Structuralism sensation can be described in terms of pitch

and timbre ( fullness of tone ) . A taste

structuralism was the first major school of
sensation can be described in terms of its
thought in psychology.Its goal was to
degree of saltiness,sourness or sweetness .
understand the mind by analysing its
elements , such as particular sensations or (2)Feelings: All sensations are accompanied
thoughts. According to critic Robert schools - by feelings .Wundt formulated his
/ C.R. schools Structuralism is a reaction to tridimensional theory of feeling,according to
modernist attention & despair. which any feelings can be described in terms
According to Oxford University Press - " of the degree to which they possess three
Structuralism is a method of interpretation & attributes;pleasantness-
analysis of aspects of human cognition , unpleasantness,excitement- calm and strain-
behavior , culture & experience which focuses relaxation.
on relationships of contrast between
elements in a conceptual system. According to Titchener , there are three types
A Difference between Wandt & titener= of mental element - (1)Sensations( elements
Wilhelm Wundt was the founder of of perception ) (2)Images ( elements of ideas )
structuralism. Titchner is student of wundt . (3)Feelings (elements of emotions )
established the schools of thought known as Titchener did not accept Wundt’s
structuralison of analysis. 1)Psychology's tridimentional theory of feeling. Titchener
Goals: According to wundt , Psychology's goal argued that fillings occurred along only one
is to understand both simple and complex dimension not three, as Wundt had
conscious phenomena .For the former maintained. According to Titchener, feelings
experimentation could be used ; for the latter can be described only in terms of Wundt's
it could not Psychology was to be based on pleasantness- unpleasantness dimension. He
immediate experience. Titchener agreed with argued that the other two dimension Wundt
Wundt that psychology should study had suggested (tension- relaxation and
immediate experience that is consciousness . excitement- calm) were really combinations of
He defined consciousness as the sum total of sensations and true feelings ( Pleasantness-
mental experience at any given moment and unpleasantness ). The What of psychology
mind as the experiences of a lifetime . then, included the sensations and images that
Tetchner set as goals of psychology the were described in terms of quality, intensity,
determination of the ( what ) how,and why of duration, clearness and extensity as well as
mental life .And the what was to be learned the feelings that varied in terms of
through careful introspection .The how was to pleasantness. (3)Basic concepts Sensations
be an answer to the question of how the and feelings are the elements of
elements combine and why was to involve a consciousness. (1)Perception : According to
search for the neurological correlates of wundt , perception is passive process
mental events. (2)Elements of Thought= governed by (a) Physical stimulation present
According to Wundt , there are two basic ..(b) the anatomical makeup of the individual ,
types of mental experience - (c)the individual's past experiences.
(1)Sensations:Sensation occurs whenever a These three influences interact and determine
sense organ is stimulated and the resulting an individuals perceptual field at any given
impulse reaches the brain . Sensations can be time . (2)Aperception : It is active and
described in terms of modality (visual , voluntary . In other words , aperception is
auditory , taste ) and intensity (such as how under the individual's control . It was
loud an auditory stimulus is) For example , a primarily because wundt believed so strongly
visual sensation can be described in terms of that individuals could divert their attention by
hue (colour) and saturation.An auditory exercising their will that he reffered to his
approach to psychology as voluntarism . lifetime of the organism . James called these
(3)Creative Synthesis : when elements are learned patterns of behavior habits. James
attended to , they can be arranged and offered five maxims to follow in order to
rearranged according to the individual's will , develop good habit and eliminate bad ones.
and thus arrangements never actually (1)Place yourself in circumstances that
experienced before can result. Wundt called encourage good habits and discourage bad
this phenomenon creative synthesis ones .(2) Do not allow yourself to act opposite
According to Titchener, he rejected Wundt's to a new habit that you are attempting to
notions of aperception and creative synthesis develop . (3) Do not attempt so slowly
in favor of traditional associationism . the just develop a good habit or eliminate a bad one.
accept the perception Engage is positive habits completely to begin
with and abstain completely from bad ones.
