Lesson 5 : 

Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Lesson 5: Processes and Models of Curriculum Development

I. Process

1. Curriculum Planning – considers the school vision, mission, and goals. It also includes the
philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be translated to
classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
2. Curriculum Designing – is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedures and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. A
curriculum design will also include the resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended
learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum Implementing in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher who is
the facilitator of learning, leads in outing into action plan which is based on the curriculum design.
Together with the learners, the curriculum design guides what will transpire in the classroom with
the end in view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where
action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where
learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum Evaluating – determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved.
This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of
learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or
supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective
measures introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision-making of curriculum
planners, and implementers.

I. Models

a) Ralph Tyler: "The Tyler Rationale"

        1.   What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?  
        2.   What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?  
        3.   How can they be organized?  
        4.   How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?  
 
#1:  What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
What Aims, Goals, and Objectives should be sought?  
Educational objectives become the criteria for selecting materials, content outlined, instructional methods
developed, and tests prepared.  

How to write objectives

Objectives often incorrectly stated as activities the instructor must do, rather than statements of
change for students.  
Objectives are also listed as topics, concepts, or generalizations; however, this approach does not specify what
the students are expected to do with these elements such as apply them to illustrations in his/her life or
unify them in a coherent theory explaining scientific deliberation.  
Objectives can be indicated as generalized patterns (To Develop Appreciation,   To develop broad  
 interests.)  These are more goals than objectives.  It is necessary to specify the content to which this
behavior applies.  
Should specify the Kind of Behavior and the Content or Area in which the behavior is to operate.  
 
#2.   What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
 
Criteria for selecting experiences; are they:  
 valid in light of the ways in which knowledge and skills will be applied in out-of-school experiences? 
 feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, facilities available within and outside of the school,
community expectations? 
 optimal in terms of students' learning the content? 
 capable of allowing students to develop their thinking skills and rational powers? 
 capable of stimulating in students greater understanding of their own existence as individuals
and as members of groups? 
 capable of fostering in students an openness to new experiences and a tolerance for diversity? 
 such that they will facilitate learning and motivate students to continue learning?
 capable of allowing students to address their needs? 
 such that students can broaden their interests? 
 such that they will foster the total development of students in cognitive, affective, psychomotor,
social, and spiritual domains? 
 
Curriculum Content
Criteria for selecting content:  
 what will lead to student self-sufficiency? 
 what is significant? 
Two definitions of "significance": 
1. having or conveying a meaning; expressive, suggesting or implying deeper or unstated meaning  
2. important, notable; consequential  
• what is valid (authentic, "true")? 
• what is interesting? 
Note:  student may not even KNOW his own interests 
• what is useful? 
• what is learnable? 
• what is feasible? 
 #3.   How can the educational experiences be organized?
 Education experiences must be organized to reinforce each other.  
 Vertical vs. horizontal organization  
 Continuity - refers to the vertical reiteration of major curricular elements.  
 Reading social studies materials continued up through higher grades  
 Sequence -  refers to experiences built upon preceding curricular elements but in more
breadth and detail. Sequence emphasizes higher levels of treatment.  
 Integration - unified view of things.  Solving problems in arithmetic as well as in other
disciplines.  
 We aim for educational effectiveness and EFFICIENCY.  
 Most institutionalized education is MASS education: we want to be able to teach GROUPS
instead of individuals.  
 Most education is DEPARTMENTALIZED, because we expect someone trained in a specific
topic to be more likely to be able to teach that topic.  (This is based upon the notion that
WORKERS will have higher productivity if they do the same thing over and over again,
related to the "social efficiency" theories of Frederick Taylor.)  
 Generally, we arrange educational experiences from easiest to hardest, and from most
general to more specific.  (There is some evidence that this is not the best way to teach--
that students are more likely to learn if specific skills or topics are introduced first.)  
 b) Hilda Taba: "Grassroots Approach"

