
tyrannical government is a strong and extreme form of government should express its regret on the happenings
political agitation according to Gandhi. Also, in his in Punjab, particularly in Amritsar.
opinion, this technique can be more dangerous and The government, determined to suppress the
powerful than armed rebellion and, hence, should be nationalist agitation against the Rowlatt Act of 1919
adopted only as a last resort. To the masses who had (under this Act, anyone could be arrested and
been the main victims of British imperialism and whose imprisoned without any trial), decided to meet the
suffering reached the extreme point in the late 1920’s popular protest with repression, particularly in Punjab.
due to the worldwide economic crisis (1929-32), this At this time was perpetrated one of the worst political
technique of agitation with its programmes such as the crimes in modern history. An unarmed but large crowd
breaking of the notorious Salt Laws, picketing foreign had gathered on 13 April 1919 in the Jallianwalla Bagh
cloth and liquor shops, hartals and strikes, non-payment (a garden) at Amritsar to protest against the arrest and
of taxes (restricted to only a few areas) etc., seemed to deportation of two of their popular leaders, (Dr. Satya
be the only way to remove their sufferings. Pal and Dr. Kitchlu). General Dyer, who had been
Gandhian socio-economic programmes recently given charge of the town to restore law and
His socio-economic programmers consisted of order, had already issued a proclamation banning all
those of Khadi, village reconstruction, Hindu-Muslim meetings but it was not made public. The General now
unity, Harijan welfare, etc. To begin with, his surrounded the garden and closed the only exit and
programme of Khadi and his anti-industrial theme had opened fire on the large peaceful crowd without any
a real attraction of the peasants and the artisans who provocation. This massacre of innocent people sent the
suffered heavily due to the process of modernization whole of the Punjab into ferment. As a result, martial
and industrialization particularly under colonial law was proclaimed throughout Punjab and the people
conditions. The programme of village reconstruction were subjected to the most uncivilized atrocities such
could immediately get him the support of rural folks as crawling on the ground, flogging, being deprived of
who formed the overwhelming majority of Indian water and electric supplies, etc. People got a glimpse
population. His programme of Harijan welfare, which of the ugliness and brutality that lay behind the fagade
included opening of wells, roads and temples and also of civilization that imperialism and foreign rule
some humanitarian work, aimed at improving the lot professed.
of the untouchables (called Harijans or the people of Khilafat wrong: Indians demanded the
God by Gandhi), naturally endeared him to the hearts government to remedy the ‘Khilafat Wrong’, i.e. the
of these people. Thus, this programme indirectly helped British should adopt a lenient attitude towards Turkey
to spread the message of nationalism down to the lowest which stood defeated in World War I. The Indian
and most oppressed sections of rural society and Muslims became apprehensive of the fate of Turkey
Harijans in many parts of the country developed a and its Sultan who was also the Khalifa or the religious
traditional loyalty towards the Congress which helped head of the Muslims all over the world. The Muslims,
the party even after independence. therefore, formed a Khilafat Committee under the
leadership of the Ali brothers (Maulana Mohammed
Non-cooperation Movement
Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal
(1921 - 1922) Khan and Hasrat Mohani. Its purpose was to organize
The Non-Cooperation movement was launched by a country wide agitation if the position of the Khalifa
the Gandhi-led Congress Party in January 1921 in order was undermined. Britain announced its peace terms to
to pressurize the British to redress three of its Turkey on 15th May 1920 and decided to abolish the
grievances: title of Khalifa enjoyed by the Sultan of Turkey. The
• Punjab wrong Central Khilafat Committee adopted the Non-
Cooperation resolution (suggested by Mahatma
• Khilafat wrong
Gandhi) at its Bombay session on 28th May 1920. A
• Denial of Swaraj meeting of the Hindus and Muslims was held at
Allahabad on June 1st and 2nd, and an appeal was made

74
to the government that Britain should offer better peace popularization of Swadeshi and revival of hand
terms to Turkey and should not take away the title of spinning and hand-weaving for producing Khadi (hand-
the Khalifa. In case the government did not agree to woven cloth); development of harmony between the
their demand, they would refuse to cooperate with the Hindus and Muslims; removal of untouchability and
government. Gandhi and many other Congress leaders other measures for Harijan welfare; emancipation and
viewed the Khilafat agitation as a golden opportunity upliftment of women. The first two programmers
for bringing the Hindus and Muslims together on the sought to remove the hardships caused to the people
national front. Therefore, the Congress decided to by the negative programmes, while the last three
cooperate with the Khilafat movement and club its ensured the participation of Muslims, Harijans and
demand with those of the Khilafat Committee. women in the Non-cooperation movement.
Swaraj issue: Indians demanded a new scheme Phases of Non-cooperation
of reforms which would take India nearer to its goal of Four phases may be distinguished in the course
Swaraj. However, the word Swaraj was not yet properly of the movement, specifically responding to successive
defined by the Congress leaders at this stage. calls from the Congress. During the first phase, i.e. from
But the British government had refused to annul January to March 1921, the main emphasis was on
the Rowlatt Act, make amends for the atrocities in the students leaving government, schools and colleges and
Punjab, satisfy the nationalist urge for Swaraj, and offer lawyers giving up practice. Even the ‘charkha’ (the
more lenient terms to Turkey. So, in June, 1920 an all spinning wheel) programme initially had a strong
party conference met at Allahabad and approved a intelligentsia orientation; with students and educated
programme of boycott of schools, colleges and law urban people in general being urged to take up spinning
courts. The Khilafat Committee launched a non- on a voluntary basis is a symbol of their identification
cooperation movement on 31st August, 1920. with the rural masses and as a quick road to Swadeshi.
What was the programme of Non-cooperation? After spectacular beginning with massive student
The Congress, under the leadership of Gandhi, strikes at Calcutta and Lahore and eminent lawyers like
started the Non-cooperation movement in January C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru giving up their practice,
1921. The movement included some negative as well this exclusively intelligentsia movement soon began
as positive programmes. The negative programmes showing signs of decline.
were: surrender of titles and honorary officers and The second phase (April to June 1921) started
resignation from nominated seats in local bodies; when the Vijaywada session of the All India Congress
refusal to attend government or semi-government Committee (AICC) found the country not yet
functions; boycott of government schools and colleges sufficiently disciplined, organized and ripe for civil
by the students and teachers; boycott of British courts disobedience. So, it decided to concentrate on raising
by lawyers and litigants; boycott of elections for the Rs. one crore for the Tilak Swaraj Fund enroling one
councils as suggested by the reforms of 1919; boycott crore Congress members and installing 20 lakh
of foreign goods; refusal on the part of the military, charkhas by 30th June.
clerical and labouring classes to offer themselves as The third phase covered the period from July to
recruits in Mesopotamia. These programmers were November 1921. In the face of mounting pressures from
negative in nature as through these, Indians sought to the masses, the Bombay AICC meeting of July adopted
refuse to cooperate with the British in administering a somewhat more militant stance, concentrating on
and exploiting their country for the benefit of the boycott of foreign cloth (including public bonfires) and
foreign rulers. boycott of the expected visit of the Prince of Wales in
Some positive programmes were also undertaken November, though full scale civil disobedience through
during the non-cooperation movement so that the non-payment of taxes was again postponed. At this
Indians in general would not have to suffer unduly due juncture, Gandhi gave a call for flooding the prisons
to the above mentioned negative programmes and also with volunteers, and organization of volunteer brands
in order to make the movement a success. They were: was given top priority. Viceroy Reading quickly
establishment of national schools, colleges, and private grasped the significance of the new mass orientation
arbitration courts (known as panchayats) all over India; involved in the picketing and courting of arrest by tens

75
of thousands. He realized that the change from Gandhi’s For the peasants, the Gandhian programmes
appeal to intellectuals to appeal to ignorant masses had envisaged economic revival through self-help.
altered the situation but it had the advantage of bringing Panchayats proved very popular in Bihar and Orissa
intellectuals and persons of property closer to the while in Bengal 866 arbitration courts were set up
British. The Prince of Wales was treated with an between February 1921 and April 1922 and at their
extremely successful country-wide hartal on 17th height they considerably outnumbered the government
November and there were violent clashes in Bombay courts. The anti-liquor campaign became formidable
which made Gandhi denounce the violence and partly because lower castes found in it an opportunity
postpone once against plans for civil disobedience in for sanskritizing and social upliftment. No definite
the selected single taluka of Bardoli. statistics are available about the impact of the charkha
The developments in the fourth phase (between drive but handloom cloth production did go up sharply
November 1921 and February 1922) nearly brought the between 1920 and 1923. The Khilafat agitation made
government to its knees. Some Khilafat leaders like Hindu-Muslim unity a powerful, though temporary fact.
Hasrat Mohani, angered by the jailing of the Ali Progress regarding untouchability was much less
brothers in November (for speeches at the Karachi marked, though Gandhi deserves all credit for bringing
Khilafat), were demanding complete independence and the issue to the forefront of national politics for the
giving up of the non-violence dogma. The new first time.
government policy of large-scale arrests and ban on Labourers seemed to be running amuck
meetings and volunteer groups threatened to alienate throughout 1921 by the middle of 1920. The post war
the liberals while much of the country seemed to be on boom had succeeded by as recession particularly in the
the brink of formidable revolt. Gandhi finally decided Calcutta industry, with the mill-owners trying to cut
on the issue of infringed liberties of speech, press and back production with a four-day week. The workers
association to begin from the second week of February fought back, and there were a number of strikes in
1922. As is well known, this campaign, together with Bengali jute mills in 1921. Swami Vishwanand and
the entire movement, was abruptly called off on 11th Swami Dersananand tried to organize the coal miners
February, at Gandhi’s insistence, following news of the of the Raniganj-Jharia belt, initially with some help
immolation of 22 policemen by angry peasants at from Indian mine owners fighting European hegemony.
Chauri Charua in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh Though Gandhi himself did not include strikes,
on 5th February, 1922. particularly political strikes, in the various programmes
Participation in Non-cooperation of the Non-cooperation movement, some regional
The response of different social groups and classes Congress leaders did take active part in some strikes,
to the movement was quite varied. To begin with most notably in Bengal and Madras.
students and teachers actively participated in the The initial appeal for self-sacrifice to the upper
movement. Hence, the programme of educational and middle classes was hardly successful. Only 24 titles
boycott was quite effective, particularly in Bengal. All- were surrendered out of 5,000 odd, and the number of
India figures collected by the Intelligence Department lawyers giving up practice stood at 180 in March 1921.
revealed the impact to have been considerable in Polling was low in many places in the November 20
colleges, but non-existent at the primary level. A elections, falling to only 8% in Bombay city and 5% in
considerable number of national schools and colleges Lahore, but candidates offered themselves in all but 6
were also founded (like the Jamia Millia Islamia in out of 637 seats, and council functions could not be
Aligarh, later shifted to Delhi, the Kashi Vidyapeeth at disrupted as planned.
Banaras and the Gujarat Vidyapeeth) along with 442 A good number of merchants participated in the
institutions started in Bihar and Orissa, 190 in Bengal, movement by refusing to indent foreign cloth. The value
189 in Bombay, and 137 in Uttar Pradesh. Many of of imports of foreign cloth fell from Rs. 102 crores in
these proved short-lived, as the pull of conventional 1920-21 to Rs. 57 crores in 1921-22. For importers of
degrees and jobs naturally reasserted itself when Swaraj Lancashire cloth, nationalism in 1921 nearly coincided
failed to come in a year but quite a few survived to with short term business interests, as with the fall in
serve as valuable seminaries of nationalism. the rupee sterling exchange ratio, Indian merchants
were being asked to pay much more for British goods