Functionalism was the first truly American
(4) It is not the intention to engage in good
system of psychology. William James began its
habits and avoid had ones that is important: it
development . According to
is the actual doing so. (5)Force yourself to act
Woodworth(1944)" A psychology that
in ways that are beneficial to you, even if
attempts to give an accurate and systematic
doing so at first is distasteful and requires
answer to the question ,what do men do ?
considerable effort.★The self: James divided
and why do they do ? is called a functional
the empirical self into three components.
psychology." According to Marx & Hillix (
(1)The material self consists of everything
1973 ) –A functionalist is characteristically
material that a person could call his or her
concerned with the functions of the
own, such as his or her own body, family , and
organism's behavior and consciousness in
property. (2)The social self is the self as
adaptation to its environment. William James
known by others. (3)The spiritual self consists
★Stream of consciousness -with his concept
of person's states of consciousness. It is
of stream of consciousness opposed those
everything we think as we think of ourselves
who were busy searching for the elements of
as thnkers. (a)self knower: The empirical self (
thought . Characteristic of consciousness-
the me ) is the person as known by himself or
*Consciousness is personal * Consciousness is
herself but there is also an aspect of self that
continuous and cannot be divided up for
does the knowing the( I ). Thus for James , the
analysis . *Consciousness is constantly
self is " partly known and partly knower ,
changing *Consciousness is selective *
partly object and partly subject . James
Consciousness is functional
admitted that dealing with the me is much
#Habit and Instincts . James believed that
easier than dealing with the "I". (b)Self -
much nonhuman and human behaviour
esteem : James was among the first to
governed by instinct . James did no believed
examine the circumstances under which
that instinctive behavior is blind and
people feel good or bad about themselves .
invariable. Rather he believed that such
According to James , one could increase self-
behavior modifiable by experience.
esteem either by seceding more or
Furthermore, he believed instinct like
attempting less. *Emotions-James reversed
patterns of behavior develop within the
the traditional belief that emotion result from
*Emotions- James reversed the
the perception of an event. According to
traditional belief that emotion result from the
James, if we see a bear we run and then we
perception of an event. According to James, if
are frightened . Perception, according to
we see a bear we run and then we are
James , causes bodily reactions that are then
frightened . Perception, according to James ,
experienced emotions . James theory of
causes bodily reactions that are then
emotion provides still another example of the
experienced emotions . James theory of
importance of the Danish physician Carl
George Lange published virtually the same the nearness of their respective parts. It tend
theory at about the same time . The theory is to form groups if they are spaced together.
now known as the James-Lange theory of For instance, the example of a triangle and a
emotion.*Free Will- James noted that without circle is enough to illustrate this point.
the assumption of determinism , science (c) Law of Closure: The law of closure means
would be impossible . Science , however , was that closed areas are more stable and
not everything and for certain approaches to satisfying than the unclosed ones. Closed
the study of humans , the assumption of free areas more readily form in groups. This law
will might be very fruitful . also means that when the perception of the
situation is incomplete, the individual is not
GESTALT===Max Wertheimer is generally
able to solve the problem. The problem is
considered to be Gestalt psychology’s
solved when he is able to bring the separate
founding father. The other pioneers in this
parts of the situation together into a closed
field are Kohler, Koffka and Wolfgang.
perceptual figure, consisting of the goal, and
‘Gestalt’ is a German word whose equivalents
the means of achieving the goal.
in English are ‘form’ or ‘pattern’ or
(d) Law of Continuity: Makes the individual to
‘configuration’. Max Wertheimer has
grasp things which are joined together in a
explained the term ‘Gestalt’ as, that the
string or along the line which constituting a
whole is greater than the parts. For example,
whole are grasped together than the dis-
a flower is just not a total of sepals, petals,
connected, dis joined or scattered. In other
calyx, corolla, colour, honey and fragrance but
words, experiences which occur together
something more than that. The total of the
either simultaneously or in close succession,
parts is not equal to the whole. This is known
tend towards reviving one another e.g., the
as Gestalt view-point…………………………
perception of a ripe mango suggests the idea
3. Principles of Gestalt Theory: The
of its sweet taste and flavour because they
Gestaltians have mentioned some laws
are perceived together in the past or the idea
involved in the learning. The age at which
of inkpot suggests the idea of pen.
memory begins is determined chiefly by the
(e) Law of Contrast: A perception or an idea
development of a sufficient number of
tends to suggest its contrary opposite. For
association fibres to bring about recall. There
instance, adversity reminds a person of his
are different modes of connection or
days of prosperity. Similarly, the heat of
association among percepts and ideas.
summer suggests the cold of winter. In these
(a) Law of Similarity: Makes the individual to
laws of learning is brought out the Gestalt
grasp things which are similar. They are
point of view that the organizational capacity
picked out as it were from the total context.
of the brain makes to grasp the whole in
Similar ideas and experiences get associated
priority with the parts.
together. An object revives another object
which resembles it e.g., seeing a man and
remembering an intimate friend by some
resemblance in his personal appearance,
though never saw them together in the past.
A photo reminds us of the person when it
represents.