Taba improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a  linear model with  7 steps: 

1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives 
3. Selection of learning content
4. Organization of learning content 
5. Selection of learning experiences 
6. Organization of learning activities 
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

Taba also wanted TEACHERS to be primary curriculum developers. Her advocacy was called the
grassroots approach.
 
c) Galen Saylor and William Alexander: 4 steps

Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and
related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.”
1. Goals, Objectives and Domains: Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational
goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals,
objectives and domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards,
views of the different stakeholders.
2. Curriculum Designing: Designing of a curriculum follows where appropriate learning opportunities
are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines
of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some
of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process.
3. Curriculum Implementation: A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation. Teachers
then prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching
methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.
4. Evaluation: The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using a
variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of
the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students.
Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the
goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.

Unit 2
Foundations of the Curriculum

Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid foundation. Although considered to be a new discipline, its
significance in the light of global developments has now been acknowledged. What philosophical, historical,
psychological and sociological influences inform the current school curriculum? How do these foundations
reflect the development of curriculum in our 21 century classrooms and learning environment? Who are the
st

identified curricularists with these foundations? Let us find out!

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.
In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum.

The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a society that their
children should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational
institutional are the proper way to impart these skill. The duty of teacher and school is to discipline the young
of the society and provide them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs, knowledge and
information of the society provide foundation in the formation of curriculum.
1.       Philosophical foundation of Curriculum
2.       Psychological foundations of Curriculum
3.       Socio Cultural Foundation of Curriculum
4.       Historical Foundations of Curriculum
5.       Legal Foundations of Curriculum

Lesson 1: The Influence of Philosophy To Curriculum

Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed
necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have
embraced will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of
learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and
strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated.

Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners, and
teachers make sound decisions. A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic
background, common beliefs, and education.

When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is realized when put into practice.
Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s philosophy served as anchor to the country’s educational system.

PHILOSOPHICAL/ IDEOLOGICAL FOUNDATION

Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief about
education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or learning environment.
Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What are schools for? What subjects are important? How
should students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey influenced
the use of “learning by doing,” he being a pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of
reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but will only have few to illustrate as presented by Ornstein and
Hunkins in 2004.

Philosophies of Aim Role Focus Trends

Education
A. Perennialism To educate the Teachers assist Classical subjects, Use of great books (Bible,
rational person; students to think literary analysis. Koran, Classics) Liberal
cultivate intellect with reason (critical Curriculum is Arts
thinking: HOTS) enduring.
B. Essentialism To promote Teachers are sole Essential skills of the Back to Basics. Excellence
intellectual growth authorities in the 3Rs; Essential in Education. Cultural
of learners to subject area. subjects. Literacy.
become
competent.
C. Progressivism Promote Teacher leads for Interdisciplinary Equal Opportunities for all.
democratic social growth and subjects. Learner- Contextualized curriculum.
living development of centered. Outcomes- Humanistic education.
lifelong learners. based.
D. To improve and Teacher acts as Presemt and future School and curricular
Reconstructionism reconstruct agent of change educational reform. Global education.
society. Education and reforms. landscape. Collaboration and
 for change. convergence. Standards
and Competencies.

It is concerned with beliefs.

 What is real --- ONTOLOGY
 What is true --- EPISTEMOLOGY
 What is good – AXIOLOGY
                                                                                   
Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple truth, It search for eternal truth, reality
and general principles of life. Curriculum help in the practical use of knowledge in real life situations and
understanding realities and ideas of life and this world that why curriculum is called the dynamic side of
philosophy.    
                                                                                                     
Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and philosophy help in the process of
finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their behavior. Philosophy also
helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and how to apply in the classroom situation for better
achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides new ways and methods for the evaluation of
student’s achievement and evaluation of curriculum.

