International Journal of Scientific Research in Mechanical and Materials Engineering

© 2018 IJSRMME | Volume 2 | Issue 1 | ISSN : 2457-0435

Study of Advanced Composite Materials in Aerospace

Application
A. Kalaiyarasan, P. Ramesh, P. Paramasivam
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Muthayammal Engineering College, Rasipuram,
Tamil Nadu, India
ABSTRACT

Composite materials are becoming more important in the construction of aerospace structures. Aircraft parts
made from composite materials, such as fairings, spoilers, and flight controls, were developed during the 1960s
for their weight savings over aluminum parts. New generation large aircraft are designed with all composite
fuselage and wing structures and the repair of these advanced composite materials requires an in-depth
knowledge of composite structures, materials, and tooling. The primary advantages of composite materials are
their high strength, relatively low weight, and corrosion resistance.
Keywords: Aluminium, Aerospace

I. INTRODUCTION

When two or more different materials are combined,

the result is a "composite. The first uses of composites
date back to the 1500 B.C. when early Egyptians and
Mesopotamian settlers used a mixture of mud and
straw to create strong and durable buildings. Straw
continued to provide reinforcement to ancient Figure 1. a turbofan color
composite products including pottery and boats.
Later, in 1200 AD, the Mongols invented the first 1. Polymer Reactive monomer
composite bow. Using a combination of wood, bone, 2. Thyrotrophic agents
and “animal glue,” bows were pressed and wrapped 3. Promoters
with birch bark. These bows were powerful 4. Inhibitors
and accurate. Composite Mongolian bows helped to
ensure Genghis Khan's military dominance. Processing requirements include:
Laminating resins are formulated from components 1. Spray ability
including 2. We tout
3. Sag
4. Working time

IJSRMME182202 | Received : 25 March 2018 | Accepted : 20 April 2018 | March-April-2018 [ (2) 1 : 08-10] 08
 A. Kalaiyarasan et al. Int J S Res Mech & Mtrls Engg. 2018 March-April; 2(1) : 08-10
 Leading and trailing edge panels on the wing and
stabilizer
 Interior components
 Floor beams and floor boards
 Vertical and horizontal stabilizer primary
structure on large aircraft
 Primary wing and fuselage structure on new
generation large aircraft
 Turbine engine fan blades
 Propellers

Major Components of a Laminate

An isotropic material has uniform properties in all
directions. The measured properties of an isotropic
material are independent of the axis of testing. Metals
such as aluminum and titanium are examples of
isotropic materials.
Figure 1. b aircraft structure
A fiber is the primary load carrying element of the
composite material. The composite material is only
II. LAMINATED STRUCTURES
strong and stiff in the direction of the fibers.
Unidirectional composites have predominant
Composite materials consist of a combination of
mechanical properties in one direction and are said to
materials that are mixed together to achieve specific
be anisotropic, having mechanical and/or physical
structural properties. The individual materials do not
properties that vary with direction relative to natural
dissolve or merge completely in the composite, but
reference axes inherent in the material. Components
they act together as one. Normally, the components
made from fiber-reinforced composites can be
can be physically identified as they interface with one
designed so that the fiber orientation produces
another. The properties of the composite material are
optimum mechanical properties, but they can only
superior to the properties of the individual materials
approach the true isotropic nature of metals, such as
from which it is constructed.
aluminum and titanium.

An advanced composite material is made of a fibrous

A matrix supports the fibers and bonds them together
material embedded in a resin matrix, generally
in the composite material. The matrix transfers any
laminated with fibers oriented in alternating
applied loads to the fibers, keeps the fibers in their
directions to give the material strength and stiffness.
position and chosen orientation, gives the composite
Fibrous materials are not new; wood is the most
environmental resistance, and determines the
common fibrous structural material known to man.
maximum service temperature of a composite.

Applications of composites on aircraft include:

Strength Characteristics
 Fairings
Structural properties, such as stiffness, dimensional
 Flight control surfaces
stability, and strength of a composite laminate,
 Landing gear doors
depend on the stacking sequence of the plies. The
stacking sequence describes the distribution of ply

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orientations through the laminate thickness. As the
number of plies with chosen orientations increases,
more stacking sequences are possible. For example, a
symmetric eight-ply laminate with four different ply
orientations has 24 different stacking sequences.