76
than previously contracted for. Their support was Rajagopalachari, Dr. Ansari, etc., were opposed
decisive in bringing about a qualitative change in the to it.
Congress funds. The Congress had only Rs. 43,000 in • In spite of lengthy debates, no decision was arrived
its coffers in 1920 but was able to collect more than at. At the annual session of the Congress held at
Rs. 130 lakhs between 1921 and 1923. Gaya in December 1922, the “No-changers” won
The big industrialists and capitalists, however, still a victory and the programme of Council-entry was
remained hostile, and an Anti-Non-Cooperation rejected. C.R. Das who presided over the session
Association was started in 1920 by Purshottamdas resigned from the Congress and announced his
Thakurdas, Jamunadas Dwarkadas, Setalvad etc. While decision to form the Swarajist Party.
the textile was certainly helped by the national • The Object of the new party was to wreck the
Swadeshi upsurge, fear of labour unrest was probably Government of India Act, 1919 from within the
crucial in keeping industrialists ambivalent. Councils. In March 1923, the first Conference of
What the Non-cooperation achieved? the Swarajist Party was held at the residence of
The Non-Cooperation movement, despite its Motilal Nehru at Allahabad and the future
failure to achieve any of its three major objectives, had programme of the Party was decided. The keynote
great significance in the Indian national movement. The of the programme of the Party was obstructionism.
Indian nationalist movement, for the first time in its • Its members were to contest elections on the issue
history, acquired a real mass base with the participation of the redress of the wrongs done by the British
of different sections of Indian society and more notably bureaucracy, to oppose every measure of the
of peasants and workers. The nationalist sentiments Government and to throw-out all legislative
reached the remotest corners of the country during this enactments proposed by the British Government.
movement. Besides, it transformed the Indian National The view of the Swarajists was that the seats in
Congress from a deliberative assembly to an the legislatures must be captured so that they did
organization for action. The movement, above all, not fall into the hands of undesirable persons who
demonstrated the willingness and ability of the people were tools in the hands of the bureaucracy in India.
in general to endure hardships and punishments caused • Leaders of the Swarajist Party declared that
by the government to a remarkable degree. The outside the Councils, they would co-operate with
movement also inspired the people for further sacrifices the constructive programme of the Congress under
in the cause of national independence. the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and in case
THE SWARAJIST PARTY their methods failed, they would, without any
• When C. R. Das and the other Bengal leaders were hesitation, join Mahatma Gandhi’s Civil
in Alipore Central Jail, they evolved a new Disobedience Movement, if and when launched
programme of non-cooperation with the by him.
Government through legislatures. • The Swarajist Party fought the elections in 1923
• Their idea was to enter the legislatures in large and refused to come to any understanding with
numbers and “carry on a policy of uniform, the Liberal Federation. The Swarajist Party won
continuous and consistent opposition to the a majority in the Legislative Council of the Central
Government.” Motilal Nehru also shared the Provinces.
views of C.R. Das. In July 1922, C.R. Das came • It was the dominant Party in Bengal. It also won
out of jail and began to carry on propaganda in good support in U.P. and Bombay. However, the
favour of Council- entry. Swarajist party was at its best in the Central
• When a meeting of the All-India Congress Assembly under the leadership of Motilal Nehru.
Committee was held at Calcutta in November By winning over the support of the Nationalist
1922, there were differences of opinion among Party and a few other members, the Swarajist Party
the Congress leaders on the question of Council- was able to command a working majority and was
entry. While C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru and Hakim thus able to accomplish a lot.
Ajmal Khan were in favour of it, C. • On 18th February, 1924, the Swarajist Party was
able to get a resolution passed by which the

77
 Government was requested to establish full exception of one, the Bill was passed. A resolution
responsible Government in India. A demand was was passed with the help of the Swarajist Party
also made that a Round Table Conference demanding the release of certain political
consisting of the representatives of India should prisoners.
be called at an early date to frame a Constitution • The Swarajists resorted to walkouts as a mark of
for India. protest against the policy of the Government. They
• The appointment of the Muddiman Committee boycotted all receptions, parties or functions
was the result of a resolution of the Swarajist organized by the Government. What was done in
Party. Motilal Nehru was requested to become a the Central Assembly was also done in those
member of this Committee but he refused. Some provincial legislatures where the Swarajists had
of the demands in the budget of 1924-25 were some influence.
rejected by the Central Assembly as a result of • For the first time, the Legislative Assembly wore
the efforts of the Swarajist Party. the appearance of a truly National Assembly
• The Assembly also refused to allow the where national grievances were fully voiced,
Government to introduce the entire Finance Bill. national aims and aspirations expressed without
In February 1925, V.J.Patel introduced a Bill any reservation and real character of the British
asking for the repeal of certain laws and with the rule exposed. The British autocracy and Indian
bureaucracy stood exposed to the whole world.

78
 20. MILITANT REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM

The rise and growth of revolutionary terrorism in more than fairly isolated emigre groups, those in the
India from the beginning of the 20th century was due U.S.A and Canada acquired mass base. These people,
to several factors. The youth, particularly those of under the leadership of Sohan Singh Bhakna and Har
Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra, were increasingly Dayal, had established the ‘Ghadar’ (revolution) party
getting frustrated with the moderate methods and in 1913. While most of its members were Sikh peasants,
techniques of political struggle such as petitions, workers, petty traders, soldiers, etc., their leaders were
meetings, resolutions, speeches, etc. The youth were mostly educated Hindus or Muslims. The party had
also gradually losing faith in the extremists’ methods active members in other countries such as Mexico,
of passive resistance (i.e. to refuse to cooperate with Japan, China, Philippines, Malaya, Singapore,
the government and to boycott government service, Thailand, Indo-China and East and South Africa.
court, government schools and colleges) to achieve How did they spread their ideas?
nationalist aims. This feeling was further strengthened The revolutionary terrorists, both in India and
by the failure of the Swadeshi and Anti-partition abroad, published a number of newspapers, journals
Movement. Besides, there was growing hatred among and pamphlets in order to propagate revolutionary
the Indian youth for foreign rule due to the racial ideas. Newspapers like ‘Sandhya’ and ‘Yugantar’ in
superiority and arrogant behaviour of the British. This Bengal and ‘Kal’ in Maharashtra began to advocate
hatred was also due to cruel measures adopted by the revolutionary terrorism. A good number of Journals
British to suppress the national movement. were also brought out by Indian revolutionaries abroad.
Secret Societies Some of these journals were - ‘Indian Sociologist’ by
Several secret societies were set up especially in Shyamji Krishna Varma from London, ‘Bande
Bengal and Maharashtra. In Bengal, the first Mataram’ by Madam Cama from Paris, ‘Talvar’ by
revolutionary secret societies started around 1902 - the Virendranath Chattopadhyay from San Francisco, etc.
Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta founded by Barindra The most important pamphlets brought out by
Kumar Ghosh and Jatindranath Banerji (Aurobindo’s revolutionaries were the ‘Bhawani Mandir’ (by
emissaries) and Promotha Mitter, and the Anushilan Aurobindo Ghose in 1905) and ‘Oh! Martyrs’ by the
Samiti of Dacca founded by Pulin Das. In Maharashtra, London group in 1907.
the first secret society, viz., Mitra Mela, was founded Assassination of unpopular officials
by the Savarkar brothers in 1889. Later, when V.D. A beginning in the direction of assassination of
Savarkar went abroad, his elder brother Ganesh oppressive and unpopular officials had been made in
Savarkar started it in 1907 the ‘Abhinava Bharat’ which 1897 when the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and
soon had many branches all over western India. Secret Balakrishna, assassinated two unpopular British
societies were also established in Bihar, Orissa, Punjab officials at Poona. Again in 1907, an unsuccessful
and other regions of India as well. A few of them attempt was made on the life of the unpopular Lt.
succeeded in keeping mutual contact among them but Governor of East Bengal, Mr. Fuller, by some members
most of them worked as isolated groups of leaders. of the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta. In 1908 Khudiram
It was only in the 1920’s that revolutionary Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw a bomb at a carriage
militant groups came at forefront. The ‘Hindustan which was believed to be occupied by Kingsford, the
Socialist Republican Association’ even established unpopular Judge of Muzzaffarpur. The revolutionary
centres of revolutionary activity aboard. In London, terrorists became so bold that two of them, Rash Behari
the lead was taken by Shayamji Krishnavarma and V.D. Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal, threw a bomb at the
Savarkar, in Europe by Madam Cama and Ajit Singh, Viceroy Lord Hardinge while he was riding on an
while in the U.S.A and Canada Sohan Singh Bhakna elephant in a state procession in Delhi in 1912. The
and Har Dayal were the prominent leaders, While the Viceroy was wounded but not killed. Another dramatic
Indian revolutionaries in Britain and Europe were no manifestation of revolutionary terrorist activity was the

79
assassination of the British police officer, Saunders, the Ghadarites, were still pioneers in taking
by Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru in 1928. The police revolutionary ideas to the army and the peasants. There
officer had earlier ordered lathi-charge on a were some scattered mutinies, most notable of them
demonstration (against the appointment of the Simon are - at Singapore, by the Indian sepoys of the British
Commission) led by Lala Lajpat Rai, and this ‘Sher-e- army on 15th February 1915, of the Punjab Muslim
Punhab’ incurred a fatal injury to which he succumbed 5th Light Infantry and the 36th Sikh Battalion.
later. On Foreign Land: Efforts to send help to
Conspiracies hatched revolutionaries form abroad were centered during the
The revolutionary terrorists also tried to organize war years in Berlin where the Indian Independence
military conspiracies with the help of Indian soldiers Committee was set up in 1915 under Virendranath
in the British army and also that of the foreign countries Chattopadyay, Bhupen Dutta, Hardayal and some
hostile to Britain. For revolutionaries striving for others in collaboration with the German foreign office
immediate complete independence, the First World War under the so-called Zimmerman Plan. An Indo-German-
seemed a heaven-sent opportunity, draining India of Turkish mission tried to stir up anti- British feelings
troops (the number of white soldiers was reduced to among tribes near the Indo-Iranian border and in
just 15,000) and bringing the possibility of financial December 1915, Mahendra Pratap, Barkatullah and
and military help from the enemies of Britain, mainly Abaidulla Sindhi set up a ‘Provisional Government of
Germany and Turkey. Britain’s war with Turkey Free India’ at Kabul with some backing from crown
brought about close cooperation between Hindu prince Amanullah but not from the Amir, Habibulla.
nationalists and militant Funds were channeled through German embassies in
Muslim pan-Islamists. As a result of this the far East and from Japan. Rash Behari Bose and
cooperation, important Muslim revolutionary leaders Abani Mukherji made several efforts to send arms after
emerged like - Barkatullah in the Ghadar Party and; 1915.
Muhammad Husan and Obaidulla Sindhi in Deobandh. Dacoities and Robberies
On Indian Soil: In Bengal, most of the Revolutionaries organized a number of raids on
revolutionary groups united under Jatin Mukherji government armouries, banks and police stations to
popularly known as ‘Bagha Jatin’. These groups raise funds, arms and ammunition. According to official
planned the disruption of rail communications, seizure record, between 1907 and 1917, the number of dacoities
of Fort William in Calcutta (contacts had been made that were conducted in different parts of India was 1121.
with the 16th Rajput Rifles stationed there) and landing The Chittagong groups of revolutionaries headed by
of German arms (for arranging this, Naren Bhattacharji, Surya Sen brought off the most spectacular coup in the
later known as M.N. Roy, was sent to Java). The entire history of militant nationalism in April 1930 by
grandiose plans were, however, ruined by poor seizing the local armoury and issuing an independence
coordination and Jatin died a hero’s death near Balasore proclamation in the name of the ‘Indian Republic
on the Orissa coast where he had been tracked down Army’. The Chittagong raid proved to be the curtain
by the police through the help of local villagers. The raiser for an extremely intense wave of terrorism in
Bengal plans were part of a far-flung conspiracy Bengal with no less than 56 incidents reported in 1930
organized by Rash Behari Bose and Sachindranth (as against just 47 for the entire decade 1919-29).
Sanyal in cooperation with the returned Ghadarites in Among them, the most spectacular raid was the one on
Punjab. But many of the Punjabis who returned after the Government headquarters in Writer’s Building in
1914 were quickly rounded up by the British and the Calcutta in December 1930. In Punjab also, where the
plan for a coordinated revolt on 21st February 1915, Hindustan Socialist Republic Association had become
based on mutinies by Ferozpur, Lahore and Rawalpindi very active, 26 incidents of robberies were reported in
garrisons was foiled at the last moment by treachery. 1930.
Rash Behari Bose had to flee to Japan and Sanyal was Simon Commission
transported for having tried to subvert the garrisons of
• The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of
Banaras and Danapore. Though the plan for an all India
seven British Members of Parliament that had
revolt misfired badly, its organizers, and particularly
been dispatched to India in 1927 to study

