Geometric Design Elements

i. Sight distances
ii. Horizontal Alignment
iii. Vertical alignment

Zeleke D.
[email protected]
Apr, 2019
 Horizontal Alignment
 Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the

directional transition of the highway in a horizontal

plane.
 The horizontal alignment consists of a series of

– straight sections (tangents),

– circular curves,

– transition curves (spirals) and

– super-elevation.
 The horizontal curves are designed to ensure that vehicles can
negotiate them safely.

• The alignment design should be aimed at avoiding sharp

changes in curvature, thereby achieving a safe uniform driving
speed.
 Cont’d
 Transition curves between straight sections of road and
circular curves whose radius changes continuously from
infinity (tangent) to the radius of the circular curve (R) are
used to

 reduce the abrupt introduction of centripetal

acceleration that occurs on entering the circular curve.

– They are not required when the radius of the horizontal

curve is large and are normally not used on the lower
classes of road.

– In Ethiopia their use is confined to roads where the

design speed is 80km/hr or greater.
 Cont’d
• In order for a vehicle to move in a circular path, an inward radial
force is required to provide the necessary centripetal
acceleration or, in other words, to counteract the centrifugal
force. This radial force is provided by the sideways friction
between the tyres and the road surface assisted by the cross-
fall or super-elevation.

• In order to calculate the minimum horizontal radius of

curvature, Rmin, for a particular design speed, the equation is:

V2
Rmin 
127e  f 

Minimum permitted horizontal radii (Rmin) depend on the design

speed , the super elevation of the carriageway, side friction

between tyre and road surface.

 Cont’d
 Why do we need horizontal curves:

 Terrain conditions, physical features, and right of way

limitations

Factors influencing design of curves

i. Design speed of the road

ii. The safe allowable coefficient of friction in the lateral

direction between the tires and the road
surface

iii. Maximum allowable rate of super elevation

iv. Permissible centrifugal ratio

 horizontal curves Affects:

 safe vehicle operating speeds, sight distances, and

opportunities for phasing and highway capacity.
 General criteria
 Horizontal alignment should meet the following general considerations:

 Alignment should be as straight as possible within physical and

economic constraints.

 Alignment should be consistent. Try to avoid sharp curves at the

ends of long tangents and sudden changes from gently to sharply
curving alignment.

 Curve lengths with small deflection angle (5o degrees or less) should
be at least 150m long.

 Avoid horizontal curvature on bridges when possible, however, when

curvature is unavoidable, place the entire bridge on a single curve
as flat as physical conditions permit. Ending or beginning curve on
or near a bridge can present design and construction problems with
super elevation transition.

 Avoid Brocken-back curve, short tangent section between two

curves in the same direction.
 Design elements in horizontal alignment
I. Straight Line: provide the shortest distance
between two established control points
considering;
– The maximum length of a tangent section should not
exceed 4.0 kilometers.

– a minimum tangent length of less than 200 m is likely to

prove inadequate.

II. Horizontal Curves: Types of horizontal curves:

– Simple circular curve

– Compound curve

– Reverse curve

– Spiral Curve.
 Cont’d
A) Simple Circular Curve: has a constant radius
∆=deflection angle
L=Length of Curve
C=Chord Length
R=Radius of Curvature
M=Middle Ordinate
E=External Distance
T=Length of Tangent
P.I.=Point of Intersection
PC=TC=Tangent to Circle
PT=CT=Circle to Tangent
 Degree of Curvature (D0)

