Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

• Flow of Water in
Soils

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Flow of Water in Soils

The property of soil which permits flow of water (or any
other liquid) through it is called Permeability

Permeability is high Water can easily flow

• b
Knowledge of permeability is essential in a number of soil
Engineering Problems
❑ Settlement of building
❑ Yield of wells
❑ Seepage through and below earth structures
❑ Hydraulic Stability of Soil masses.
❑ Design of filters – Required in the design of filters required to
prevent piping in hydraulic structure.
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Flow of Water in Soils

• c

Loose Soil Dense Soil

➢ Easy to Flow ➢ Difficult to Flow

➢ High Permeability ➢ Low Permeability

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Bernoulli’s Equation
• The total head at a point in water under motion is related
by Bernoulli’s equation:
𝑢 𝑣2
•ℎ = + + 𝑍
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔

Pressure Head Velocity Head Elevation Head

– Where:
• h = total head
• u = pressure
• v = velocity
• g = acceleration due to gravity
• 𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Bernoulli’s Equation

From Figure 7.1, we can deduce:

The head loss between two points is equal

to:
Δℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵
The hydraulic gradient is the non
dimensionalized form of the head loss:
Δℎ
𝑖=
𝐿

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Bernoulli’s Equation

• The three zones of the

fluid flow are the laminar
flow, transition, and
turbulent flow zones
• Most flows through soil
are laminar, and velocity
is linearly related to the
hydraulic gradient:
𝑣∝𝑖

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Darcy’s Law
• The discharge velocity, 𝑣, is the quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the
flow direction
• Darcy’s law states that:
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
• 𝑘 is the hydraulic conductivity, and is also called the coefficient of
permeability
• Darcy’s law is valid for a wide range of soils
• This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s observations about the
flow of water through clean sands

Coefficient of Permeability (k) is defined as the velocity of flow through

soil when a unit hydraulic gradient exist between them
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Coefficient of Permeability
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Permeability and drainage characteristics of soils (Terzaghi et al. 1996)

Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic
Conductivity
• Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the
hydraulic conductivity of soil:
– The constant-head test
– The falling-head test
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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Constant-head Test
• Once a constant flow rate is
established, the hydraulic
conductivity is calculated based
on how much water is collected
after a set duration of time (t)
by:
𝑄𝐿
𝑘=
𝐴ℎ𝑡
• 𝑄 is the volume of water
collected, 𝐴 is the cross-sectional
area, and 𝐿 is the length of the
specimen
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Constant-head Test
Errors Sources in Permeability
1.Air trapped in sample or sample not
100% saturated;
2.Soil was washed from the sample;
3.Some of the head loss occurred in
the apparatus rather than in the
sample;
4.Not starting and stopping stop watch
at correct point;
5. Sample settling during test;
6. Sample disturbed by flowing water
at inlet;

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Falling-head Test
Water from a standpipe flows through
the soil so that the final head difference
at time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 is ℎ2
The rate of flow of the water through
the specimen at any time can be given
by:
𝑑ℎ
𝑞 = −𝑎
𝑑𝑡
where q is the flow rate and a is the
cross-sectional area of the pipe

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Falling-head Test
By rearranging and integrating the above equation, the
hydraulic gradient, k, can be calculated by:

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘 = 2.303 log10
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2

• A is the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen

• L is the length of the specimen
• h1 is the head difference at t = 0
• h2 is the head difference at t = t2

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Exercise
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

4.1: In a constant head permeability test, the following observations were

taken.
Distance between piezometer tapings = 100 mm
Difference of water levels in piezometer = 60 mm
• n
Diameter of the test sample = 100 mm
Quantity of water collected = 350 ml
Duration of test = 270 sec
Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

4.2: The falling head permeability test was conducted on a soil sample of 4cm
diameter and 18 cm length. The head fell from 1.0 m to 0.40 m in 20
minutes. If the cross sectional area of the stand pipe was 1 cm2, determine
the coefficient of permeability.

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from

Wells
• The average hydraulic conductivity for a soil deposit may
be determined using pumping tests from wells.
• Water is pumped from a test well at a constant rate.
• The water level in several observation wells at distances
from the test well is observed.
• When the water level in the test and observation levels
reaches steady state, the hydraulic conductivity may be
calculated from the heights and distances.

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Confined Aquifer
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Pumping out Test

Permeability Test in the Field by Pumping from

Wells
For a confined aquifer, the
hydraulic conductivity can be
calculated as:
𝑟1
𝑐𝑚 𝑞 log10
𝑟2
𝑘( ) =
𝑠 2.727𝐻 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝐻 is the thickness of the
aquifer

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Unconfined Aquifer
Pumping out Test

2.303q
k= log10 (r2 / r1 )
 ( z2 − z1 )
2 2
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Exercise

4.3: During a pumping test, a well was sunk through a stratum of dense sand
10 m deep overlying an impervious stratum. Observation holes were drilled
• b at 15 m and 6.75 m from the well. Initially, the water level in the well was
2.50 m below the ground surface. After pumping until steady conditions
had been achieved, the water levels in the observation wells had dropped
1.95 m and 0.50 m, respectively. If the steady discharge was 5 liters per
sec., determine the coefficient of permeability.