80
 constitutional reforms there. It was commonly confronted by throngs of protestors. The entire
referred to as the Simon Commission after its country observed a hartal (strike), and many
Chairman. people turned out to greet the Commission with
Background black flags. Similar protests occurred in every
• The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced major Indian city that the seven British MPs
the system of dyarchy to govern the provinces of visited. However, one protest against the Simon
British India. However, the Indian public Commission would gain infamy above all the
clamoured for revision of the difficult dyarchy others.
form of government, and the Government of India • On October 30, 1928, the Simon Commission
Act 1919 itself stated that a commission would arrived in Lahore where, as with the rest of the
be appointed after 10 years to investigate the country, its arrival was met with massive amounts
progress of the governance scheme and suggest of protestors. The Lahore protest was led by Indian
new steps for reform. nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai, who had moved a
• In the late 1920s, the Conservative government, resolution against the Commission in the Central
then in power in Britain, feared imminent electoral Legislative Assembly of Punjab in February 1928.
defeat at the hands of the Labour Party, and also • In order to make way for the Commission, the
feared the effects of the consequent transference local police force began beating protestors with
of control of India to such an “inexperienced” their lathis (sticks). The police were particularly
body. brutal towards Lala Lajpat Rai, who later that day
• Hence, in November of 1927, Prime Minister declared, ‘The blows which fell on me today are
Stanley Baldwin appointed seven MPs (including the last nails in the coffin of British imperialism.”
Chairman Simon) to constitute the commission On November 17, Lajpat Rai died of his injuries.
that had been promised in 1919 that would look Report of the Commission
into the state of Indian constitutional affairs. • The Commission published its 17-volume report
• The people of the Indian subcontinent were in 1930. It proposed the abolition of dyarchy and
outraged and insulted, as the Simon Commission, the establishment of representative government
which was to determine the future of India, did in the provinces. It also recommended that
not include a single Indian member. separate communal electorates be retained, but
• The Indian National Congress, at its December only until tensions between Hindus and Muslims
1927 meeting in Chennai, resolved to boycott the had died down.
Commission and accepted the challenge of Lord • Noting that educated Indians opposed the
Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, to Commission and also that communal tensions had
draft a constitution that would be acceptable to increased instead of decreasing, the British
the Indian populace. A faction of the Muslim government opted for another method of dealing
League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, also with the constitutional issues of India.
decided to boycott the Commission. • Before the publication of the report, the British
• In Burma (Myanmar), which was included in the government stated that Indian opinion would
terms of reference of the Simon Commission, henceforth be taken into account, and that the
there was strong suspicion either that BurmaVs natural outcome of the constitutional process
unpopular union with India would continue, or would be dominion status for India. The outcome
that the constitution recommended for Burma by of the Simon Commission was the Government
the Simon Commission would be less generous of India Act 1935, which established
than that chosen for India; these suspicions representative government at the provincial level
resulted in tension and violence in Burma leading in India and is the basis of many parts of the Indian
to the rebellion of Saya San. Constitution.
Death of Lajpat Rai NEHRU REPORT
• Almost immediately with its arrival in Mumbai • The “Nehru Report” (1928) was a memorandum
on February 3, 1928, the Simon Commission was outlining a proposed new Dominion constitution

81
 for India. It was prepared by a committee of the cent, but this was to be in strict proportion
All Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru to the size of the community;
with his son Jawaharlal acting as secretary. There (vii) The language of the British Commonwealth
were nine other members in this committee, would be Hindustani, which might be written
including two Muslims. either in Devnagari or in Urdu character. The
• The Constitution outlined by the Nehru report was use of the English language would be
for India enjoying dominion status within the permitted.
British Commonwealth. Some of the important • The Nehru Report, along with that of the Simon
elements of the report were: Commission was available to participants in the
(i) Unlike the eventual Government of India Act three Indian Round Table Conferences 1931-1933.
1935, it contained a Bill of Rights; However, the Government of India Act 1935 owes
(ii) All power of government and all authority - much to the Simon Commission report and little,
legislative, executive and judicial - were to if anything, to the Nehru Report. Historical
be derived from the people and the same significance of the Jinnah Report.
would be exercised through organizations JINNAH\’S FOURTEEN POINTS
established by, or under, and in accordance • With few exceptions, Muslim leaders rejected the
with, the Constitution ; Nehru proposals. In reaction, Mohammad AN
(iii) There would be no state religion; men and Jinnah drafted his Fourteen Points in 1929 which
women would have equal rights as citizens; became the core demands of the Muslim
(iv) There was to be federal form of government community put forward as the price of their
with residuary powers vested in the centre. participating in an independent united India. Their
(Some scholars, such as Moore in ‘The main objections were:
Making of India’s Paper Federation, 1927- • Separate Electorates and Weightage - the 1916
35" in 1988, considered the Nehru Report Congress-Muslim League agreement - the
proposal as essentially unitary rather than Lucknow Pact, provided these to the Muslim
federal.); community whereas they were rejected by the
(v) It included a description of the machinery of Nehru Report;
government, including a proposal for the • Residuary Powers - the Muslims realized that
creation of a Supreme Court and a suggestion while they would be a majority in the provinces
that the provinces should be linguistically of the North-East and North-West of India, and
determined; hence would control their provincial legislatures,
(vi) It did not provide for separate electorates for they would always be a minority at the Centre.
any community or for weightage for Thus they demanded, contrary to the Nehru
minorities. Both of these were liberally Report, that residuary powers go to the provinces.
provided in the eventual Government of • The inability of Congress to concede these points
India Act, 1935. However, it did allow for must be considered a major factor in the eventual
the reservation of Muslim seats in provinces partition of India.
having a Muslim minority of at least ten per

82
 21. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930 -34)

The Lahore Session was followed by a two-month What is Dandi March?

lull, while the country and the government waited of
The Civil Disobedience Movement was started
Gandhi to decide on the precise methods of Non-violent
by Gandhi with his Dandi March (12th March to 6th
struggle for ‘Poorna Swaraj’. Independence pledges
April 1930). The Dandi March, from the Sabarmati
were taken at innumerable meetings throughout the
Ashram to Dandi (a village on the Gujarat sea- coast)
country on 26th January denouncing the British for
with 71 Ashram members drawn from all parts of India,
having ruined India economically, politically, culturally,
attracted enormous publicity and attention from the
and spiritually. In the pledges, it was asserted that it
entire country and even abroad. Gandhi declared on
was a crime against man and God to submit any longer
11th March 1930 that wholesale illegal manufacture
to such a rule. The Congress legislators were ordered
and auctioning of salt should begin after he had himself
to resign on 6th January 1930.
violated the law at Dandi; it could be accompanied by
Gandhi issued an eleven-point ultimatum to Lord boycott of foreign cloth and liquor after his own arrest
Irwin on 31st January, 1930. Further serious appeals and everyone would have a free hand, subject to the
were made for Civil disobedience, including non- pledge of non-violence and truth, though local leaders
payment of taxes. The choice of salt as the main issues should be obeyed.
also appeared some what eccentric at first, and Nehru
Stages of Civil Disobedience
later recalled his initial sense of bewilderment. Though
The three different stages of the civil
the eleven points seemed a kind of retreat, they at least
Disobedience movement witnessed varying role of
concretized the national demand and related it to
different social groups and classes.
specific grievances.
First stage (March to September 1930): It saw
Demands
the high point of bourgeois participation in towns and
The eleven points included redressal of two
controlled peasant mobilization in the villages on issues
peasants grievances, three specific bourgeois demands
selected by Gandhi such as salt, non-payment of
and six issues of general interest. The peasants’
revenue, picketing of liquor shops, and non-payments
demands were:
of Chaukidari tax. Among industrialists, G.D. Birla
• 50 per cent reduction in land revenue and; donated approximately 5 lakh rupees to the movement
• abolition of the salt tax and government salt according to British Intelligence estimates. His letters
monopoly. reveal him as actively trying to persuade the Calcutta
The three specific bourgeois demands were: Marwari foreign piece-goods importers to establish
• lowering of the Rupee-Sterling exchange ratio, trade contacts instead with Ahmedabad and Bombay
• textile protection and; cotton mills. While Jamnalal Bajaj was unique among
capitalists in being a full time Congress activist (he
• reservation of coastal shipping for Indians.
served as AICC treasurer for many years and went to
The six issues of general interest were: jail in 1930), Walchand Hirachand urged fellow-
• 50 per cent cut in military expenditure, businessmen in a letter to the FICCI in April 1930 to
• 50 per cent reduction in expenditure on civil give up the policy of sitting on the fence and throw in
administration (civil service salaries), their lot with those that were fighting for Swaraj. In
• total prohibition of Intoxicants, May 1930, FICCI also decided to boycott the Round
• release of all political prisoners, Table Conference as long as Gandhi stayed away from
it and till the Viceroy made a definite promise regarding
• reforms in the Central intelligence Department
dominion status.
(C.I.D.) and;
During the period 1921-22, the merchants and
• changes in the Arms Act enabling citizens to bear
petty traders were, on the whole, much more
arms for self-defence.
enthusiastic supporters of the national movement than

83
industrialists and capitalists. Collective pledges by British suppression. At the same time, there were signs
merchants not to indent foreign goods became very of a ‘second wave’, taking less manageable and socially
common in Bombay, Amritsar, Delhi and Calcutta and dangerous forms, like no- rent or tribal rebellion. (No-
represented a more effective form of boycott than the rent campaigns were different from No revenue
spectacular picketing by (often women) volunteers. The campaigns, since the former were aimed at the local
overall impact was a remarkable fall in British cloth zamindars and landlords, whereas the latter were aimed
imports. Other British imports also suffered and, from at the Government). In scattered incidents throughout
May to August 1930, the British Trade Commissioner’s the country, the peasants were resisting the arrests of
office was flooded with panic-stricken reports and their leaders and the seizure of their property,
complaints from ‘white’ firms. mobilizing neighbouring villages through the blowing
In the countryside, the initial Gandhian Civil of conch-shells and surrounding and attacking police
Disobedience movement took place in areas which had parties.
already witnessed some amount of Gandhian rural In August 1930 itself, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and
constructive work through local ashrams. Salt provided Mr. Jayakar attempted to bring about compromise
the initial vital catalyst, but illegal manufacture became between the Congress and the government but failed
difficult with the onset of the monsoon. Naturally, salt because the government insisted on the withdrawal of
became the basis for a sustained campaign only in the the movement first. Meanwhile, the report of the Simon
coastal parts of Bombay presidency, Balasore in Orissa Commission had been submitted. The British
and Midnapur in Bengal. Picketing of liquor shops and government decided to call the first Round Table
of excise license auctions became an important element Conference to deliberate and discuss future
of Civil Disobedience movement both in small towns constitutional reforms with the Indian leaders. The
and villages. On the other hand, the peasants in many Conference started its deliberations on 12th November
areas firmly refused to pay the chaukidari tax despite 1930. But the Congress did not participate in it.
enormous physical correction and sale of property. Realizing the futility of talks in the absence of the
Rural taluka of Khera district and Bardoli of Surat representatives of the Congress, the Conference was
became centres of very successful no-revenue campaign adjourned ‘sine die’ on 19th January 1931.
with peasants taking refuge in the neighbouring Baroda The government now realized the necessity of
state in a ‘Hijrat’ (voluntary migration) which, at its coming to terms with the Congress. He released the
height on October 1930, involved over 15,000 peasants members of the Working Committee of the Congress,
in Khera. In the Central Provinces, Maharashtra and including Gandhi on 26th January 1931. Efforts for a
Karnataka, the Congress leadership tried to utilize in a compromise between the Congress and the government
controlled manner the potentially explosive issue of were revived by Tej Bahadur Sapru, Dr. Jayakar, etc.
poor peasants and tribal grievances regarding forest The efforts proved successful this time and the Gandhi-
laws. Setting up training camps for ‘forest satyagrahis’ Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. By it, the
and carefully selecting satyagraha centres. government agreed to:
Second stage (October 1930 to March 1931): (a) Withdraw all ordinances and end
From the beginning of this stage, there was an evident prosecutions.
decline in enthusiasm and support from urban (b) Release all political prisoners, except those
merchants with dealers breaking Congress- imposed guilty of violence.
seals on foreign cloth at a number of places. The gains
(c) Restore the confiscated property of the
from Swadeshi demand were counter-balanced by
Satyagraha.
frequent hartals which dislocated trade and industry.
The alarm-signals from business groups calling for (d) Permit peaceful picketing of liquor, opium
compromise, as well as the ultimate nationalist response and foreign cloth shops and;
to them, were more probably connected with (e) Permit the collection or manufacture of salt,
developments in the countryside. free of duty, to persons residing within a
In the rural areas, the more purely Gandhian forms specific distance of the seashore.
based on the relatively propertied peasants were losing
some of their earlier potency in the face of ruthless