Arc Definition
20m
20 2R 1145.92
 D
D 360 R R
R
Chord Definition D

Sin(D/2)=10/R
R=10/sin(D/2) 20m

R=10csc(D/2) D/2
Relations

T  R tan(  / 2)
C  2 R sin( / 2)
L  R / 180
E  Rsec( / 2)  1
M  R1  cos( / 2)
Chain age of PC = cha. PI – T
Chain age of PT = cha. PC + L
 Example 1
A curve has a deflection angle of = 23o 18’ 02”, and a radius
of 1432.6m. The Point of Intersection (PI) is 5+053.87.
Calculate the tangent distance (T), external distance (E),
curve length (L), Point of Curvature (PC), and Point of
Tangent (PT).
 Example 2
The chainage of the intersection
point of two straights is solutions(cont’d)
1060m and the angle of length of long chord = 2Rsin(/2)
intersection is 1200.if the
radius of a circular curve is =2*570m*sin(300)
570m and pig interval is 30m,
determine =570m
i. The tangent length Since, the peg interval is 30m, the chainage of PC:
ii. The chainage at the beginning
chainage PC/peg interval = no. of full length + remainder
and end of the curve
iii. The length of the long chord Therefore, 1st subchord length= 30m- reminder.
iv. The length of the first and last
sub chords =730.91/30=24 full chain length + 10.91m
v. The total number of normal
chords  730.91m-(24 *30)m =10.91m
Solutions:  30m-10.91m=19.09m...1st subchord length
+=1800,  = 1800- 1200=600 To find the second subchord;
T=R*tan(/2)=570m*tan(300)=329.09m
Use Chainage of PT,
Length of the curve =596.9m
= chain age of PT/30=1327.81/30=44+7.81m
Chainage of PC
The second subchord length is 7.81m.
= 1+060-0+329.09=0+730.91

Chainage of PT
Normal chord = 44 -25 =19 chain length.

= 0+730.91+0+596.9=1+327.81 So, total number of chord=1+19+1=21

 Exercise on simple circular curve
1. Two straights AB and BC intersect at a chainage of
10+020, the intersecting angle being 400.calculate the
elements of the curve and determine the chainage of the
tangent points.(arc basis)
2. A curve has a deflection angle of 23018’02’’, and a radius
of 1432.26m.the point of intersection is 5+053.87.
calculate the elements of the curve.
3. The two tangents of a left hand circular curve of a road
AB and BC intersecting at B, having their angle of
intersection equal to 1150. if chainage of the ends of the
curve and the degree of the curve is 2736.01m and 50
respectively.(peg interval 30m)
a. Radius of the curve.
b. The length of the curve.
c. The length of the long chord and apex distance.
d. The chainage of PC.
e. The total number of chords.
 Compound curves
• Compound curves consist of two or more simple curves in
succession, turning in the same direction, with any two
successive curves having a common tangent point.

 used on intersection curve radii, ramps and transitions into

sharper curves.

• the radii of the flatter curve should not be more than 50%
greater than that of sharper curve.
Compound Circular Curves - Terms
 Examples on compound curve
• Two straights AB and BC intersect at B. another line DE
intersects AB and BC at D and E such that <ADE=1500
and <DEC= 1400. the radius of the first curve is 200m
and that of the second is 300m. The chainage of B is
950m. Calculate all data necessary for setting out the
compound curve.
 SOLUTIONS
Deflection angles:
S = 1800-1500=300 , L = 1800-1400=400 so,
 = S + L =700
Tangent lengths:
ts= Rs*tan(S/2) = 200*tan(150)=53.58m
tL= RL*tan(L/2) = 300*tan(200)=109.19m
length of DE = ts + tL = 53.58m + 109.19m=162.77m. Then From triangle BDE,

= =
DB=DE*sin(400)/sin(1100)=111.34m
BE=DE*sin(300)/sin(1100)=86.61m
Ts= ts + BD= 164.92m
TL= tL+ EB = 195.8m
Chainage
Chainage of PC= chainage of PI – Ts = 950m-164.92=785.08m
Chainage of PCC= chainage of PC +Ls = 889.8m,
where, Ls =*RS*S/1800 = 104.72m
Chainage of PT= chainage of PCC +LL = 1099.24m,
where, LL = *RL*L/1800 = 209.44m
 Reverse Curves
• A reverse curves consists of two circular arcs of same or
different radii having their centers on the opposite side of the
common tangent at the point of reverse curvature.

• They are generally used to change the alignment of a highway.

• Two horizontal curves in opposite directions should always be

separated by a tangent of at least 200 ft. i.e.  61 m.
 Cont’d
• Reverse curves are generally provided,
in the highway or railway alignment,
when the straights are either parallel or
the angle between them is very small.
The instantaneous change in direction
occurring at the Point of Reverse
Curvature (PRC) would cause discomfort
and safety problems for all but the
slowest of speed
 Cont’d
• Additionally, since the change in the curvature is
instantaneous, there is no room to provide super elevation
transition from cross-slope right to cross-slope left.
However, reveres curves can be used to advantage where
the instantaneous change in direction poses no threat to
safety or discomfort.