(b) Law of Proximity: Makes proximate or
near together things to be picked up first
learned as to how many these are among the
more distant things. In other words,
perceptual groups are favoured according to
Associationism== Introduction The principle that all knowledge was derived sensory
of associationism suggests that mental experience . Hobbes used the principle of
processes operate by the association of one associationism to explain complex thought
mental state with the other that succeeds it. from processes . The primary concern of John
The oldest perspectives in psychology a major Locke was to understand how the mind
idea of associationism is that come from the acquires knowledge and he used Aristotle's
“complex ideas association of simpler ideas idea of tabula rasa .
“.It is regarded to be more of a principle David Hume differentiated between two
rather than being a proper school of contents of mind , namely , impressions and
psychology Associationistic ideas have been ideas . In order to explain how ideas get
said to have taken over all the major schools combined , Hume gave three laws of
of psychology . Even the first school of association - resemblance or similarity ,
psychology Structuralism - was majorly contiguity in time and space , and cause and
influenced by associationistic ideas. The effect. Laws of Associationism =
British empiricists majorly used 1)The law of Contiguity: Things or events that
associationistic principles in explaining mental occur close to each other in space and time
activity After the British empiricists using tend to get linked together in the mind.
associationism is explaining mental activity , (2) The law of Frequency- The more often two
the associationistic concepts played a central things or events are linked, the more powerful
role in many of the learning theories . Among will be that association. 3)The law of
them Hermann Ebbinghaus , Ivan Pavlov , and Similarity- If two things are similar the
Edward Lee Thorndike standout. thought of one will tend to trigger the thought
of other. 4) The law of Contrast- On the other
History of Associationism The study of
hand seeing or recalling something may also
associationism was first initiated by Aristotle
trigger the recollection of something
in 350 B.C.E Influenced more by British (2) The
completely opposite.
law of Frequency The more often two things
(5)The law of Resemblance or Similarity -The
or events are linked , the more powerful will
more similar the ideas are, more readily they
be that association.Empiricism Base to
will be associated.(6)The law of Cause and
development of Psychological thought
Effect The more frequently two ideas , events
Contribute to many of the learning theories.
, or objects are experienced in the same
Exponents of Associationism : Thomas
sequence , more likely they are inferred that
Hobbes, John Locke ,George Berkeley, David
one will cause the other , and more strongly
Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart
they will be associated. Criticism -
Mill, Alexander Bain.
Associationists reduced the learning process
Associationism - Main Assumptions A major
to memory process *The associationist
idea of associationism is that " complex ideas
theorist did not respect and sufficiently
come from the association of simpler ideas "
elucidate the learners motivational factors in
The British empiricists majorly used
learning *The problems of developmental
associasionistic principles in explaining mental
aspects of learning were insufficiently
activity . The associationistic concepts played
described * The model of associating images
a central role in many of the learning theories.
and sensations did not solve the problem of
Empiricism is the philosophy that emphasizes
the origin of concepts and thought operations
on experience in knowledge attainment and
, since the relation between learning and
empiricists assert that sensory experience
thinking was not solved .
constitutes the primary data of knowledge .
Thomas Hobbes is often referred to as the
founder of British empiricism ; he believed
Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology STAGES= ORAL-The sex instinct centers on the
founded by Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud mouth because infants derive pleasure from
was born in Moravia (now Prior Czech such oral activities as sucking , chewing , and
Republic. His father Jacob was a wool biting . Feeding activities are particularly
merchant who had 10 children. Definition of important . For example , an infant weaned
Psychoanalysis -(1)psychoanalysis is a school too early or abruptly may later crave close
of thought were study neurosis through contact and become overdependent on a
hypnosis , free association and dream analysis spouse . ANAL-Voluntary urination defecation
(2) a systematic structure of theories become the primary methods of gratifying the
concerning the relation of conscious and sex instinct . Toilet - training produces major
unconscious psychological processes. (3)A conflicts between children and parents . The
technical procedure for investigating emotional climate that parents create can
unconscious mental process and for treating have lasting effects . For example , children
mental illness. (4)A school of thought who are punished toileting " accidents may
emphasised the influence of the unconscious become inhibited,messy or wasteful. PHALLIC-
mind on behaviour. Pleasure is now derived from genital
stimulation . Children develop an incestuous
Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by
desire for the opposite - sex parent ( called
Freud was his model ofthe human mind. His
the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra
model divides the mind into three layers, or
complex for girls ) . Anxiety stemming from
regions:1. Consciousness: our thoughts,
this conflict causes children sex - role
feelings,and focus about which weare aware
characteristics and moral standards of their
at any given moment.
same - sex parental rival . GENITAL-Traumas
2.Preconsciousness/subconsciousness:consist
of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to
s of thing of which we are not aware but of
be repressed and sexual urges to be
which we could easily become aware.