Philosophers of the past have made major influence in clarifying the association in the nature of knowledge
and curriculum development process and also provide a foundation for curriculum; Plato presented a
curriculum in his book “republic” at that times and it is still the core of the curriculum of today. Knowledge is
given the high role in human life.
Today world economics and societies are changing very rapidly; it needs depth in every discipline of education
in this high time.           
                                                                                          
Today the world emphasis on finding new ways through which man develops new concepts of reality and
knowledge and to form a new structure of knowledge in this dynamic and changing time therefore a high
value is given to discovery, invention and restructuring of knowledge  and curriculum in new patterns. Now the
new curriculum is open to new experiences, logical and critical thinking, and to bring about the concept of
knowledge out of interpreted experience.
Philosophy and ideology of education provide rules and principles which lead the in decision-making regarding
educational practices and polices planning. It Guides the curriculum planner on the basses of the philosophical
and ideological belief of the society in the constructing of subject matter keeping in view the future demands
and needs of the schools and help in the promoting of human life through social change in the behavior of the
students. In Pakistan the ideological beliefs of the society is based on
Islam…                                                                                                                          
.
Therefore they are looking for curriculum planner to introduce such curriculum in education system, which
inculcate true knowledge of Islam and preserve the culture of Muslim society in new generation that why they
believe that Islamic curricula should be based on the ideology of Islamic laws and principles.

Philosophical/ ideological Implications on Curriculum

Philosophy and ideology has direct effect in curriculum planning because it guides the curriculum planner in
the selection of the objectives and. As it provides guidelines in the selection of objectives, Learning
experiences and content of the curriculum, and how to evaluate the curriculum, learning experiences and
achievements of the students. Some justification provided for the implications of curriculum given by different
researcher are as under (Rud Yard K. Bent and Urruh, n.d.);

 Various customs values, traditions and knowledge need to be preserved by transfer them to the next
generation.
The students also needed the knowledge of past and present in which they live, it help them in the process of
adaptation and adjusting their self to new changes and new situation in life.
All those content of a subject who helps in intellectual development rather than practical value. It teaches
student how to reason, develops mental ability to solve the problems in practical life situations. It helps in
using different methods for search of eternal truth and how to analyze the knowledge and methods of inquiry.
The Secondary school curriculum should designed for developing maximum potentialities  of the students by
including variety of leaning activities to educate each students to its highest.
Schools should be a tool and leader in directing new changes in the curriculum rather than maintainers of
curriculum.

Students need skills and for that purpose some subject matter must be included in the curriculum to help them
in acquiring these skills like experimentation and the use of laboratory techniques so they advance the
knowledge.

Lesson 2: The Influence of Psychology To Curriculum

Psychology  provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the
learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How
should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in
learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this module we shall consider three groups of learning
theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories and humanistic
theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

Association and Behaviorism

Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Pictures Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Persons Contributions
 Father of the Classical Conditioning Theory the S-R Theory
 The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you
want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
indoctrination.

Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

 Championed the Connectionism Theory.
 Proposed the three laws of learning
 Law of readiness
 Law of exercise
 Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response

Edward Thorndike (1874-

1949) Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.
  Proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a
Hierarchy
 Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 Introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

Robert Gagne (1916-2002) Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Persons Contributions
 Theories of Jean Piaget
 Describes cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to
maturity.
 Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operations stage (7-11) and formal operations (11-onwards)
 Key to Learning
 Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
 Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
 Equilibrium (balance between previous and later learning)
Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Jean Piaget (1896-

1980)
 Theories of Lev Vygotsky
 Cultural transmission and development
 Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually
perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental
stage
 Learning precedes development
 Sociocultural development theory.
 Key to Learning
 Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
 Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
 Equilibrium (balance between previous and later learning)
Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-
1934)
 Gardner’s multiple intelligences
 Humans have several different ways of processing information and
these ways are relatively independent of one another.
 Eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Howard Gardner
  Emotion contains the power to affect action.
 Emotional Quotient