84
The Congress, on its part agreed to: U.P., was clearly a submission to overwhelmingly
(a) suspend the Civil Disobedience movement. superior force rather than any loss of faith in the
(b) participate in the second Round Table Congress. The halo of sacrifice and martyrdom, won
Conference, and by the latter during 1930-34, helped decisively in the
winning elections from 1934 onwards. But we should
(c) not to press for investigation into police
not forget that voting was not the same as agitating.
excesses.
The days of the classic satyagrahas had passed and,
The Congress ratified it in its session held at though the propertied peasants would go on voting
Karachi in March 1931 due to the persuasion of Gandhi. Congress, they were no longer ready to sacrifice their
Gandhi was deputed to attend the second Round Table land, now that Gandhi had failed to get it restored for
Conference as the sole representative of the Congress. them in 1931. In some areas, most notably Gujarat,
The spirit of the pact was already marred by the they would also become more prosperous after
execution of Bhagat Singh and his comrades on the Depression was succeeded by a war boon and
eve of the Karachi Session of the Congress. Certain correspondingly less militant.
other changes also took place between the signing of
How Civil Disobedience collapsed?
the Pact and the holding of second Round Table
Conference. Lord Irwin was replaced by Lord As the mass movement declined, political
Wellington as the Viceroy of India. Lord Wellington ‘realism’ and certain sectional economic calculations
was staunch conservative and revived the repressive pushed some business groups towards collaboration
policy of the government soon after his arrival in India. much as signing agreements, giving preferential
In England, while the Conference was still in session, treatment and lower import duty rates to British textile
general elections took place and the Conservative imports and other British commodities. Yet strong
government was in no mood to grant any concession objective compulsions, both economic and political,
to India. Gandhi returned to India in December 1931 existed to prevent anything like total sell-out or
as a dejected person and found that the government unqualified collaboration by Indian business groups.
had already revived its policy of repression. He British insistence on retaining the existing exchange
therefore, decided to revive the Civil Disobedience ratio remained a permanent grievance. Above all,
movement and the Congress Working Committee collaboration was made difficult by the fact that the
approved it. years 1932-34 were marked by a full-scale counter-
offensive by British business interests. With Lancashire
Third stage (January 1932 to April 1934): The
in particular closely aligning itself with the ultra-Tory
third phase of the movement was officially withdrawn
opposition led by Churchill to any constitutional
by the Congress in April 1934 though, unofficially, the
concession going beyond the Simon Commission’s
Congress admitted defeat in the 1933 itself.
framework.
Outmaneuvered and facing repressive measures on an
unprecedented scale, the national movement under the The ultimate result of the opposite pressures
Congress still fought on valiantly for about a year and towards collaboration and conflict was an important
a half. The movement, during this phase comprised a re-alignment of business attitudes in support of a change
wide range of activities almost totally suppressed. The in Congress policy away from mass agitation and
forms of defiance included picketing the cloth and towards Assembly and eventually ministerial
liquor shops, closing of markets and boycott of ‘white’ participation. This realignment enabled Indian
or loyalist business concerns, symbolic hoisting of capitalists to overcome the fairly sharp split between
Congress flags, holding in public of ‘illegal’ Congress near loyalists and nationalists within their own ranks
sessions, salt satyagrahas, non-payment of chaukidari which had become quite marked during the early
taxes, no-rent as well as no-revenue, forest law 1930’s. It also fitted in with developments in the
violations, etc. Congress leaderships as it came to terms gradually with
the evident decline of Civil Disobedience in the face
But by the second half of 1932 itself, the Civil
of overwhelming repression.
Disobedience movement was evidently losing ground.
It is true that the decline in peasants’ participation,
evident for instance in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and

85
Significance of Civil Disobedience stood not only the breakdown of the Nehru Report
The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-34 negotiations but a decade of intense communal
was an advance over the Non-cooperation Movement organization and fratricidal strife. Outside the North
of 1921-22 in quite a few respects. West Frontier Province and a few isolated pockets like
• First of all, the stated objective of the movement Delhi, Muslim participation remained low throughout
of 1930-34 was the achievement of complete the civil disobedience years. Further, unlike the Non-
independence and not just the remedying of two cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience
specific ‘wrongs’ plus a very vague Swaraj. Movement did not coincide with any major labour
upsurge. Another difference between the two
• Secondly, in sharp contrast to what had happened
movements was that under the influence of the Civil
after Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi, during
Disobedience Movement, there was an evident decline
1930-34, pushed ahead with the non-violent main
in the older and more purely intelligentsia forms of
stream despite sporadic incidents which were
protest like lawyers giving up their practice and students
realistically recognized now as more or less
and teachers leaving official institutions to start national
inevitable.
schools and colleges.
• Thirdly, the methods adopted during the 1930-34
COMMUNAL AWARD
movement, from the beginning, involved
deliberate violation of law and not mere Non- • After the failure of the Second Round Table
cooperation with foreign rule. conference, Ramsay McDonald announced the
‘Communal Award’ on August 16, 1932.
• Fourthly, participation in this movement involved
According to the Award, the right of separate
much greater risk than in 1921-22, for, a frightened
electorate was not only given to the Muslims of
government from May 1930 onwards adopted a
India but also to all the minority communities in
policy of senseless brutality even towards
the country.
absolutely peaceful Satyagrahis, Apart from life
and limb, the meagre property of the poor was • The Award also declared untouchables as a
very much at stake, for non-payment of land minority and thus the Hindu depressed classes
revenue or chaukidari tax was met by wholesale were given a number of special seats, to be filled
confiscation of household goods, implements and from special depressed class electorates in the area
even land. where their voters were concentrated.
• Fifthly, large scale participation of women and • Under the Communal Award, the principle of
teenagers was another significant feature of the weightage was also maintained with some
civil disobedience movement. The Civil modifications in the Muslim minority provinces.
Disobedience movement, in fact, marked a major Principle of weightage was also applied for
step forward in the emancipation of Indian Europeans in Bengal and Assam, Sikhs in the
women. Punjab and North West Frontier Province, and
Hindus in Sindh and North West Frontier
• Sixthly, the movement of 1930-34 obtained a
Province.
better response from business groups and large
sections of the peasantry than the movement of • Though the Muslims constituted almost 56 per
1921-22. cent of the total population of Punjab, they were
given 86 out of 175 seats in the Punjab Assembly.
• And finally, organizationally the Congress was
The Muslim majority of 54.8 per cent in Punjab
now much stronger in most parts of the country
was thus reduced to a minority. The formula
than in 1921-22 when it had just taken the first
favoured the Sikhs of Punjab and the Europeans
step on the road towards becoming a mass party.
of Bengal the most.
Yet it would be a considerable over simplification
• The Award was not popular with any Indian party.
to present the Civil Disobedience Movement as an
Muslims were not happy with the Communal
unqualified advance in every respect over the Non-
Award, as it has reduced their majority in Punjab
cooperation Movement. To begin with, the stirring
and Bengal to a minority. Yet they were prepared
Hindu-Muslim unity of 1919-22 was obviously a thing
to accept it.
of the past in 1930s. For, between the two movements

86
• On the other hand, the Hindus refused to accept by the method of primary election in the manner
the awards and decided to launch a campaign provided for in clause above for their
against it. For them it was not possible to accept representation in the provincial legislatures;
the ‘untouchables’ as a minority. They organized 4. In the Central Legislature, 18 per cent of the seats
the Allahabad Unity Conference in which they allotted to the general electorate for British India
demanded for the replacement of separate in the said legislature shall be reserved for the
electorates by joint electorates. Many nationalist Depressed Classes; and
Muslims and Sikhs also participated in the
5. In every province, out of the educational grant,
conference.
an adequate sum shall be ear-marked for providing
• The Congress also rejected the Award in toto. educational facilities to the members of Depressed
Gandhi protested against the declaration of Classes.
untouchables as a minority and undertook a fast
GANDHLJI’S EPIC FAST
unto death. He also held meetings with the
untouchable leadership for the first time and try • In September 1932, Gandhiji declared a fast unto
to convince them that they were very much part death, to undo the provisions of the Communal
of the mainstream Hindu society. Award of Ramsay McDonald, the then British
Prime Minister, providing for the scheme of
• He managed to sign the Poona Pact with Dr. B. R.
separate representation for the depressed classes,
Ambedker, the leader of untouchables, in which
since that would cut across Hinduism.
the Congress met many of the untouchables’
demands. • In May, 1933 Gandhiji undertook another fast not
against the Government but “for purification of
POONA PACT
myself and my associates and for greater vigilance
• Poona Pact (1932) is the popular name of an and watchfulness in connection with the Harijan
agreement between the Untouchables (called cause.”
Depressed Classes) of India led by Dr. B. R.
• The President of the Congress, in consultation
Ambedkar and the Hindus of India, that took place
with Gandhiji, announced the suspension of the
on 24 September 1932 at Yerawada Jail in Pune.
Civil Disobedience movement for 6 weeks. The
• The text uses the term “Depressed Classes” to Government continued its course of repression.
denote Untouchables who were later called Gandhiji, who was later released, decided to
Scheduled Castes under the Government of India devote his time to Harijan work.
Act 1935, and the later Indian Constitution of
• The struggle was finally suspended by the All
1950. The Untouchables are now popularly known
India Congress Committee who were allowed to
as Dalits.
meet at Patna and decided to call off the Civil
Major highlights of the Pact are as follows: Disobedience unconditionally, except for the
1. There shall be seats reserved for the Depressed provision that Gandhiji alone, when he thought it
Classes out of general electorate seats in the necessary, could offer Civil Disobedience.
provincial legislatures as follows: - Madras 30; • Gandhiji decided to start an individual Civil
Bombay with Sindh 25; Punjab 8; Bihar and Disobedience movement, as from 1 August 1933,
Orissa 18; Central Provinces 20; Assam 7; Bengal but he was arrested the previous night. He was
30; United Provinces 20. Total 148. These figures released after a couple of days but was ordered to
are based on the Prime Minister’s (British) reside at Poona.
decision;
• Gandhi disobeyed this order, was re-arrested and
2. Election to these seats shall be by joint electorates sentenced to one year’s imprisonment. There upon
subject; hundreds of Congressmen followed Gandhiji to
3. The representation of the Depressed Classes in prison. This movement continued till the early part
the Central Legislature shall likewise be on the of April, 1934.
principle of joint electorates and reserved seats

87
• Throughout this period, the government continued • Meanwhile, a Round Table Conference had met
to pursue a policy of severe repression which in London early 1931. The intention seemed to
included imprisonment, police firing, beating in have been, to set off the stage, before the world
lock-up, shooting of detainees, atrocity on women, of “representative gathering” of Indians trying for
blockading of villages, and even looting and an agreed plan for the future government of their
pillage. country.
• During the Civil Disobedience movement of 1930- • It was not Indians, but the Viceroy and his officials
31, more than 60,000 persons were imprisoned who chose these representatives. What they
and during the Second Civil obedience movement actually did was to carefully assemble all the
of 1932-34 the number of persons who courted diverse elements, every creed, every party, every
arrest were, about 66,000. racial minority, every interest in this subcontinent.
• The programme or the boycott of British goods • The spirit in which the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was
which was part of the movements led to a signed did not last long. In spite of protests from
substantial fall in the import of British goods into all quarters, the Government carried out the
India. Further, the Civil Disobedience Movement execution of Sardar Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and
roused the Indian people in general, including Raj Guru on 23rd March 1931. On 18 April 1931,
villagers and women folk. Women rarely came Lord Irwin was succeeded by Lord Willington.
out of the seclusion of their homes in order to The new Viceroy had no intention to abide by the
take part in the struggle for freedom. terms of the Pact.
• This not only gave an impetus to the freedom SECOND ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCE
movement, but also helped in bringing out another (September-December 1931)
social revolution: the emancipation of women. • In the meantime, however, the Congress Working
• When the Civil Disobedience movement came to Committee passed a resolution that Mahatma
an end in April, 1934, Gandhiji appealed to Gandhi should represent the Congress at the
Congressmen to devote themselves to nation- Second Round Table Conference to be convened
building activities: promotion of Hindu-Muslim later inl931 in London. Mahatma Gandhi did
unity, removal of untouchability, and spread of attend the Conference as the sole representative
hand-spinning. of the Congress.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT AND FIRST ROUND • As was expected, the communal question and the
TABLE CONFERENCE (Nov. 1930-Jan. 1931) differences among the Indian people loomed large
• While the Civil Disobedience Movement in this conference and all efforts to solve it by
continued vigorously in spite of untold repression, consent proved unsuccessful. Gandhiji put up a
efforts were made for a compromise and after valiant fight and some of the speeches he delivered
several attempts of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and Mr. were most striking.
M.R. Jayakar, an agreement was reached after 15 • Apparently the Government’s scheme at the
clays’ strenuous discussions between the Viceroy Round Table Conference was only a scheme for
and Mahatma Gandhi. Indians sharing power with the bureaucracy and
• This agreement, better known as the Gandhi-Irwin not one designed to achieve responsible
Pact, was signed on 5 March, 1931. Under the Government.
agreement, the Government was to make • Gandhiji returned empty-handed from the Round
concession take steps for the participation of the Table Conference. The condition on which the
representatives of Congress in the Second Round Congress had agreed to participate, abandonment
Table Conference, and the Congress on its part, of stark repression, was also being broken.
had to withdraw the Civil Disobedience Jawaharlal Nehru and T.A.K. Sherwani had been
Movement. arrested and put in jail again.

88
• In the North West Frontier Province Khan Abdul reforms took the form reflected in the Government
Ghaffar Khan and Dr. Khan Saheb were also of India Act, 1935.
arrested. Special ordinances had been enforced • Most of the main political figures of India were
in the United Provinces, the North West Frontier not present for this conference. In this conference,
Province and in Bengal. Chaudhary Rahmat Ali, a college student, coined
THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE the name PAKISTAN. He took the P from Punjab,
(November-December 1932) the
• From September 1931 until March 1933, under A from Afghanistan, the KI from Kashmir, the S
the supervision of Samuel Hoare, the proposed from Sindh and the TAN from Balochistan. In this
Conference M.A.Jinnah was not present.