Fiber Orientation
The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup
depends on the orientation sequence of the plies. The
practical range of strength and stiffness of carbon
fiber extends from values as low as those provided by
fiberglass to as high as those provided by titanium.
Figure 1. Bidirectional and unidirectional material
This range of values is determined by the orientation
properties.
of the plies to the applied load. Proper selection of ply
orientation in advanced composite materials is
necessary to provide a structurally efficient design.
The part might require 0° plies to react to axial loads,
±45° plies to react to shear loads, and 90° plies to react
to side loads. Because the strength design
requirements are a function of the applied load
direction, ply orientation and ply sequence have to be
correct. It is critical during a repair to replace each
damaged ply with a ply of the same material and ply
orientation.

The fibers in a unidirectional material run in one

direction and the strength and stiffness is only in the Figure 2. Quasi-isotropic material lay-up.
direction of the fiber. Pre-impregnated (prepreg) tape
is an example of a unidirectional ply orientation.

The fibers in a bidirectional material run in two

directions, typically 90° apart. A plain weave fabric is
an example of a bidirectional ply orientation. These
ply orientations have strength in both directions but
not necessarily the same strength. [Figure -1]

The plies of a quasi-isotropic layup are stacked in a 0°,

–45°, 45°, and 90° sequence or in a 0°, –60°, and 60°
sequence. [Figure -2] These types of ply orientation
simulate the properties of an isotropic material. Many
aerospace composite structures are made of quasi-
isotropic materials.
Figure 3. A warp clock.

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Roving direction and virtually no strength across the fibers.
A roving is a single grouping of filament or fiber ends, The fibers are held in place by the resin. Tapes have a
such as 20-end or 60-end glass rovings. All filaments higher strength than woven fabrics. [Figure-4]
are in the same direction and they are not twisted.
Carbon rovings are usually identified as 3K, 6K, or Bidirectional (Fabric)
12K rovings, K meaning 1,000 filaments. Most Most fabric constructions offer more flexibility for
applications for roving products utilize mandrels for layup of complex shapes than straight unidirectional
filament winding and then resin cure to final tapes offer. Fabrics offer the option for resin
configuration. impregnation either by solution or the hot melt
process. Generally, fabrics used for structural
Unidirectional (Tape) applications use like fibers or strands of the same
Unidirectional prepreg tapes have been the standard weight or yield in both the warp (longitudinal) and
within the aerospace industry for many years, and the fill (transverse) directions. For aerospace structures,
fiber is typically impregnated with thermosetting tightly woven fabrics are usually the choice to save
resins. The most common method of manufacture is weight, minimizing resin void size, and maintaining
to draw collimated raw (dry) strands into the fiber orientation during the fabrication process.
impregnation machine where hot melted resins are
combined with the strands using heat and pressure.
Tape products have high strength in the fiber

Figure 4. Tape and fabric products.

Woven structural fabrics are usually constructed with or yarn). With the common satin weaves, such as 5
reinforcement tows, strands, or yarns interlocking harness or 8 harness, the fiber bundles traverse both
upon themselves with over/under placement during in warp and fill directions changing over/under
the weaving process. The more common fabric styles position less frequently.
are plain or satin weaves. The plain weave
construction results from each fiber alternating over These satin weaves have less crimp and are easier to
and then under each intersecting strand (tow, bundle, distort than a plain weave. With plain weave fabrics

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and most 5 or 8 harness woven fabrics, the fiber Kevlar is DuPont’s name for aramid fibers. Aramid
strand count is equal in both warp and fill directions. fibers are light weight, strong, and tough. Two types
Example: 3K plain weave often has an additional of Aramid fiber are used in the aviation industry.
designation, such as 12 x 12, meaning there are Kevlar 49 has a high stiffness and Kevlar 29 has a low
twelve tows per inch in each direction. This count stiffness. An advantage of aramid fibers is their high
designation can be varied to increase or decrease resistance to impact damage, so they are often used in
fabric weight or to accommodate different fibers of areas prone to impact damage. The main disadvantage
varying weight. [Figure -5] of aramid fibers is their general weakness in
compression and hygroscopy. Service reports have
Nonwoven (Knitted or Stitched) indicated that some parts made from Kevlar absorb up
Knitted or stitched fabrics can offer many of the to 8 percent of their weight in water. Therefore, parts
mechanical advantages of unidirectional tapes. Fiber made from aramid fibers need to be protected from
placement can be straight or unidirectional without the environment. Another disadvantage is that
the over/under turns of woven fabrics. The fibers are Kevlaris difficult to drill and cut. The fibers fuzz
held in place by stitching with fine yarns or threads easily and special scissors are needed to cut the
after preselected orientations of one or more layers of
dry plies. These types of fabrics offer a wide range of
multi-ply orientations. Although there may be some
added weight penalties or loss of some ultimate
reinforcement fiber properties, some gain of
interlaminar shear and toughness properties may be
realized. Some common stitching yarns are polyester,
aramid, or thermoplastics. [Figure -6]