Daniel Goleman  Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Humanistic Psychology
Persons/Symbols Contributions
 Gestalt Theory
 Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the
problem.
 Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an
organization or pattern of stimuli.
 Key to Learning
 Learning is complex and abstract.
 Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between
essential and nonessential data, and perceive relationships.
Gestalt  Learners will receive something in relation to the whole.
What/how they perceive is related to their previous
experiences.
Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.
 Self-Actualization Theory
 Classic theory of human needs.
 A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested
in acquiring knowledge of the world.
 Put important in human emotions, based on love and trust.
 Key to learning
 Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish,
grow and actualize his or her human self.
Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Abraham Maslow (1908-

1970) 
 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
 Established counseling procedures and methods for
facilitating learning.
 Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic.
Influence their learning and behavior in class.
 Key to learning is
 Curriculum concerned with process, not product; personal
needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
cognitive scores.
Picture Not Mine. Credits to the owner.

Lesson 5: Legal Foundation

LEGAL BASES OF EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES:

 EDUCATIONAL DECREE OF 1863: The decree provided for the establishment of primary school for boys
and girls in each town of the country.
 ACT NO. 74 OF 1901: Enacted into law by the Philippine Commission, the Act created the Department
of Public Instruction, laid the foundations of the public school system in the Philippines, provided for
the establishment of the Philippine Normal School in Manila and made English as the medium of
instruction. (In 1949, the Philippine Normal School was made a teachers’ college by virtue of RA 416 
and, in 1991, it became a full-pledge university by virtue of RA 7168.)

 ACT NO. 1870 OF 1908: The law served as the legal basis for the creation of the University of the
Philippines.

 VOCATIONAL ACT OF1927: Also known as Act No. 3377, the Vocational Act as amended by other acts
laid the foundations of vocational education in public schools and made provisions for its support.

 EDUCATION ACT OF 1940: Also known as Commonwealth Act No. 586, the Education Act laid the
foundations for the present six-year elementary course and made provisions for its support.

 REORGANIZATION ACT OF 1947: The Act placed public and private schools under the supervision and
control of the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.

 REPUBLIC ACT 5250 OF 1966: The Act provided the legal basis for the implementation of a ten-year
teacher education program in special education.

 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS (DECS) ORDER NO. 25 OF 1974: Popularly
known as the Bilingual Education Program of 1974, the Order required the use of English as medium of
instruction for science and mathematics subjects and the use of Filipino as medium of instruction for all
other subjects in the elementary and high school levels.

 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1006 OF 1976: The Decree was a legal and formal recognition of teachers
as professionals and teaching as a profession.

 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 5698: The Act created the Legal Education Board whose task was to regulate and
improve the quality of law schools in the Philippines in order to stop the increasing number of
examinees who fail to pass the bar examinations given every year.

 REPUBLIC ACT 6655 OF 1988: Popularly known as the Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988,
the Act created a system of free education in public high schools.

 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS (DECS) ORDER NO. 49 OF 1992: This Order
serves as the guideline for the selection of honor students in all public and private high schools. All
these schools were required to choose one (1) “valedictorian”  and one (1) “salutatorian,”  and to set
the limit of the number of “honorable mention” to one percent of the graduating students. The
“eligibility requirements” for becoming an honor student are the following: 1) No grade below 80 in any
 subject and no failing grade in any subject in the first two curriculum years;  2) Completed third and
fourth year studies in the same secondary school;  3) Completed the high school curriculum within the
prescribed year;  4) Active membership in two clubs during the third and fourth years in high school; 
and 5) Conformed to school rules and policies.

 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS (DECS) ORDER NO. 1 OF 1994: This Order
increased the number of school days to 200 days (42 calendar weeks) inclusive of examination days for
public and private schools. (This department order is similar to RA 7791 which increased the number of
school days from 185 to 200 days.