89
 22. QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

The failure of the Cripps Mission left no meeting principle catchment areas for Indian migrant labour
ground between the Congress and the government. The going to South East Asia and other parts of the world.
government was not prepared to part with its power, Gandhi: In Militant Mood
while the congress insisted on the immediate transfer This new popular mood of August 1942 was
of power to the Indians because it believed that an certainly sensed by Gandhi and his own statements
effective resistance against the Japanese aggression before launching the Quit India movement are proof
could be organized only by a popular government. of this fact. That is why, the summer of 1942 found
Gandhi, who was not prepared to oppose the Gandhi in a strange and uniquely militant mood. ‘Leave
government by a mass movement so far, was now India to God or to anarchy’, he repeatedly urged the
convinced of the necessity of starting a mass movement British. ‘This orderly disciplined anarchy should go
again and, hence, changed his mind. Some and, if as a result there is complete lawlessness, I would
Congressmen were not convinced of his argument to risk it’. Though the need for non-violence was always
start a mass movement with a view to force the British reiterated, the famous “Quit India” resolution followed
to hand over power to India during the course of war, up its call for mass struggle on non-violent lines under
but all submitted before him and those who did not, Gandhi’s leadership with the significant rider that if
like C. Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai, resigned the Congress leadership was removed by arrest, every
from the Congress (July 1942). The Congress Working Indian, who desired freedom and strives for it, must be
Committee met at Wartha in July and demanded the his own guide. Gandhi also declared in his passionate
immediate withdrawal of the British form India. The ‘Do or Die’ speech that every Indian should consider
All India Congress Committee ratified this ‘Quit India’ himself to be a free man, and also that mere jail-going
resolution at its meeting at Bombay on 8th August, would not do. ‘If a general strike becomes a dire
1942. necessity, I shall not flinch’, was yet another most
Major Causes uncharacteristic remark made by Gandhi in an interview
The roots of the Revolt of 1942 can be found in on 6th August, 1942. It may be noted that Gandhi was,
certain national as well as international developments. for once, prepared to countenance political strikes
The first and the foremost cause was the new popular precisely at a time when the communists were bound
mood of August 1942 caused by the rout of the British to keep aloof form them in very sharp contrast to his
by an Asian power, viz., Japan. The victory of Japan attitude in previous of left-led labour militancy in 1928-
and subsequent events shattered the white prestige on 29 or the late 1930’s and early 1940’s.
the one hand and on the other, revealed the gross racism How was Quit India Movement Organized?
of the rulers of India once again. While the defeat of Three broad phases can be distinguished in the
the British made the Indians believe that British rule Quit India Movement or the Revolt of 1942. The first
was ending, the way the British cared about the safety phase (from 9th to 15th August 1942) was massive and
of their own people in South East Asia leaving the violent but quickly suppressed. It was predominantly
Indian immigrants there to their own fate caused great urban and included hartals, strikes and dashes with
amount of anti-white fury among all the Indians. The police and army in most cities. Bombay, as so often
British in Malaya, Singapore and Burma before, was the main storm centre during this phase.
commandeered all forms of transport in their Calcutta also witnessed many hartals. There were
ignominious flight and left the Indian immigrants there violent dashes with heavy casualties in Delhi and, in
to find their own way. The result was a compound of Patna, control over the city was virtually lost for two
anti-white fury and an expectation that British rule was days after a famous confrontation in front of the
ending. It is probably not accidental that east U.P., and Secretariat on 11th August. The violence of Delhi was
west and north Bihar, the region where the ‘August largely due to ‘mill hands on strike’, and strikes by
Rebellion’ (Revolt of 1942) attained its maximum
popular intensity, was also traditional one of the

90
mill- workers were also reported in Lucknow, Kanpur, rebellions. What made the August movements
Bombay, Nagpur and Ahmedabad. The Tata Steel formidable however, was a massive upsurge of the
Plant was totally closed down for 13 days in a peasantry in certain areas. But as the one available
strike in which the sole labour slogan was that they attempt at statistical analysis of the “crowd” in the east
would not resume work until a national government U.P. and west Bihar regions indicates, the Revolt of
had been formed. At Ahmedabad, the textile strike 1942 was essentially an upsurge of peasant, small
which began during this period lasted for 3 months, holders, and hence far from being a movement of
and a nationalist chronicle later described the city as habitual ‘criminals’ or rootless ‘hooligans’.
the “Stalingrad of India”. The urban middle class was The role of the labourers was somewhat short
extremely prominent in this first phase spearheaded lived. The mill element (participation by mill workers)
by students. in general was dropping out by August 14-15. The
From the beginning of the second phase (from 15th industrial belts of Calcutta and Bombay were largely
August to 30th September 1942), the focus shifted to quiet, probably because of the communist opposition
the countryside, with militant students fanning out form to the movement. Labour participation in the movement
centers like Banaras, Patna and Cuttack, destroying was, however, considerable in some centers like
communications on a massive scale and leading a Jamshedpur, Ahmedabad, Ahmadnagar and Poona,
veritable peasantsY rebellion against white authority where there had been little communist activity and
strongly reminiscent in some ways of the Revolt of where Gandhian influences had contributed to cordial
1857. Northern and western Bihar and eastern U.P., relations between labour and capital.
Midnapur in Bengal, and pockets in Maharastra, No detailed study has been made so far of the
Karnataka and Orissa were the major centers of this extent of business participation but it seems to have
second phase which saw the installation of a number been considerable at least in the city of Bombay. Stories
of local-national governments, which, however, were are, in fact, current about considerable covert upper-
usually short-lived. class and even Indian high official support to secret
Weakened by the brutal repression (no less than nationalist activities in to set up a fairly effective illegal
57 army battalions were used), the movement, from apparatus, including even a secret radio station under
about the beginning of October 1942, entered its longest Usha Mehta for three months in Bombay.
but also the least formidable phase, i.e., the third and Impact of the Movement
final phase. This phase was characterized by terrorist The British realized that it would be wiser to try
activity by educated youth directed against for negotiated settlement rather than risk another
communications, police and army installations confrontation as massive and violent as the Revolt of
occasionally rising to the level of guerrilla war, such 1942. It is true that by the end of 1942 the British had
as the one along the north Bihar-Nepal border led by come out victorious in their immediate total
Jayaprakash Narayana. Part- time peasant squads confrontation with Indian nationalism and the
engaged in farming by day and sabotage activities by remaining two years of the war in the country. Yet, the
night and, in some pockets, secret parallel ‘National victory was ambiguous and with several limitations and
Government’ functioned most notably at Tamluk in was possible only because war conditions had allowed
Midnapur, Satara in Maharastra and Talcher in Orissa. really ruthless use of force.
Extremely impressive and heroic by any standards, such Negotiations Became Necessity: The British were
activities, however, were no longer a threat either to not prepared to risk such a confrontation again and that
the British rule or to the war plans of the Allies. the decision in 1945 to try for a negotiated settlement
Response of Different Classes was not just a gift of the new labour government is
An examination of the social composition of the indicated by the attitude of Lord Wavell. In a letter to
movement reveals the role of different social groups Churchill dated 24th October 1944, Wavell pointed out
and classes in it. Unlike in the Civil Disobedience days, that it would be impossible to hold India by force after
students, belonging to the middle class, were very much the war, given the likely state of world opinion and
in the forefront in 1942, whether in urban clashes as British popular or even army attitudes, as well as the
organizers of sabotage, or inspirers of the peasant economic exhaustion of Britain. Hence, he felt, that it

91
would be wise to start negotiations. Churchill’s pig- fighting in 1942, while the Communists were rated in
headedness delayed the process somewhat, but this was the eyes of a big section of nationalist public opinion
precisely what the British were able to persuade the as collaborators and traitors. Thus, if the British
Congress leadership to do after 1945. Thus, it is amply ultimately came to realize the wisdom of a negotiated
clear that the decision of negotiated transfer of power transfer of power form the Quit India experience, the
taken in 1945 was not just a gift of the new labour 1942 Revolt and its aftermath also strengthened forces
government; rather, it was primarily the result of the preferring a compromise on the nationalist side by
above realization. giving a new prestige to the rightist Congressmen.
Benefits to Rightists: Imprisonment and defeat Weakening of the Left: The Revolt of 1942
paradoxically brought certain benefits to the Congress weakened the left alternative in two ways. Brutal
leaders. Isolation in jail helped them to avoid taking a repression exhausted, at least temporarily, many peasant
clear public stand on the anti-Japanese war issue, bases built up through years of Gandhian constructive
something which, otherwise, would have become very work or radical Kissan Sabha activity. It is significant
ticklish indeed for a few months in 1944 when Subhas that the country side of Bihar, U. P., Maharashtra,
Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army appeared on the Karnataka and Orissa played little or no part in the
borders of Assam at a time when, on a world scale, the anti-imperialist upsurge of 1945- 46, while most of the
Allies were clearly winning the war. Much more rural Gandhians of Midnapurand Hooghly found
important was the fact that the glamour of jail served themselves largely pushed aside in the Bengal Congress
to wipe out the unimpressive record of the Congress politics of the post-war and post independence years.
ministries in office, thereby restoring the popularity of In the second place, the left was now divided as never
the organization among the masses. Rightist Congress before. The searing memory of 1942, with its charges
leaders, who throughout the 1930’s had urged more and counter-charges of ‘treachery’ and its ‘fifth-
and more cooperation with the British and pursued columnist’ activity, erected a wall between the socialists
increasingly conservative polices as minister, could not and followers of Bose on one side and the Communists
sit back in the halo of patriotic self-sacrifice, as much on the other, which had not been entirely overcome
as the Socialists who had done most of the actual even after a generation.

92
 23. BRITISH POLICY OF DIVIDE AND RULE

Along with the rise of nationalism, communalism Communal Award of 1932 attempted to treat
too made its appearance around the end of the 19th Harijans as a separate political entity.
century and posed the biggest threat to the unity of the • The British also followed the policy of apparent
Indian people and the national movement. concession or conciliation, on the one hand and
• Communalism is the belief that because a group ruthless repression on the other against the growth
of people follow a particular religion they have, of nationalism. The policy was relentlessly
as a result, common, that is, social, political and pursued throughout the freedom struggle and
economic interests. In case of India, it means that knew no bounds particularly during the Anti-
Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians form partition, Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience
different and district communities; that all the and Quit India Movements.
followers of a religion share not only a • The British authorities felt that the spread of
commonality of religious interests but also modern education had been a major cause of the
common secular interests. growth of nationalism. So, they deliberately
• The British adopted different policies to counter followed a policy of joining hands with the
and contain the rapidly growing nationalist socially and intellectually reactionary forces in
movement. They encouraged pro-English order to prevent the spread of modern ideas.
individuals like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja • Plans were now set afoot to impose greater
Siva Prasad to start an anti-Congress movement. government control over education and to change
• Later, they fanned the Hindu-Muslim communal its modern liberal character into a conservative
rivalry, first among the educated Indians and then and reactionary one. Modern secular education
among the common people through the was sought to be replaced by a system based on
introduction of communal electorates. They even religious and moral training.
exploited the controversy of Hindi and Urdu and • Partonage in Government Services used to Foster
the cow-protection movement. Communalism. In the absence of any avenues of
• Relentless efforts were made to create a split in gainful employment in trade and industry, the
the nationalist ranks by adopting a more friendly British Indian Government remained the biggest
approach towards the more conservative or employer to which the educated youth hopefully
moderate sections. looked for their means of livelihood. This
enormous patronage—in higher and subordinate
• In the 1890\’s, efforts were made to separate the
services—was cleverly used by the rulers to
radicals of yesterday like Justice Ranade and
promote rivalry and discord among different
others from leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji who
sections of society. Our nationalist leaders were
come to be considered ‘moderates’. Similarly, in
fully aware of the mischievous character of this
the first two decades of the 20th century moderates
bait, but the hunger—rather compulsion—for
were sought to be played against extremists.
loaves and fishes blinded them to its dangerous
• The British also succeeded in turning the
potentialities. Jawaharlal Nehru explained then,
traditional feudal classes like princes and
‘This enormous partongae was exercised to
zamindars against the new intelligentsia and the
strengthen the British hold on the country, to crush
common people. Princes were won over by the
discordant and disagreeable elements, and to
creation of the Chamber of Princes in 1921.
promote rivalry and discord amongst various
Zamindars were already won over by the
groups anxiously looking forward to employment
introduction of the Permanent Settlement.
in goverment service. It led to demoralization and
• Attempts were also made to turn one caste against conflict and the government could play one group
another even among the Hindus. For example, the against the other.”