Types of Fiber
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is often used for secondary structure on
aircraft, such as fairings, radomes, and wing tips. Figure 5. Typical fabric weave styles.
Fiberglass is also used for helicopter rotor blades.
There are several types of fiberglass used in the
aviation industry. Electrical glass, or E-glass, is
identified as such for electrical applications. It has
high resistance to current flow. E-glass is made from
borosilicate glass. S-glass and S2-glass identify
structural fiberglass that have a higher strength than
E-glass. S-glass is produced from magnesia-alumina-
silicate. Advantages of fiberglass are lower cost than
other composite materials, chemical or galvanic
corrosion resistance, and electrical properties Figure 6. Nonwoven material (stitched).
(fiberglass does not conduct electricity). Fiberglass has Carbon/Graphite
a white color and is available as a dry fiber fabric or One of the first distinctions to be made among fibers
prepreg material. is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers,
although the terms are frequently used
Kevlar interchangeably. Carbon and graphite fibers are based

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 A. Kalaiyarasan et al. Int J S Res Mech & Mtrls Engg. 2018 March-April; 2(1) : 08-10
on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in epoxy matrix is often used with the boron fiber.
carbon. If the graphene layers, or planes, are stacked Boron fibers are used to repair cracked.
with three dimensional order, the material is defined
as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature potential. The boron fiber is difficult to use if the
processing is required to form this order, making parent material surface has a contoured shape. The
graphite fibers more expensive. Bonding between boron fibers are very expensive and can be hazardous
planes is weak. Disorder frequently occurs such that for personnel. Boron fibers are used primarily in
only two-dimensional ordering within the layers is military aviation applications.
present. This material is defined as carbon.
Ceramic Fibers
Carbon fibers are very stiff and strong, 3 to 10 times Ceramic fibers are used for high-temperature
stiffer than glass fibers. Carbon fiber is used for applications, such as turbine blades in a gas turbine
structural aircraft applications, such as floor beams, engine. The ceramic fibers can be used to
stabilizers, flight controls, and primary fuselage and temperatures up to 2,200 °F.
wing structure. Advantages include its high strength
and corrosion resistance. Disadvantages include lower Lightning Protection Fibers
conductivity than aluminum; therefore, a lightning An aluminum airplane is quite conductive and is able
protection mesh or coating is necessary for aircraft to dissipate the high currents resulting from a
parts that are prone to lightning strikes. Another lightning strike. Carbon fibers are 1,000 times more
disadvantage of carbon fiber is its high cost. Carbon resistive than aluminum to current flow, and epoxy
fiber is gray or black in color and is available as dry resin is 1,000,000 times more resistive (i.e.,
fabric and prepreg material. Carbon fibers have a high perpendicular to the skin). The surface of an external
potential for causing galvanic corrosion when used composite component often consists of a ply or layer
with metallic fasteners and structures. of conductive material for lightning strike protection
[Figure 7-7] because composite materials are less conductive than
aluminum. Many different types of conductive
materials are used ranging from nickel-coated
graphite cloth to metal meshes to aluminized
fiberglass to conductive paints. The materials are
available for wet layup and as prepreg.

In addition to a normal structural repair, the

technician must also recreate the electrical
conductivity designed into the part. These types of
repair generally require a conductivity test to be
Figure 7. Fiberglass (left), Kevlar (middle), and performed with an ohmmeter to verify minimum
carbon fiber material (right). electrical resistance across the structure. When
repairing these types of structures, it is extremely
Boron important to use only the approved materials from
Boron fibers are very stiff and have a high tensile and authorized vendors, including such items as potting
compressive strength. The fibers have a relatively compounds, sealants, adhesives, and so forth. [Figures
large diameter and do not flex well; therefore, they 7-8 and 7-9]
are available only as a prepare tape product. An

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Polyester resins are relatively inexpensive, fast
processing resins used generally for low cost
applications. Low smoke producing polyester resins
are used for interior parts of the aircraft. Fiber-
reinforced polyesters can be processed by many
methods. Common processing methods include
matched metal molding, wet layup, press (vacuum
bag) molding, injection molding, filament winding,
pultrusion, and autoclaving.