Determine the coefficient of permeability of a confined aquifer 5 m thick

4.4:
which gives a steady discharge of 20 litres/sec through a well of 0.30 m
diameters. The height of water in the well which was 10m above the base
before pumping dropped to 8 m. Take the radius of influence as 300 m.
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Seepage Velocity
The velocity obtained from Darcy’s equation is not the actual
velocity of flow through the interstices (void) of the soil

• v Why ?
It is calculated based on the total cross sectional area ( A)

Total Not on the actual area of flow (Av)

Cross
sectional
area (A)

Area of
Voids (Av)
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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Darcy’s Law
• The actual velocity of water (the seepage velocity, 𝑣𝑠 ) is
greater than the discharge velocity, 𝑣
• The seepage velocity, 𝑣𝑠 , may be related to the discharge velocity
through the void ratio, 𝑒, or the porosity, 𝑛 by Eq (7.10):
1+𝑒 𝑣
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣 =
𝑒 𝑛

The actual velocity based on the area

of voids is called as seepage velocity
(vs)
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Hydraulic Conductivity
• The hydraulic conductivity depends on many factors, including
fluid viscosity, pore-size distribution, grain-size
distribution, void ratio, and soil saturation
• The hydraulic conductivity may be related to the unit weight of
water, 𝛾𝑤 , and dynamic viscosity of water, 𝜂:
𝛾𝑤
𝑘= ഥ
𝐾
𝜂
ഥ is the absolute permeability of the soil
• 𝐾

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Hydraulic Conductivity

• Hydraulic conductivity depends on the viscosity of water,

which varies with temperature
• The value of hydraulic conductivity at 20∘ C may be related
to the hydraulic conductivity at the test temperature 𝑇:

𝜂𝑇∘C
𝑘20∘C = 𝑘 𝑇∘C
𝜂20∘C
• Table 7.2 in the text gives the value of 𝜂 𝑇 ∘C Τ𝜂20∘ C for 15∘ C
≤ 𝑇 ≤ 30∘ C
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity–

Granular Soil

For fairly uniform sand, Hazen proposed:

cm 2
𝑘 = 𝑐𝐷10
sec
𝑐 is a constant between 1.0 and 1.5
𝐷10 is the effective size, in mm
This equation is based primarily on Hazen’s (1930) observation of
loose, clean, filter sands
A small quantity of silts and clays, when present in a sandy soil,
may change the hydraulic conductivity substantially

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity–

Granular Soil
• Based on laboratory experimental results, Amer and
Awad (1974) proposed a relationship utilizing the
uniformity coefficient, 𝐶𝑢 , for k in granular soil:

cm 𝑒3
𝑘 = 35 𝐶𝑢0.6 𝐷10 2.32
s 1+𝑒
• 𝐶𝑢 = uniformity coefficient
• 𝐷10 = effective size (mm) Example
If 𝐷60 = 0.16 mm and 𝐷10 = 0.009 mm
• 𝜌𝑤 = density of water and void ratio o f sand is 0.6, estimate the
• 𝜂 = viscosity hydraulic conductivity.
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity–

Granular Soil
• On the basis of laboratory
experiments, the U.S.
Department of Navy (1986)
provided an empirical correlation
between k and 𝐷10 for granular
soils
• This correlation is valid for
uniformity coefficients varying
between 2 and 12

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity–

Cohesive Soil
Taylor (1948) proposed a linear relationship for cohesive soils
as:

𝑒0 − 𝑒
log 𝑘 = log 𝑘0 −
𝐶𝑘
𝑘0 is the in situ hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio 𝑒0
𝑘 is the hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio 𝑒
𝐶𝑘 is the hydraulic conductivity change index, and may be
taken to be about 0.5𝑒0
This equation is good for 𝑒0 less than about 2.5
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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Relationships for Hydraulic Conductivity–

Cohesive Soil
Samarasinghe (1982) conducted
laboratory tests on New Liskeard
clays and proposed that, for
normally consolidated clays:
𝑒𝑛
𝑘=𝐶
1+𝑒
where C and n are constants to be
determined experimentally as
shown in Figure 7.14

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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Directional Variation of Permeability

• Most soils are not isotropic with
respect to permeability
• In Figure 7.16, there is a soil layer
through which water flows at an
angle α from the vertical
• 𝑘𝑣 and 𝑘ℎ correspond to the hydraulic
conductivity in the vertical and
horizontal directions, respectively

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified

Soil
• For soils where the hydraulic
conductivity varies from layer
to layer, an equivalent hydraulic
conductivity may be calculated
from the hydraulic conductivities
of the layers

• This value is different for

horizontal and vertical flows

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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified

Soil
For horizontal flow, the total flow is
the sum of the flow through each
layer
Applying this knowledge, we get an
expression:
𝑘𝐻 𝑒𝑞
1
= (𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )
𝐻
𝐻 is the total height of the soil cross
section
𝐻𝑛 is the height of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ layer of soil

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 Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified

Soil

For flow in the vertical direction,

the total losses will be the sum
of the losses through each layer
Accordingly:
𝐻
𝑘𝑉 𝑒𝑞 =
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻
+ + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉𝑛

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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan
Exercise
The discharge of water collected from a constant head permeameter in a
4.5:
period of 15 minutes is 500 ml. The internal diameter of the permeameter is
5 cm and the measured difference in head between two gauging points 15
cm vertically apart is 40 cm. Calculate the coefficient of permeability. If the
dry weight of the 15 cm long samples is 486 gm and the specific gravity of
the solids is 2.65, calculate the seepage velocity.
4.6: A constant head permeability test was conducted on a sand sample 30 cm in
length and 15 cm2 in area. When a loss of head was 60 cm, the quantity of
water collected in 2.5 minutes was 300 ml. Determine the coefficient of
• b permeability of soil. If the specific gravity of grains was 2.70 and dry mass
of the sample 0.845 kg, find the void ratio of the sample and seepage
velocity.
4.7: A layered soil is shown in Fig. 7.20; given
𝐻1 = 1 m 𝑘1 = 10−4 cm/sec
𝐻2 = 1.5 m 𝑘2 = 3.2 𝑥 10−2 cm/sec
𝐻3 = 2 m 𝑘3 = 4.1 𝑥 10−5 cm/sec
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
Conductivity 𝑘
𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
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