93
 Partition of India because the Congress Ministries, according to the
League, carried out a number of acts detrimental to
The origin of the idea of a separate state for
Muslim interests during their rule between 1937 and
Muslims can be traced back to Muhammad Iqbal’s
1939. The famous resolution of 23rd March, 1940,
reference to the need for a ‘North West Indian Muslim
passed by the Lahore session of the Muslim League
State’ in his presidential address to the Muslim League
demanded that geographically contiguous units are
in 1930, but the context of the speech makes it clear
demarcated into regions which should be constituted,
that the great Urdu poet and patriot was really
with such territorial re-adjustments as may be
visualizing not partition but reorganization of Muslim-
necessary, that the areas in which the Muslims are
majority areas in N.W. India into an autonomous unit
numerically in a majority as in the north-western and
within a single Indian Federation.
eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute
Germination of Pakistan
independent states, in which constituent units shall be
Choudhary Rahmat Ali’s group of Punjabi Muslim autonomous and sovereign. The remarkably clumsy
students in Cambridge have a much better claim to be wording left ample (and probably deliberate) scope for
regarded as the original proponents of the idea. In a vagueness, ambiguity and equivocation. Neither
pamphlet, written in 1933, Rahmat AN demanded a ‘Pakistan’ not ‘Partition’ were explicitly mentioned.
separate national status for a new entity for which he Though some Indian and British Newspapers began to
coined the name ‘PAKISTAN’- ‘P’ for Punjab, ‘A’ for use the name ‘Pakistan’ for the proposed new states in
Afghan Province or the North-West Frontier Province, 1940, the League officially adopted this name only in
‘K’ for Kashmir, ‘S’ for Sindh , and ‘TAN’ for 1943. The stress on the sovereignty of the units became
Baluchistan. No one took this demand for separate state very important after partition for they provided the
for Muslims very seriously at that time. But from 1937 theoretical basis for the Awami League agitation
there was a marked change in the attitude of the League (started under Fazlul Haq) against a Punjab-dominated
towards the idea of a separate state for Muslims. This unitary conception of Pakistan which eventually led to
was mainly due to two reasons. Firstly, the federal the break away of Bangladesh.
clauses of the Act of 1935 showed signs of a strong
What was the CR Formula?
and Hindu dominated central government. Secondly,
The British made a settlement between the Muslim
Jinnah and the Muslim League as a whole greatly
League and the Congress a precondition for the grant
resented the refusal of the Congress in 1937 to form
of Independence to India. A few congressmen also felt
coalition ministries with the League in the provinces.
it necessary. C. Rajagoalachari was one of those who
The Aligarh scheme of Zafrul Hasan Hussain Qadri
realized it in 1944 and, therefore, evolved a formula,
suggested four independent states of Pakistan, Bengal,
called the ‘C.R. Formula’ to bring about a settlement
Hyderabad and Hindustan. The Punjab Unionist
between the League and the Congress. The main
Sikandar Hayat Khan suggested a kind of 3-tier
proposals of the formula were the following:
structure with autonomous provinces legislatures,
together constituting a loose confederation with the • The Muslim League should cooperate with the
center having charge only over matters like defense, Congress in the formation of provisional Interim
external affairs, customs and currency as if in Government for the transitional period.
anticipation of the cabinet mission plan of 1946. There • After the close of the war, a commission shall be
was considerable British encouragement behind this appointed to demarcate the boundaries of the
sudden search of alternatives. As per Khali-al-quzaman, Muslim dominated districts in the North-West and
the Secretary of states, Zetland, had given a sympathetic East of India. The people of these districts shall
hearing on 20th march, 1939 to redefinition of Rahmat decide by plebiscite, the issue of separation from
Ali’s scheme, suggesting two Muslim Federations, one India.
in the North-West and the other in the East (covering • In the event of separation, mutual agreements shall
Bengal and Assam). be entered into between the two governments for
League-Congress Relations jointly safeguarding defense, commerce, and
The League celebrated the resignation of the communications and for other essential purposes.
Congress Ministries in 1939 as ‘Deliverance Day’,

94
 This formula became the basis for the Gandhi- Cabinet Mission Plan
Jinnah Talks held in 1944 to reach a settlement on the The British government headed by the Labour
constitutional problem. Though Jinnah rejected the party was eager to solve the Indian problem and sent,
whole formula saying that the kind of Pakistan it was in March 1946, a Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate
offering was a maimed, mutilated and moth-eaten one, with the Indian leaders the terms for the transfer of
the main reason behind his refusals was that he was power to Indians. It proposed a two-tiered federal plan
vehemently opposed to the idea of conducting a which was expected to maintain national unity while
plebiscite. conceding the largest measure of regional autonomy.
Essence of the Wavell Plan There was to be a federation of the provinces and the
After the failure of the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks based states, with the center controlling defense, foreign
as the C.R. Formula, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy went to affairs, and communications. At the same time,
England in March 1945 to consult Churchill regarding individual provinces could form regional unions to
the political deadlock in India. The general elections which they could surrender by mutual agreement some
were due in Britain and the Conservative party desired of their powers. Both the National Congress and the
to justify that it was, like the Labour party, interested Muslim League accepted this plan. But the two could
in resolving the deadlock in India. Hence, a new plan not agree on the plan for an interim government which
was offered to the Indians. This plan, called YWavell would convene a constituent assembly to frame a
Plan\’ was announced on 14th June 1945. It was offered constitution for a free, federal India. The two put
as an interim agreement. The main features of the Plan differing interpretations on the Cabinet Mission plan
were: to which they had agreed earlier. Finally, in September
• To form an interim government at the center with 1946, an interim cabinet headed by Jawaharlal Nehru
equal representation to Hindus and Muslims. was formed by the Congress. The Muslim League
decided to boycott the Constituent Assembly. The
• All portfolios except that of defense were to be
League launched the ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th
transferred to the Indians.
August 1946 to protest against the formation of interim
• Only the Governor-General and the commander- government by the Congress, and even after joining
in-chief were to remain free from the control of the interim Government, it pursued a policy of
the Indian ministers. disrupting the functioning of the government.
• The Interim government consisting of all Indian Mountbatten Plan
ministers would work under the framework of the
The British government finally tried to put an end
Act of 1935 till a new constitution was framed.
to the Constitutional deadlock by announcing that the
• The Governor-Genera I would however retain the power be transferred to India before the end of June,
right to veto the advice of his newly constitute 1948, irrespective of whether the Indian political parties
executive council. agreed among themselves or not. Lord Mountbatten
A conference was called at Simla to discuss the was appointed as the Viceroy in March, 1947. He
plan. All Indian leaders representing the Congress, the resolved to execute the transfer of power at the earliest
Muslim League, the Sikhs, Scheduled Castes, possible moment and worked out a compromise plan
European\’s and the Unionist Party of Punjab were after long discussions with the leaders of the Congress
called to attend the conference, but the talks broke down and the League. According to this ‘Mountbatten Plan’,
primarily because the unreasonable attitude of the India was to be free but not united. The main contents
League. Jinnah wanted that the League alone should of the plan were:
choose the Muslim members of the executive council. 1. Muslim majority provinces would be permitted
But the Congress naturally did not accept this stand of to form a separate state and set up a separate
Jinnah, so the only result of this Conference was the Constituent Assembly for framing a constitution
strengthening of Jinnah as Lord Wavell practically gave for their state.
him the power of Veto.
2. Provinces of the Punjab and Bengal would be
partitioned.

95
3. Question of North-West Frontier Province and the Thus, the country was to be partitioned. The
Sylhet district of Assam was to be decided by a nationalist leaders agreed to the partition of India not
plebiscite. because they accepted Jinnah’s two-nation theory, but
4. A bill to be introduced in the British Parliament because they wanted to stop the widespread communal
at once to give effect to these proposals. riots. The country was still ruled by foreigners who
did little to check the riots but instead encouraged these
riots by their policies, perhaps hoping to play the two
newly independent states against each other.

96
 24. IMPORTANT LEGISLATIONS

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1858 • In 1908, the British Parliament appointed a Royal
• After the revolt of 1857, the administration of the Commission on Decentralisation to inquire into
British East India Company was over, the British relations between the Government of India and
India territories were taken over by the British the provinces and suggest ways and means to
Crown, and an Act called, ‘The Act for the better simplify and improve them.
Government of India, 1858" was passed. • More specifically, it was asked to suggest ‘how
• With the enactment of the Government of India the system of government could be better adapted
Act, 1958, India was to be governed by the both to meet the requirements and promote the
Secretary of the State for India assisted by a welfare of the different provinces’.
council of 15 members. The Secretary of State • Later in the year, on the basis of its
would directly be responsible to the British recommendations a Bill was introduced in
Parliament. Parliament which, in May 1909 emerged as the
• The Governor-Genera I received the title of new scheme of constitutional reform.
Viceroy. Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1909
India. • Its authors claimed that the chief merit of the Act
• The Government of India Act, 1858, made the lay in its provision to further enlarge the legislative
provision for the appointment to the covenanted councils and at the same time, to make them more
civil services through the open competitive representative and effective. This was sought to
examination. be done under two main heads - Constitutional
THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1861 and Functional.
• The Viceroy’s legislative council was enlarged and • Constitutionally, the councils were now bigger,
from now onwards it was known as Imperial their numbers doubled in some cases and more
Legislative Council. than doubled in others.
• A fifth member was added to the Viceroys • Thus, whereas the Indian Council Act of 1892 had
executive council. authorised only a maximum of 16 additional
members, that figure was now raised to 60.
• The portfolio system (based on Lord CanningVs
Rules of Business) was introduced, in which each • In much the same manner, the number of
member of the ViceroyVs executive council was additional members for the Presidencies of
put in charge of a department. Madras, Bombay and Bengal were raised, from
20 to 50.
• In Bombay, Bengal and Madras provinces, the
legislative councils were established. • The proportion of official to non-official members
in the Governor-General\’s Council was
• The Indian Councils Act, 1861, empowered the
substantially reduced. The new figures were 36
Governor-Genera I to issue ordinances which were
to 32. Of the latter, 27 were to be elected and 5
not to remain in force for more than six months.
nominated. In this way, the Council continued to
Morley - Minto Reforms
have the official majority.
• To placate the moderate nationalists, British
• This was a deliberate policy. In provinces, there
government announced constitutional concessions
was to be a non-official majority for the first time.
through the Indian Councils Act of 1909 which
• In Bengal there was even an elected majority,
are known as the Morley-Minto Reform of 1909.
outnumbering both the official as well as
• Popularly known as the Minto-Morley Reforms,
nominated non-official blocs - 28 to 20 and 4
they took their name after their official sponsors,
respectively.
Minto the Governor-General and John Morley,
Secretary of State for India.

97
• The Morley-Minto Reforms increased the number nationalist movement. It encouraged separatist
of elected members in the Imperial Legislative tendencies.
Council and the provincial councils. It prevented people from concentrating on
• But most of the elected members were elected economic and political problems which were common
indirectly by the provincial councils in the case to all Indians, Hindu or Muslim.
of the Imperial council and by municipal Apart from their constitution, the functions of the
committees and district boards in the case of councils also underwent a change. They could now,
provincial councils. for instance, discuss the budget before it was finally
• Some of the elected seats were reserved for settled, propose resolutions on it and divide upon those
landlords and British capitalists in India. For resolutions. The budget apart, members could discuss
instance, of the 68 members of the Imperial matters of public importance through resolutions and
Legislative Council, 36 were officials and 5 were divisions. Additionally, the right to ask questions was
nominated non- officials. enlarged and supplementaries allowed.
• Of the 27 elected members, 6 were to represent It may be noted that the resolutions were in the
the big landlords and 2 British capitalists. nature of recommendations and were not binding on
• Moreover, the reformed councils still enjoyed no the government.
real power, being merely advisory bodies. A much trumpeted change was the appointment
Critical Appraisal of the Act: of an Indian to the Executive Council of the Governor-
The real purpose of the Reforms of 1909 was to General; Indians were also appointed to the councils
confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide the in Madras and Bombay. Satyendra Prasanna Sinha, later
nationalist ranks, and to check the growth of unity Lord Sinha, was the first Law Member. Two Indians
among Indians. were appointed to the Council of the Secretary of State
in London.
The Reforms also introduced the system of
separate electorates under which all Muslims were In Madras and Bombay, the Executive Councils
grouped in separate constituency from which Muslims were enlarged from 2 to 4. Such Councils were also to
alone could be elected. This was done in the name of be formed in provinces ruled by Lieutenant Governors.
protecting the Muslims minority. But in reality this was An executive council was thus constituted in Bengal
a part of the policy of dividing Hindus and Muslims (1909), Bihar, Orissa (1912) and the United Provinces
and thus maintaining British supremacy in India. (1915).
This nation was unscientific because religions The moderate nationalists did not fully support
cannot be the basis of political and economic interests the Morley-Minto Reforms. They soon realized that
or of political groupings. the Reforms had not really granted much. But they
decided to cooperate with the government in working
What is even more important, this system proved
the reforms. This cooperation with the government and
extremely harmful in practice. It checked the progress
their opposition to the programme of the militant
of India’s unification which had been a continuous
nationalism proved very costly to them. They gradually
historical process. It became a potent factor in the
lost the respect and support of the public and were
growth of communalism - both Muslim and Hindu - in
reduced to a small political group.
the country.
In 1911, the Government also announced the
The separate electorates thus introduces for
annulment of the Partition of Bengal. Western and
Muslims were later viewed by the Simon Commission
Eastern Bengals were to be reunited while a new
as a cardinal problem and ground of controversy at
province consisting of Bihar and Orissa was to be
every revision of the Indian electoral system.
created. At the same time the seat of the Central
Instead of removing the educational and economic Government was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
backwardness of the middle class Muslims and thus
MONTAGUE’S DECLARATION
integrating them into the mainstream of Indian
nationalism, the system of separated electorates tended • In August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State
to perpetuate their isolation from the developing for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British
aim of “increasing association of Indians in every