 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS (DECS) ORDER NO. 37 OF 1994: The Order
required all grade VI elementary students to take the National Elementary Assessment Test (NEAT)
that is given on the 13th Tuesday following the opening of the school year. The assessment test
consists of a battery of tests of the multiple choice type. There are four subject areas: English,
mathematics, science and heograpiya/kasaysayan/sibika (geography/history/civics).

 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SPORTS (DECS) ORDER NO. 38 OF 1994: The Order
required all senior high school students to take the National Secondary Assessment Test (NSAT) that is
given on the 13th Friday following the opening of the school year, or three days after the NEAT has
been given. The assessment test consists of a battery of tests and there are four subject areas: English
and Filipino proficiencies, mathematics, vocational aptitude  and science & technology. (The test is not
a requirement for college admission.)

 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7731: The Act abolished the National College Entrance Examinations or NCEE to
give the marginalized students a greater chance to gain access to college education.

 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7722: Also known as the Higher Education Act of 1994, the Act created the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) whose main task is to regulate and develop tertiary education
in the Philippines.

 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7796: Also known as the Technical Education and Skills Development Act (TESDA)
of 1994, the Act’s objective was to provide relevant and quality technical education that is accessible to
all  and to create the agency that will manage technical education and skills development in the
Philippines.
 REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7836 OF 1994: Known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994,
the Act made it mandatory for people pursuing a career in teaching to take the licensure examinations
that are administered and regulated by the Professional Regulatory Commission.
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) ORDER NO. 34 OF 2001: The Order required all public
elementary and high school students to read at least one book in the vernacular and one book in
English per year before they can be promoted to the next higher level.

Philippines and Functions of CHED, DepEd and TESDA

According to some legal bases of education in the Philippines, there is an order provided for the
establishment of primary school for boys and girls, other acts that laid the foundation of vocational education
in public schools and made their provisions for its support, the implementation for free access to public
education in elementary and high school level, also the acts for the freedom of establishment of private
schools which should be accredited by DepEd and CHED. This is very natural for the government to have this
kind of responsibility to let every citizen in our country be educated through the free education of primary and
secondary levels but I don’t think this is enough because I believe that the budget for education which has the
highest value among the other projects of the government is enough to have a free access also for tertiary
level. How can the Filipinos be productive if most of us don’t have enough education? Another thing, although
vocational education in public schools were made, I don’t think this is enough because our country needs
professionals that’s why we should study more especially to have fields specialization because I believe that
every person has a gift from God although we are very unique in every way, we are all capable of doing things
that is innate and this is what we called “talent”. 
The DepEd, CHED and TESDA are the government agencies established to have control in every
sectors of our education system. DepEd is responsible for the education for primary and secondary levels. This
agency provides quality education needed for good foundation of learning of every student. I think they are
the most important agency because they are handling students who are building knowledge and skills. They
need to properly supply materials applicable for young students. Students require entering the lower levels of
education first before entering high degree of learning so I think DepEd needs to be careful in providing the
correct learning outcomes of every child. CHED is somewhat similar to the function of DepEd but the only
difference is that this agency is responsible to the tertiary level and the quality of education is in higher degree
but they focus on enhancing the knowledge and skills the students acquired from the previous levels of
learning. Also, this agency lets the students choose what field they have interests and help them to properly
train to be competitive students and to be a productive workers after they graduated. I think the responsibility
of the CHED is crucial because they need to expose the students in real life activities that will help the
students to cope well in the authentic environment. Lastly, the TESDA is responsible for providing technical
skills training the students to develop country’s human resources. This has the least part in education because
I think that this is very optional to the students to take up their provided courses. This is the only option which
students who are not capable of attending tertiary level be able to have blue-collar jobs in the Philippines. But
I don’t know how they function in k12 program because according to the new educational system, students in
secondary level already have vocational courses then maybe they are responsible in enhancing the skills they
develop from that certain level.
 
In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational philosophies, historical
developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of these foundations are interrelated to
each.