• These curves commonly used in mountainous highway

route. Also they are frequently used in cities where roads
turn in different directions in succession or where road
approach flyovers.

• Moreover, this curve is particularly pleasing to the eye

and is used with great success at park roads, formal
paths, etc.
 Limitations of a Reverse Curve
• When high-speed vehicles fly on highways, use of reverse
curves should be avoided for the following reasons:

– Sudden change of super elevation is required from one

side to the other.

– At the point of reverse curvature, no super elevation is

provided.

– Steering is dangerous in the case of high ways. Unless

driver is cautions, there are chances of overturning the
vehicle.

– Sudden change of directions causes great discomfort to

the passenger.

• It is, therefore, recommended to avoid the reverse curves by

inserting straight tangents between the circular arcs.
Cont’d
 Transition Curve
• these are curves which provide a gradual
change in curvature from tangent to a circular
path.
• Transition Curve are placed between tangents
and circular curves or between two adjacent
circular curves having substantially different
radii.
• Transition Curve provides a vehicle path that
gradually increases or decreases the radial
force as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular
curve.
Cont’d
 Cont’d
There are five objectives for providing transition curve:

1. to introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the

tangent point and the beginning of the circular curve,
avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the
comfort of passengers.

2. to enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his

own comfort and security,

3. to provide gradual introduction of super elevation, and

4. to provide gradual introduction of extra widening.

5. to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

 Transition Curves - Geometry

Ls: Total length of spiral

Lc: Length of circular curve
s: Central angle of spiral arc of
length Ls
∆=total deflection angle of the curve
Ys=tangent offset at SC
K=abscissa of shifted PC with
reference to TS

PI: Point of Intersection Assumptions

TS: Tangent to spiral TS-SC = CS-ST = L
SC: Spiral to Circle
CS: Circle to Spiral
ST: Spiral to tangent
TS-PI: rear/back tangent
PI-ST: forward tangent
 Spiral curve computation
• ∆ is determined in the field
• R or D is given by design considerations (limited by design speed)
• Chainage of PI is determined in the field

Length of spiral, Ls
Ls= V3/Rα,
α = rate of change of radial acceleration(m/s3)
V= speed of vehicles(m/s)
In practice, instead of radial acceleration , the term
centrifugal ratio is used.
Centrifugal ratio (C.R) = =

C.R =
For , road C.R = 0.25
railway C.R= 0.125
 cont’d

P = centrifugal force =m*ac=m*v2/R

weight of 
the vehicle
W= m*g Resultant (R)

h= super elevation


Width of the road = B

tan() = h/B= P/W

But, We have C.R =V2/gR= P/W
h/B= V2/gR

 , h = BV2/gR
Where, R =radius of the curve
 Cont’d
the shift: is the distance through which main circular curve is shifted
inward to accommodate the transitions curve.

S= L2s /24R
spiral angle: is the angle between the back and forward tangent and
tangent at the junction of the transitions curve with the circular curve.

Ф = (L/2R)*radians = (L/2R)*(180/)degree
Tangent lengths of the combined curve, Ts,
Ts=(R+S)tan∆/2 + Ls/2

Length of circular curve,

∆c = ∆-2s
lc = [*R(-2)]/180

Total length of the combined curve

= 2*Ls +lC
= R∆c/180+2Ls
 Cont’d
• Compute chainage of main points of the curve

– Chainage of TS=chain. of PI – TS

– Chainage of SC = chain. of TS + Ls

– Chainage of CS = chain. of SC + LC

– Chainage of ST= chain. of CS + LS

 Example on transition curve
1. two tangents of a highway AB and BC deflects in direction
by an angle of 24010’30’’ and intersect at B with a chain age
of 5236.10m. It is required to connect those lines by a
circular curve of radius (R) =400m, which is inturn
connected to two transition curves; one from each sides.
Given that design speed= 90km/hr and rate of change of
radial acceleration () = 0.4 m/sec3.

calculate
i. Length of transition curve
ii. Shift length
iii. Total tangent length
iv. Length of combined curve
v. Chain age of TS,SC,CS, and ST.
 SOLUTIONS
Length of transition curve(l) =V3/R = 97.65m