98
 branch of the administration, and the gradual Chelmsford, Viceroy of India between 1916 and
development of self-governing institutions, with 1921.
a view to the progressive realization of responsible • The reforms were outlined in the Montagu-
government in India as an integral part of the Chelmsford Report prepared in 1918 and formed
British Empire”. the basis of the Government of India Act 1919.
• Although the plan envisioned limited self- Indian nationalists considered that the reforms did
government at first only in the provinces - with not go far enough while British conservatives were
India emphatically within the British Empire - it critical of them.
represented the first British proposal for any form GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919
of representative government in a non-white • The Government of India Act 1919 was passed
colony. by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to
• Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the expand participation of the natives in the
reassignment of most of the British army in India government of India. The Act embodied the
to Europe and Mesopotamia, had led the previous reforms recommended in the report of the
Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the “risks Secretary of State for India, Sir Edwin Montague,
involved in denuding India of troops.” and the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford. The Act
Revolutionary violence had already been a covered ten years, from 1919 to 1929.
concern in British India; consequently, in 1915, • The Act provided a dual form of government (a
to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a “dyarchy”) for the major provinces. In each such
time of increased vulnerability, the Government province, control of some areas of government
of India passed the Defence of India Act. (the ‘transferred list’) were given to a Government
• This Act allowed British Govt, to intern politically of ministers answerable to the Provincial Council.
dangerous dissidents without due process, and The ‘transferred list’ included Health and
added to the power it already had - under the 1910 Education. The Provincial Councils were
Press Act - both to imprison journalists without enlarged.
trial and to censor the press. • At the same time, all other areas of government
• Now, as constitutional reform began to be (the ‘reserved list’) remained under the control
discussed in earnest, the British began to consider of the Viceroy. The ‘reserved list’ included
how new moderate Indians could be brought into Defence (the military), Foreign Affairs, and
the fold of constitutional politics and, Communications.
simultaneously, how the hand of established • The Imperial Council was enlarged and reformed.
constitutionalists could be strengthened. It became a bicameral legislature for all India. The
• However, since the Government of India wanted lower house was the Legislative Assembly of 144
to ensure against any sabotage of the reform members, of which 93 were elected and 41 were
process by extremists, and since its reform plan nominated. The upper house was the Council of
was devised during a time when extremist violence States consisting of 34 elected and 26 nominated
had ebbed as a result of increased governmental members.
control, it also began to consider how some of its • This structure allowed Britain to use the Princely
war-time powers could be extended into peace States (who were directly represented in the
time. Council of States) to offset the growing power of
MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS the native political parties.
• The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were reforms • The Act also provided for a High Commissioner
introduced by the British Government in India to who resided in London, representing India in
introduce self-governing institutions gradually to Great Britain.
India. The reforms take their name from Edwin • The Indian National Congress was unhappy at
Samuel Montague, the Secretary of State for India these reforms and termed them as ‘disappointing.’
during the latter parts of World War I and Lord A special session was held in Mumbai under
Hasan Imam and the reforms were condemned.

99
 However, leaders such as Surendranath Banerjee the states. The” Council of State was to be a permanent
were inclined to accept the reforms, so they left body, one-third of its members retiring every third, year,
the Congress and formed the Indian Liberal while the Federal Assembly was to continue for five
Federation, which played a minor role in years unless sooner dissolved. The allocation of seats
subsequent affairs. between the communities was to be in accordance with
The Governmenta of India Act, 1935 the Communal Award. Members from Provinces were
The Constitution introduced by the Act of 1935 to be elected with this difference that election to the
was federal in structure embracing the Indian States as Council of State was to be directed, while that to the
well as the British/Provinces, each autonomous within Federal Assembly indirect. Members from States were
its own sphere with a Federal Court to decide matters to be nominated by the ruler himself. The Federal
between the Federal Government and federating units. Legislature would have the power to legislate on all
The Federation was to consist of the Provinces called matters included in the Legislative list subject to the
Governor’s Provinces, Indian States and Chief powers and special responsibilities ofthe Governor-
Commissionerships of whorn the Provinces and the General.
Chief Commissionship had no choice in the matter The powers of the Governor General were
ofjoining the Federation, only the States had. Each State two-fold. Firstly those that he exercised-in his
joining the Federation had to sign an Instrument of discretion and secondly those that he exercised in his
Asscession detailing the powers it would be ready to individual judgement. In respect of the former, his
delegate to the Central Government, beyond which the Minister had no right to advise him and he was not
Central Government would have no power in that state, bound to consult them. In respect . ofthe latter the
not so with regard to the Provinces, in relation to which Ministers had a right.to advise him, buffhe Governor
the powers of the Federal Government were precise General was not bound by that advise. In both cases he
and laid down in the Act. was-supreme, irresponsible and iiffemovable.
Federation-was to be established when Rules of The Governor-General and the Reserved subjects.
Statesrepresentating not- less than half of the aggregate The Act of 1935 while it abolished diarchy in the
population cf Stafcand entitled to not less than half the Provinces introduced in the Centre. Certain subjects
seats to be allotted to the States in the Federal Upper as defence, ecclesiastical affairs, external affairs and
Chamber have acceded to the Federation apd an address tribal areas_were classed as reserved subjects in
H5s beenpresented to the King by both the Houses of relation to which the Governor General was supreme
Parliament calling upon him to proclaim-the . exercising all powers in his discretion. To assist him in
establishment of Federation. The Federal Government the administration of the reserved subject he may
was to consist of the Federal Executive and the Federal appoint councijors not exceeding three in number who
Legislature. will be responsible to him* alone.
The Federal Executive : The Executive head of Special responsibilities ofthe Governor-General -
the Federation was to be his majesty, whose authority The Act enumerated a list of subjects and classed
was to be exercised on his behalf by the Governor them as the special responsibilities of the Governor-
General and was to extend to all matters in which the General in relation to which he was to act in his
Federal Legislature had power to make laws, to the discretion. The list included such matters as:
raising of forces and to the exercise of such rights as 1. the prevention of any grave menace to the . peace
are exercisable by His Majesty by treaty, grant and of tranquility of India or any part thereof;
usage and to exercise all powers in relation to the tribal 2. the safeguarding ofthe financial stability and credit
reas. ofthe Federal Government;
Ihe Federal Legislature was to consist of two 3. the safeguarding of the legitimate interests of the
houses known as the Council of State and the Federal Federal Government.
Assembly. The former was to consist of 156 members
4. the safeguarding of the legitimate interests of the
from British India and 104 members from the acceding
minorities;
States. While the latter was to consist of a total of375
members of whom 125 were to be representatives of 5. the protection ofthe rights ofany stage and the
rights and dignities of the rulers thereof;

100
6. prevention of action which would subject goods matters in respect of which the provincial legislatures
ofthe United Kingdom orof Burmass origin had power to make laws.
imported into India to discriminatory or penal Council Of Ministers: To aid and advise him the
treatment etc.In addition, the Governor-General Governor was empowered to appoint a Council of
was to have certain legislative and emergency Ministers chosen by himself and holding office during
powers; his pleasure. While the selection of his Ministers Was
Legislative Powers : The Governor-General had entirely leftVo the discretion or the Governor the
power to make ordinances immediately he was satisfied Instrument of . Instructiqn enjoyed him to select
that circumstances exist which render it necessary for Ministers in consultation with a person most likely to
him to take immediate action. The ordinance were of command a stable majority in the Legislature and to
two kinds:- first, those which he promulgated when appoint those persons including so far as ptacticeable
the Legislature was-nof in session and which iapsed members of important Minority communities who will
immediately on its meeting unless extended by it; best be in a position to command the confidence the
second, those which he made irrespective of the session Legislature. But in so doing he shall bear constantly in
of the Legislature or its wishes. In addition he had mind the jjeed for fostering-a sense of joint
powers to enact such bills as he deemed necessary as responsibility among the Ministers. The Governor was
Governor-General’s Acts. No bill passed by th’e not, however, bound by the advieCof his Ministers and
Legislature could become law without the Governor none of his actions could ever be c died in question.
General’s consent, which he is in his-ctscretion could Special Responsibilities And Powers Of The
give or refuse to give or send down the bill for Governor : The Act enumerated certain special
reconsideration or reserve it for his Majesty’s pleasure. responsibilities of the Governor in the discharge of
He could stop the discussions of any bill or any part which he was empowered to act in his discretion, i.e.
thereof on the greund that it interfered with the proper not bound to consult his Ministers. Some ofthe special
discharge of his special responsibilities. In case of responsibilities were:
emergency the Governor-General had power to suspend 1. the prevention o f any grave menace to the peace
the Constitution by proclamation and assume all the of any part thereof;
powers of the Federation himself.
2. the safeguarding ofthe legitimate interest of
Council Of Ministers: There was to be a Council minorities;
of Ministers chosen by the Governor- General, not
3. the. safeguarding of the interest of the services;
exceeding ten in number to aid and advise him in his
functions. The Governor General was not bound to 4. the securing of the peace and good government
accept their advice. They were to hold office during of partially excluded areas.
his pleasure. This was the provision for the inclusion 5. the protection oflndian States and the rights and
of the popular element in the executive. dignities of the rulers thereof;
6. the securing of the execution of orders and
The Provincial Government: The Act made the directions of the Governor-General made in his
province entirely independent of the center and in no discretion..
way subordinate to it, each drawing its powers from 7. the Governor in his discretion was empowered to
the constitution. In its structure the Provincial make rules for securing that no information
Governments were very similar to the Central relating to the Intelligence service dealing with
Government with this difference that the provincial terrorism is to be disclosed beyond persons
Legislatures had no representatives from the states and indicated by the Governor-
some were unicameral, the Governor had no reserved Powers OfGovernor : The Act empowered the
sub jects to look alter there were slight changes in the Governor in his discretion to promulgate ordinances
list of special responsibilities. and to assume the entire administration of the Province
The Provincial Executive: The executive by a proclamation when satisfied that the Constitution
authority ofthe Province was to be exercised by the of the Province could not be carried on. To such a
Governor on behalf of his Majesty and limited to proclamation of the concurrence of the Governor-

101
General was essential. Further the Act empowered the railways etc., were.included in the Federal list. In all,
Governor for the satisfactory discharge of his functions the list included some 50 subject.
to make Acts which shall have the same force as any The Provincial Legislative List : The provincial
other Act. No bill passed by the Provincial Legislature included matters of provincial and local interest such
was to become law unless assented to by the Governor. as education, land revenue, law and order, public health,
He may in his discretion refuse to give assent or send local” self- government, press, provincial services,
down the bill with recommendations for consideration excise etc. In all the list included some 54 subjects.
or with suitable amendments. The Concurrent List : The concurrent list
Provincial Legislature : The Provincial enumerated subjects on which bbth the Federal . as
Legislatures were to be entirely elected bodies, well as the Provincial Legislatures had power to make
exceptfor some seats in the Upper House. They were laws. In case of conflict between $ie two, the law of
to consist of two chambers in the Provinces of “‘Madras the Federal Government was to continue. The list
(Tamil Nadu), Bombay (Maharashtra), Bengal, Uttar included such subjects as Criminal law and procedure.
Pradesh, Bihar, and Assam known as the Legislative Civil Procedure, Marriage and Divorce bills tenancy
Assembly. In other Province the Legislature was to and succession etc. In all the list enumerated 36
consist of one house known as the Assembly. The subjects.
provincial Legislatures had powers to make laws Residuary Powers: The Act provided that in case
pertaining to all matters enumerated in the Provincial of subjects not enumerated in the-three lists the Federal
Legislative list. The Legislative Assembly was to Government had power to make laws and in case of
continue for five years unless sooner dissolved while conflict as to whichsubject fell in what list and which
the Council was to be a permanent body, one-third of authority had power to make laws pertaining to it, the
its members retiring every third year. The members of Federal Court “was to decide.
both Houses were to be elected in accordance with the
The Federal Court: The Act provided for the
Communal Award. Powers of both the Houses were to
institution of a Federal Court sitting at Delhi consisting
be coordinated except in money bills which were to
of the Chief Justice of India and six Puisne Judges.
originate in the Lower Hosues.
The Court was to have original, appellate and advisory
Finance UnderThe Act Of 1935 : The heads — jurisdiction. The original’ jurisdiction related to matters
of revenue’were divided between the center and the concerning the interpretation of the Constitution as for
provinces except a few, such as income-tax etc. The instance whether a particular subject falls within the
budget both in the Central and Provincial Governments Central or Provincial List. Its appellate jurisdiction
was divided into two parts which may be described as extended to the hearing of appeals from the judgement
votable and non-votable. Members of the Legislature or decrees of High Courts in India in matters in which
had power to vote, cut and refuse grants, but the the High Court certified that the case involved a
Governor-General or the Governor had power to restore substantial question of law as to the interpretation of
the cut or refuse grant, and in this final shape the budget the Act of 1935. The advisory jurisdiction of the court
was to be passed without voting. extended to matters, referred to it by the Governor-
Division Of Subjects: Every federation implies General involving questions of law for its advice.
a division of subjects between the . Federation and the The Council Of The Secretary Of State :
federating units. The Act of 1935 effected this division Criticism against the Council of State had been long
by enumerating three list of subjects the Federal list, and sustained. The Act abolished the Council and in
the Provincial list, and the concurrent list. its place empowered the Secretary of State to appoint
The Federal List: This list contained all subjects not more than six and not less than three persons to
on which the Federal Legislature had power to make advise him on matters referred to them by the Secretary
laws. This included subjects of all India interest in of State. The Secretary of State was not bound to accept
which it was admissible that the administrative their advice in matters so referred. The change made
authority should be one. Matters such as the armed the Secretary of State more powerful then he was
forces, currency, post and telegraph, control services, before. Criticism Of The Act: Such in brief was the
structural outline of Act 1935. Criticism against its

