LOGIC NOTES

- The hardest task in the world is to think critically – Ralf Waldo Emerson
Legend:
SUBJECT
HIGHLIGHT

ABORTION
What is Abortion
Abortion, the expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of
viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation). An abortion
may occur spontaneously, in which case it is also called a miscarriage, or it may be
brought on purposefully, in which case it is often called an induced abortion.

The 4 Classification of Abortion

Early
-Abortion before 12 weeks gestation

Late
-Abortion between 12- and 20-weeks’ gestation

Spontaneous
-Noninduced abortion

Induced
-Termination of pregnancy for specific reason

The 2 types of Abortions

medical abortion ("abortion pill") – taking medicine to end the pregnancy

surgical abortion – a procedure to remove the pregnancy

Pros & Cons

-Reproductive choice empowers women by giving them control over their own
bodies.
-Women who receive abortions are less likely to suffer mental health problems
than women denied abortions.
-Reproductive choice protects women from financial disadvantage.

Cons
-Abortion is murder.
-Life begins at conception, so unborn babies are human beings with a right to life.
-Abortion is the killing of a human being, which defies the word of God.

Ethics
Utilitarianism
A common utilitarian argument goes this way: Anything having a balance of good
results (considering everyone) is morally permissible. Abortion often has a balance
of good results (considering every- one). Abortion often is morally permissible.

Deontology
For instance, if one's intentions in seeking an abortion represent a desire to avoid
duty to one's own offspring or a failure to respect human life, the deontologist
would likely disapprove of abortion.

Natural Moral Law

Whether inflicted upon the mother or upon the child, [direct abortion] is against the
precept of God, and the law of nature: 'Thou shalt not kill'. The life of each is
equally sacred, and no one has the power, not even the public authority, to destroy
it.

Catholic Church
The Catholic Church teaches that abortion is always wrong as they believe that all
life is sacred and a gift from God. The Church teaches that all life begins at the
moment of conception. that alternatives to abortion, such as giving a child up for
adoption.

CCC
2270 Human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of
conception. From the first moment of his existence, a human being must be
recognized as having the rights of a person - among which is the inviolable right of
every innocent being to life.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Since the first century the Church
has affirmed the moral evil of every procured abortion. This teaching has not
changed and remains unchangeable. Direct abortion, that is to say, abortion willed
either as an end or a means, is gravely contrary to the moral law" (No. 2271).

2274 Since it must be treated from conception as a person, the embryo must be
defended in its integrity, cared for, and healed, as far as possible, like any other
human being.

Conclusion
"The end doesn't justify the means"

All types of Abortion are WRONG.

EMOTIVISM
I. The Origin of Emotivism
Emotivism was expounded by A.J Ayer in Language, Truth and Logic (1936)
Developed by Charles Stevenson in Ethics and Language (1945)
II. What is Emotivism?
Ayer (neither true nor false)
The foundation of Emotivism is the verification principle.
Verification Principle: Statements are meaningless unless they are empirically
verifiable.
Empirically – by means of observation or experience rather than theory or logic
Analytic statements are true or true solely in virtue of their meaning.
“It is raining” – is not analytic
“All bachelors are unmarried” – is analytic. “bachelor” is defined to mean
“unmarried man”
A statement is empirically verifiable just in case there are some sets of
observations that would show it to be true.
“It is raining”: If we walk outside and see droplets of water falling from the sky,
we know “it is raining” is true.
If a statement is not true by definition, and we cannot say what observation
would show it to be true, then its meaningless.
What does this mean for moral statement?
Two people could agree on all the facts but still make different moral judgement
about it.
Emotivism according to Ayer is a non-cognitive theory of ethics; it argues moral
statements are meaningless: they are neither true nor false. Which means that
moral statements have no true value, they are simply expression of feelings or
emotional reaction.
This is the reason why Emotivism is also known as the Boo-Hurrah theory.
Stevenson (influence others)
After Ayer, Stevenson upgraded the theory.
Emotivism is more than just an expression of emotion. The speaker is also trying to
affect or influence the person they are talking to.
When we make moral statements, we expect others to agree. Like when we say,
“Murder is evil.” I am saying I dislike murder. Whether murder is indeed evil does
not matter, I am expressing my emotion and at the same time influencing you to
dislike murder. I am trying to get you to agree to what I am saying.