Shift (s)= l2/24R= 0.99m

Spiral angle()= l /2R *radian= l /2R *1800/*degree= 6059’39’’

Total tangent length(T) = (R+S)tan(/2) + l/2=134.7m

Length of simple circular curve(lC)= *R(-2)/1800=71.13m

Length of combined curve= 2*l + *R(-2)/1800= 266.43m

Chain age of TS = chain age of PI – T = 5236.10-134.7=5101.4m

Chain age of SC = chain age of TS + l = 5101.4 + 97.65 = 5199.05m

Chain age of CS = chain age of SC + lC= 5270.168m

Chain age of ST = chain age of CS + l = 5367.824m

 Exercise on transition curve
• Two straights AB and BC meet at an angle of 1420.it is required
to insert a 50 circular curve with suitable transitions at its both
ends. The transition curve is to be such that the centrifugal
ratio is 1/8 and that the rate of change of radial acceleration is
0.3m/sec3. the chain age of intersection point is 7597.2m. (use
peg interval =30m for circular and 15m for transition curve)
Calculate

i. Radius of the circular curve

ii. The length of transition curve

iii. The spiral angle

iv. Length of circular curve

v. Shift length

vi. The total tangent length

vii. Chain age of TS, SC, CS, and ST

 Super-elevation rate, e
• Most highway curves are “super elevated”, or banked, to assist drivers in

resisting the effects of centripetal force. Super elevation is quantified as

a percentage, computed as follows:

• Is the raising of the outer edge of the road along a curve in-order

to counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in

combination with the friction between the surface and tyres

developed in the lateral direction

• Maximum value is controlled by:

– Climatic conditions: frequency & amount of snow/icing
– Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
– Area type: rural vs. urban
– Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
• Minimum super-elevation rate is determined by drainage requirements.
 Maximum Degree of Curvature
• Minimum radius for safety (veh. stability)
• Limiting value for a given design speed (given e max & fmax )
V2
Rmin 
127e  f 
The respective maximum Degree of Curvature is:

1145.92 1145.92 143240e  f 

D max   2 
Rmin V 127e  f  V2

Sharper curve might justify use of e>emax or

a higher dependence on tyre friction or both.
 Cont’d
Side friction coefficients are dependent on
i) vehicle speed;

ii) type, condition and texture of roadway surface;

iii) weather conditions; and

iv) type and condition of tyres.

Reading assignment
Setting out of curves
Methods of setting out
Computations of parameters for setting out
 Widening on Curves and Embankments
• The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where
possible, as drivers following the design speed will find it
difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces
such problems.

• Vehicles need to remain centered in their lane to reduce the

likelihood of colliding with an oncoming vehicle or driving on the

shoulder.

• Curve widening is generally not applied to curves with a radius

greater than 250 meters regardless of the design speed or the

lane width.

• Widening is provided to make driving on a curve comparable

with that on a tangent. On older roads with narrow cross-

sections and low design speeds and hence sharp curves, there

was a considerable need for widening on curves.

 Cont’d
• Extra widening refers to the additional width
of carriageway that is required on a curved
section of a road over and above that required
on a straight alignment.
• This widening is done due to two reasons:
– mechanical widening is the additional width
required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve,
and
– the psychological widening is due to the tendency
of the drivers to play away from the edge of the
carriageway as they drive on a curve.
 Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are:
• When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear wheels
follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off-tracking, and has the effect of
increasing the effective width of a road space required by the
vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same clearance between
vehicles traveling in opposite direction on curved roads as is
provided on straight sections, there must be extra width of
carriageway available. This is an important factor when high
proportion of vehicles are using the road. Trailer trucks also
need extra carriageway, depending on the type of joint. In
addition speeds higher than the design speed causes
transverse skidding which requires additional width for safety
purpose.
 Psychological widening
• Widening of pavements has to be done for some
psychological reasons also.

• There is a tendency for the drivers to drive

close to the edges of the pavement on curves.

• Some extra space is to be provided for more

clearance for the crossing and overtaking
operations on curves.