102
provisions, especially its combination of the autocracy already bitter jpjations between the Congress and the
of the States with the democracy of the Province and League, coupled his refusal to meet the Congress
the wide powers of the Governor-General .and demand for assurandbs vis-a-vis the Governor’s special
Governors was vehement. Its model though based on powers with a reference to the interests of minority
the . Federal structure was based on the«6ame principle and the situation which would arise if the Congress in
of checks and balances, special powers and office acted against it. A reduction in the number of
responsibilities which underlay the previous., schools he said for a minority community by a ministry
constitutional acts. And yet the Act did mark an would be clearly within the Congress formula for it
appreciable advance from the position of 1919. The would be legal and could not be described as other than
Federal part o£the new constitution was never put in a constitutional activity. So the Governor would no
operation and was finally suspended with the outbreak longer be free to protect the minority. It was precisely
of the war in 1939. The provincial part, however, was because it was realized that such an action would be
set in motion in 1937. possible within the constitution that Parliament had
Election And The Formation Of Ministries : inserted the safeguards. The statement had its desired
Elections under the new Act to the Provincial eifect; the Muslims-became suspicious as fo the
Legislature were held in 1936-37. The Congress and intention of the Congress behind the demand for
the League both contested the elections, with this assurances. While the Congress without the assurance
difference that while the League fought the elections stood aloof, attempts to form ministries were made but
having determined to utilize the provincial legislatures they proved futile. A compromise between the Congress
for-all that they were worth, the Congress fought the and the Government was arrived at. The Viceroy in a
elections with no clear thought of accepting office. The statement of June, 1937 assured the Congress that the
elections manifested the extreme popularity of the Governors would not interfere in the day to day
Congress and at the same time the prowing bitterness administration of the provinces. The Congress agreed
of communal feelings. While {he Congress swamped and fonned Ministries in seven Provinces of N.W.F.
the polls in the general constituencies the Muslim Province, U.P., CP., Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay.
League was equally successful in the communal A little later it formed coalition ministries in Sind and
electorates. The attempt of the Congress to nominate Assam. The refusal of the Congress to enter into
Congress Muslims for Muslims seats invariably failed. coalitions with the league or any party in the provinces
Invariably the Muslim League candidate won; .the in which it was in the majority, considerably influenced
attempt, however, further embittered Congress-League Muslim League politics. The Muslims were annoyed,
relations. In the five Provinces of Madras (Modern and from the opposition benches began to propagate a
Tamil Nadu), Bihar, Orissa, C.P. (a part of Modem series of Imaginary grievances and to paint the
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra), N.W.F.Province, Ministers as despots out to exterminate the minorities.
Bengal (Modern Bengal & Bangladesh) and Assam it This stream of falsehood intensified the commufial
was the largest single party, without the cooperation or virus leading to riots and disturbances, vVhich were”
neutrality, of which no ministry could be formed. The used to great advantage”by the League propagandists.
Muslim League was in no position to fonn a Ministry Jinnah who was gradually developing the idea that the
anywhere, no even in the Muslim majority provinces. League alone represented the Muslims and he alone
Muslim politics were being distracted by personal represented the League could not tolerate the inclusion
rivalries and jealousies. The question of office of Muslim nationalists in the Congress Ministries. He
acceptance became the burning topic of the day. The characterized them as traitors and show-boys. He was
Congress which alone could form the ministries and annoyed at their inclusion as it meant to him an
work the provincial scheme refused to accept office attempttb alienate the Muslim masses from the League.
unless it was assured that the extraordinary and special For the same reason he-was antagonistic to the Muslim
powers of the Governor would not be used. Neither mass contact of the Congress. To keep the Muslim
Lord Linlithgow the Viceroy, nor Lord Zetland, the - masses attached to him and the League, he kept’them
Secretary of State were ready to give the assurance, ii toxicated with hatred for the Hindus and the Congress
with the result that the majority party. kept out of office. which he described as faonyras filed them with vague
Lord Zetland, in an attempt “-to further embittgr the fears about the impending threat to their religion and

103
culture, exhorted them to unite and rise under the The attempts at Hindu-Muslim settlement which
League for the defence of Islam. A list of imaginary were incessantly made failed, for each attempt saw
atrocities ofthe Congress against the Muslim, he Jinnah's Demands rise higher by a degree. Finally
deligently drew up and spread throughout the country. Jinnah took up a position in which any settlement
The sentiments of the muslims were roused and the became impossible. In his letter to Gandhi in March,
power of Jinnah rose to immeasurable highest In 1938 he wrote. We have reached a stage when no doubt
pursuance of the resolution of the League dated 20th should be left. You recognize the All India Muslim
March, 193 8, a committee under the RajaofPirpur in League as the one authoritative and representative
U.P. was appointed to investigate the injustice suffered organization ofMussalmans in India and on the other
by the Muslims in general and the workers of the hand you represent the Congress and other Hindus
Leagued particular, reports concerning which were throughout the country. It is on that basis we can
alleged to haye been received by the Central office ofthe proceed further and devise the machinery of approach.
League Within eight months the Raj a of Pirpur For the Congress to agree to such a position was to
submitted his report. It fulfilled the purpose for which sacrifice its own existence and to abandon the character
the Committee had been designed. It was an astute move which it had claimed for more than half a century, ft
to give a sort of ratification to the virulent propaganda was ready to recognize the League as the”largest
of the League. With its publication the communal Muslim organization but not the only one. It could not
barometer registered another rise. The repealed sacrifice the nationalist Muslims or the Kliudai
refutation of the Congress Ministries regarding the Kliidmatgars of the Frontier Province. But Jinnah
harrowing tales of oppression and misery could not would not budge an inch from the positiorrhe had taken
wipe out the impressions made. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, up, and it was on tins vital point that all the attempts
the Congress President, then offered to have the matter failed. Each failure increased commuftal bitterness, for
investigated by an impartial tribunal and suggested the invariably the correspondence was published and while
name of Sir Kuarice Gwyer, but Jinnah had no interest the Congress blamed J innah for his intransigence,
in or desire for impartial investigation. His only purpose Jinnah blamed the Congress for its refusal to recognize
was to make the charges for the purpose of exciting the League as the sole representative ofthe Muslims,
communal fury and in this he was completely and attributed its refusal to a desire to divide the
successful. In fact the Congress in an attempt to Muslims. With the outbreak ofthe war in September,
vindicate its position as a national, non-communal body 1939 a sincere effort was made by the congress to come,
often sacrificed the interests ofthe majority community to a settlement with the League but in.vain and with
and exposed itself to attacks from the Hindu pathetic desperation Jawahar Lai Nehru wrote in
lylahasabha. tyith every increase in the virulence of December, 1939. Unfortunately we never seem to
the League and the seemingly pacifist policy of tfye search even the proper discussion of these problems as
Congress towards it, the power of the Mahasabha and various hurdles and obstructions in the shape of
other Hindu organizations increased. Attacks upon conditions precedent come in our way. As these hurdles
Gandhi and the Congress as Pro-Muslim were continue and others are added to them I am compelled
repeatedly made and- the popularity of the Congress to think that the real difficulty is the difference in the
among the Hindus considerably diminished. political outlook and objectives. This really was the
case as we shall presently see.

104
 25. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA

The Government of East India Company and later • For higher education of instruction, English was
on the British crown government showed little interest adopted and for primary education, Vernacular
in the education of its subjects. Whatever efforts were languages were accepted as medium.
made by the British in the education were basically to • Vernacular Primary Schools, Anglo-Vernacular
action of their own objectives of getting English High Schools and affiliated colleges were set up.
educated clerks in India at lower salaries. Here is a • Grants-in-aid system encouraged the private
chronicle of British efforts towards the development enterprise in education.
of education in British India: • The importance of women education was
• Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in recognized and it was given priority.
1781. • Training to the teachers was emphasized, thus
• In 1791, Jonathan Duncan opened a Sanskrit Teachers Training Programmes were set up.
College at Benaras. • The importance of technical education was
• In 1800, Lord Wellesley founded Fort Williams recognized.
College at Calcutta with the objective of teaching • The Roorkee University was set up.
Indian languages and culture to the British East
• In 1857, universities at Calcutta, Bombay and
India CompanyVs factors.
Madras were set up. Hunter Commission 1882-
• The Charter Act of 1813, recognized for the first 83
time the British East India governments
• It was one member commission appointed by
responsibility of educating the people, hence, it
Viceroy Lord Ripon to review Education Policy
provided for an annual expeditions of one lakh of
of the Government. The Hunter Commission
rupees.
stressed that the Government should pay special
• David Hare founded Calcutta Hindu College in attention for the extension and improvement of
1817. primary education.
• In 1835, it was declared that the medium of • It also stressed on secondary, commercial and
instruction at higher level would only be English. technical education.
• Lord Macaulay propounded his famous • The Hunter Commission also made
Infiltration Theory. recommendation for special efforts for women
• Lord Macaulay did not accept the worthiness of education.
Eastern Literature and said that “a single shelf of • It emphasized to encourage private enterprise in
a good European library was worth the whole education.
native literature of India and Arabia”.
• Punjab University was set up in 1882
Wood’s Dispatch on Education, 1854
• Allahabad University was set up in 1887.
• Charles Woods Dispatch is called that Magna
Indian Universities Act, 1904
Carta of education in British East India.
• The Indian Universities Act 1904, was passed and
• Charles Woods formulated a comprehensive
enacted in the viceroyalty of Lord Curzon.
document on education in British India from
primary level to the higher level. Woods Dispatch • This Act was passed on the recommendation of
also decided that what would be the medium of Sir Thomas Raleigh Commission on Education
instruction at primary level, secondary level and appointed by Lord Curzon in 1901, at the
at college level. conclusion of Shimla Education Conference.
• The aim of government\’s educational policy was • Gurudas Benerjee was the only Indian member in
the teaching of masters education. the Raleigh Commission.

105
• The provisions of Indian University Act, 1904 • The Commission emphasized on women
provided that the fellows of the universities were education.
to be nominated by the government. • Sadler Commission recommended that facilities
• The Act provided veto power to the government for teachers’ training are to be increased.
in the matter of universities. • Sadler Commission recommended that the
• The Act increased universitiesY control over universities should have the campus which has to
private colleges. provide residential and boarding facilities to the
• The number of Fellows were fixed. students.
• The Act empowered Governor General-in-council The Hartog Committee 1929
to define the territorial limits of a university or • The Hartog Committee emphasized the national
divide the affiliation of colleges to universities. importance of primary education.
Resolution on Education Policy, 21st February, 1913 • It recommended the Policy of Consolidation and
• In 1906, the progressive state of Baroda improvement.
introduced compulsory primary education • Improvement of university management was
throughout its territories. stressed.
• During 1910-13, Gopal Krishna Gokhle refused Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, 1937
to recognize the Principle of Compulsory • In 1937, Mahatma Gandhi published a series of
Education but accepted the policy of the removal articles in his paper ‘The Harijan’ in which he
of illiteracy. proposed a scheme of education called Basic
The Sadler University Commission, 1917-19 Education Scheme, better known as the Wardha
• The Sadler Commission was set up basically to Scheme.
look into the functions of Calcutta University. • The main principle of Basic Education is - learning
• Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee and Ziauddin Ahmad through activity.
were two India members in the Commission. • The Zakir Hussain Committee worked out the
• Sadler Commission gave recommendation for the details of the scheme and prepared detailed syllabi
improvement in higher education. for a number of courses and made suggestions
• Sadler Commission recommended that after conforming training of teachers, supervision,
intermediate level there should be 3 years degree examination and administration.
course.

106