Vinyl Ester Resin

The appearance, handling properties, and curing
Figure 8. Aluminum meshes lightning protection
characteristics of vinyl ester resins are the same as
material.
those of conventional polyester resins. However, the
corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of
vinyl ester composites are much improved over
standard polyester resin composites.

Phenolic Resin
Phenol-formaldehyde resins were first produced
commercially in the early 1900s for use in the
commercial market. Urea-formaldehyde and
melamine-formaldehyde appeared in the 1920–1930s
as a less expensive alternative for lower temperature
use. Phenolic resins are used for interior components
because of their low smoke and flammability
Figure 9. Aluminum meshes lightning protection
characteristics.
material.
III. MATRIX MATERIALS
Epoxy
Epoxies are polymerizable thermosetting resins and
Thermosetting Resins
are available in a variety of viscosities from liquid to
Resin is a generic term used to designate the polymer.
solid. There are many different types of epoxy, and
The resin, its chemical composition, and physical
the technician should use the maintenance manual to
properties fundamentally affect the processing,
select the correct type for a specific repair. Epoxies
fabrication, and ultimate properties of a composite
are used widely in resins for prepreg materials and
material. Thermosetting resins are the most diverse
structural adhesives. The advantages of epoxies are
and widely used of all man-made materials. They are
high strength and modulus, low levels of volatiles,
easily poured or formed into any shape, are
excellent adhesion, low shrinkage, good chemical
compatible with most other materials, and cure
resistance, and ease of processing. Their major
readily (by heat or catalyst) into an insoluble solid.
disadvantages are brittleness and the reduction of
Thermosetting resins are also excellent adhesives and
properties in the presence of moisture. The processing
bonding agents.
or curing of epoxies is slower than polyester resins.
Processing techniques include autoclave molding,
Polyester Resins
filament winding, press molding, vacuum bag

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molding, resin transfer molding, and pultrusion. oxidative stability, low coefficient of thermal
Curing temperatures vary from room temperature to expansion, and solvent resistance benefit the design.
approximately 350 °F (180 °C). The most common Their primary uses are circuit boards and hot engine
and airframe structures. A polyimide may be either a
cure temperatures range between 250° and 350 °F
thermo set resin or a thermoplastic. Polyamides
(120–180 °C). [Figure 7-10]
require high cure temperatures, usually in excess of
550 °F (290 °C). Consequently, normal epoxy
composite bagging materials are not usable, and steel
tooling becomes a necessity. Polyimide bagging and
release films, such as Kapton are used. It is extremely
important that Upilex replace the lower cost nylon
bagging and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) release
films common to epoxy composite processing.
Fiberglass fabrics must be used for bleeder and
breather materials instead of polyester mat materials
due to the low melting point of polyester.
Figure 10. Two part wet layup epoxy resin system
and chemical stability. The stability results in
with pump dispenser.
unlimited shelf life, eliminating the cold storage
requirements of thermo set prepress.
Polyimides
Polyimide resins excel in high-temperature
environments where their thermal resistance,

Figure 11. Tape and fabric prepare materials.

Dry Fiber Material cured at room temperature or an elevated

Dry fiber materials, such as carbon, glass, and Kevlar, temperature cure can be used to speed up the curing
are used for many aircraft repair procedures. The dry process and increase the strength. The disadvantage is
fabric is impregnated with a resin just before the that the process is messy and reinforcement
repair work starts. This process is often called wet properties are less than prepare material properties.
layup. The main advantage of using the wet layup [Figure -12]
process is that the fiber and resin can be stored for a
long time at room temperature. The composite can be

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Spun-bonded nonwoven scrims do not move and are,
therefore, widely used.

IV. CONCLUSION

Paste adhesives are used as an alternative to film

adhesive. These are often used to secondary bond
repair patches to damaged parts and also used in
places where film adhesive is difficult to apply. Paste
adhesives for structural bonding are made mostly
from epoxy. One part and two part systems are
available. The advantages of paste adhesives are that
Figure 12. Dry fabric materials (top to bottom: they can be stored at room temperature and have a
aluminum lightning protection mess, Kevlar, long shelf life. The disadvantage is that the bond line
fiberglass, and carbon fiber). thickness is hard to control, which affects the
strength of the bond.
Adhesives
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