 If the road has n lanes, the extra widening

should be provided on each lane.
 Cont’d
Mechanical widening

Please note that for large radius,R2 R,

which is the mean radius of the curve

Fig. Extra-widening at a horizontal curve

Psychological widening
R1 = the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel
R2 = the radius of the outer track line of the front wheel
n = the number of lanes total widening
l = the distance between the front and rear wheel,
V = design speed
R= radius of the horizontal curve
 Cont’d
Need of Widening on Highway Curves:
– Rear wheels don’t follow front wheels,

– Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels

– To have adequate sight-distances

– Drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming

from the opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane

when traversing a curve

Table : Widening on Curves and High Fills Source: ERA, 2013

 Widening - Methods
• Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides of the
roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition curve
and be fully widened at the start of the circular curve.

• Widening is also required for high class of Design Standards at

high fills for the psychological comfort of the driver.

• On a simple curve (i.e. with no spirals) widening should be

applied on the inside edge of a pavement only.

• For curves with spirals, widening could be applied on the inside

(only) or could be equally divided b/n the inside and outside.

• Widening should be attained gradually over the super elevation

runoff length but shorter lengths are sometimes used (usually
this length is 30 – 60m).

• Widening is costly and very little is gained from a small amount

of widening.
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be
necessary to remove buildings, trees or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides
of curves to obtain the required sight distance.
 Where sufficient stopping sight distance is
not available
(1) increase the offset to the obstruction,
(2) increase the radius,
(3) reduce the design speed.
 Considering a vehicle at A and an
object at B, sight distance
B
should at-least equal to safe
A stopping distance.
If the angle subtended at the
centre of the circle is 2, then

Figure 2-1: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

S  2 R 180
  28.66 * S R ,
RM
 Cos  Cos(28.66 * S R )
R
M  R (1  Cos (28.66 * S R ))
 cont’d
Relevant formulae are as follows:
Length of Sight Line (S):
S = 2R sin( /2) , where  = Deflection angle (o)
Length of Middle Ordinate (M) = R(1-cos( /2)
Example:
Radius = 1000 metres,  = 20o;
S = 2R sin( /2)
= 2(1000)(sin(10o)
= 347 meters

M = R (1 – cos(/2)
= 1000(1- cos(10o)
= 15.2 meter
 Example
1. a highway construction project is being undertaken to reduce
accident rate. The reconstruction involves a major realignment
of a highway such that on 80km/hr speed is attained. At one
section on a highway a horizontal circular curve of the
following data exists.
Station of PI =10+600
Station of PC=10+400
Station of PT=10+760
central deflection angle() =800
Maximum super elevation rate(e) =6%
Coefficient of side friction =0.12
Lane width =3.6m
Reaction time = 2.5 sec
Coefficient of friction =0.3, and
Insignificant grade
 Cont’d
Required:
a. Check the adequacy of radius of curve is for this
existing curve in lighting reconstruction design
speed.

b. If the existing curve is inadequate; design a

satisfying horizontal curve by determining radius of
curve, stationing of PC and PT taking maximum
super elevation of 6%.

c. How far should the new road side be unobstructed

from the outer edge of the road to provide a safe
stopping sight distance.
 solutions
• Radius of the curve provided
RProvided =L*1800/ , L = sta. PT – sta. PC =360m
RProvided = 257.83m, now lets find Rmin
V2 802
Rmin  Rmin  = 279.96 m
127e  f  1270.06  0.12
Therefore, RProvided < Rmin , so Rprovided is not adequate !
Take a radius, Rmin = 280m
L = R/1800 = *280*800/1800 = 390.95m take 391m
The new tangent length (T)
T =Rmin * tan(/2) =280*tan(400) =234.95m , take 235m
 Cont’d
• The stations of new PC and PI
sta. of PC = sta. of PI – T =10+600-235=10+365
sta. of PT = sta. of PC + L =(10+365) + 391=10+756
The minimum sight clearance:
L =391 m
SSD =0.278vt+v2/254(f  g)=139.59m
Therefore,
M =Rs(1- cos(28.65*SSD)/Rs) …for SSD < L
Rs= R- W/2 =280m -3.6m/2 =278.2m
So, M =8.71m
From the edge of the road side
m1 =8.71m - 1.8 m = 6.92 m
Thank you !!!