rechanneled into school work and vigorous
3.Unconscious: consists of those memories
play . The ego and superego continue to
that are being activelyrepressed from
develop as the child gains more problem-
consciousness and are therefore made
solving abilities at school and internalizes
conscious only with great effort
societal values. LATENCY-Puberty triggers a
1.Id (pleasure principle): The id operates at an
reawakening of sexual urges . Adolescents
unconscious level and focuses solely on
must now learn how to express these urges in
instinctual drives and desires. Two biological
socially ac ceptable ways . If development has
instincts make up the id, according to Freud:
been healthy , the mature sex instinct is
eros, or the instinct to survive/ life instinct
satisfied by marriage and raising children.
that drives us to engage in life sustaining
activities, and thanatos, or the death instinct
that drives destructive,aggressive, and violent
behavior. 2. Ego (reality principle): The ego
acts as both a conduit for and a check on the
id, working to meet the id’s needs in a socially
appropriate way. It is the most tied to reality Denial is a defense mechanism proposed by
and begins to develop in infancy; 3.Superego Anna Freud which involves a refusal to accept
(moral principle): The superego is the portion reality, thus blocking external events from
of the mindin which morality and higher awareness.Repression is an unconscious
principles reside, encouraging us to act in defense mechanism employed by the ego to
socially and morally acceptable ways. keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from
becoming conscious. Projection is a
psychological defense mechanism proposed
by Anna Freud in which an individual humanists believed that the church had gone
attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and to far in its embracing of Aristotle's
motives onto another person.Displacement is philosophy . Aristotle's philosophy was as
the redirection of an impulse (usually authoritative as the Bible . Aristotle had been
aggression) onto a powerless substitute only human , and like any human he was
target. The target can be a person or an object capable of error .
that can serve as a symbolic Francesco Petrarch ( 1304-1374 ) So
substitute.Regression is a defense mechanism influential was Francesco Petrarch that many
proposed by Anna Freud whereby the the ego historians argue that his writings mark the
reverts to an earlier stage of development beginning of the Renaissance. Petrarc argued
usually in response to stressful that a person's life in this world is at least as
situations.Sublimation is similar to important as life after death . God wanted
displacement, but takes place when we humans to use their vast capabilities , not
manage to displace our unacceptable inhibit them. By actualizing the potential God
emotions into behaviors which are has given to us , we can change the world for
constructive and socially acceptable, rather the better. By focus leave! By focusing on
than destructive activities. Sublimation is one human potential , Petrarch helped stimulate
of Anna Freud's original defense mechanisms. the explosion of artistic and literary endeavors
that characterized the Rrenaissance.
Renaissance Humanism-As it applies to the
Giovanni Pico ( 1463-1994 ) Giovanni Pico
Renaissance , humanism denotes an intense
argued that God that granted humans a
interest in human beings , " as if we were
unique position in the universe. Angels are
discovering ourselves for the first time.
perfect and thus have no need to change,
Interest was focused on a wide range of
whereas animals are bound by their instincts
human activities . How do we think , behave
and cannot change . Human alone , being
and feel ? of what are we capable ? These and
between angels and animals are capable of
related questions are reflected in the four
change. We can choose to live sensual ,
majon themes that characterised Renaissance
instinctive lives , thereby becoming brutish ,
humanism. (1)Individualism: There was great
or to exercise our rationality and intelligence ,
concern with human potential and
thereby becoming more angelie and godlike.
achievement. The belief in the power of the
Pico insisted that all philosophies have
individual to make a positive difference in the
common elements , for example -they reflect
world created a spirit of optimism .
human rationality and individuality.
(2)Personal religion : - Although all
Desiderius Erasmus ( 1466-1536 ) Desiderius
Renaissance humanists were devout christians
Erasmus was born at Rotterdam on October
, they wanted religion to be more personal
27 of an unwed mother . He was an ordained
and less formal and ritualistic . They argued
priest but had no taste monastic life ,
for a religion that could be personally
preferring in, tead a life of study , travel and
experienced rather than one that the church
independence . He belived that war was
hierarchy imposed on the people.
caused by fanaticism and was nothing more
3) Intense interest in the past : - The than homicide , and he was especially
Renaissance humanists became enamored disturbed ad by bichops who become rich and
with the post . The works of the early greek famous because of war. Erasmus completed
and Roman poets , philosophers and politician his book " The Praise of Folly'. The book
were of special interest. Renaissance scholars caused a sensation and was reprinted 40
wanted to read what the ancients had really times in his lifetime.
said , instead of someone's interpretation.
4) Anti - Aristotelianism : Many of the