III. Arguments
Arguments (in favor)
Explains why there are moral disagreements.
Arguments (against)
1. Emotivism destroys important things like moral truth, moral objectivity, moral
progress. It makes morality a matter of opinion.
2. Emotivism entails that there are no real moral disagreements.
3. It is possible to make moral judgements without any corresponding emotions.
IV. Own Stand
Personally, I do not agree with Emotivism. As Christian we have moral values.
These values came from the teachings of Christ. It is factual and true.

Deontology
- It is an ethical theory that says actions are good or bad according to a clear
set of rules.
- Its name comes from the Greek word deon, meaning duty. Actions that align
with these rules are ethical, while actions that don’t aren’t.
- This ethical theory is most closely associated with German philosopher,
Immanuel Kant.
Immanuel Kant
- His work on personhood is an example of deontology in practice.
- Kant believed that the ability to use reason was what defined a person.
- From an ethical perspective, personhood creates a range of rights and
obligations because every person has inherent dignity – something that is
fundamental to and is held in equal measure by each and every person.
- This dignity creates an ethical ‘line in the sand’ that prevents us from acting
in certain ways either toward other people or toward ourselves (because we have
dignity as well).
- Kant argues that we may never treat a person merely as a means to an end
(never just as a resource or instrument).
Kant’s ethics isn’t the only example of deontology. Any system involving a clear
set of rules is a form of deontology, which is why some people call it a “rule-based
ethic”.
The Ten Commandments is an example, as is the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
Most deontologists say there are two different kinds of ethical duties, perfect duties
and imperfect duties.
PERFECT DUTIES
A perfect duty is inflexible. “Do not kill innocent people” is an example of a
perfect duty. You can’t obey it a little bit – either you kill innocent people or you
don’t. There’s no middle-ground.
IMPERFECT DUTIES
Imperfect duties do allow for some middle ground. “Learn about the world around
you” is an imperfect duty because we can all spend different amounts of time on
education and each be fulfilling our obligation. How much we commit to imperfect
duties is up to us.
Our reason for doing the right thing (which Kant called a maxim) is also important.
“We should do our duty for no other reason than because it’s the right thing to do.”

Obeying the rules for self-interest, because it will lead to better consequences or
even because it makes us happy is not, for deontologists, an ethical reason for
acting. We should be motivated by our respect for the moral law itself.

It’s worth mentioning that deontology is often seen as being strongly opposed to
consequentialism.
Consequentialism
- is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its
outcomes.

Capital Punishment
Capital Punishment is also called “Death Penalty” it is the execution of an offender
or a criminal sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal
offense. Capital punishment is not evil in itself.
Examples of Capital Punishment:
Hanging
Electrocution
 Gas chamber
Firing squad
Lethal injection
Tokhang
Places where death penalty is legal:
Afghanistan
India
Indonesia
Places where death penalty is rare:
Brunei
Kenya
Maldives
Places where death penalty is serious:
- Peru – El Salvador - Kazakhstan
Pros of Capital Punishment
- It deters criminals from committing serious crimes.
- Without the death penalty, some criminals would continue to commit
crimes. 

- It is a cost-effective solution. 

Death Penalty Cons

 There is no credible proof that the death penalty works as a deterrent. 

 It is a cruel and unusual punishment
 It continues the cycle of violence. 
History of capital punishment
The first established death penalty laws date as far back as the Eighteenth Century
B.C. in the Code of King Hammurabi of Babylon, which codified the death penalty
for 25 different crimes.
What was the first form of capital punishment?
The first death sentence historically recorded occurred in 16th Century BC Egypt
where the wrongdoer, a member of nobility, was accused of magic, and ordered to
take his own life. During this period non-nobility was usually killed with an ax.
The odds of receiving a death sentence are nearly four times higher if the
defendant is black than if he or she is white. A defendant's likelihood of receiving
the death penalty correlates with the victim's race. Of people currently on death
row, 82% were convicted in cases involving white victims.

Family Planning:
Natural family planning (NFP) methods, also known as periodic abstinence or
fertility awareness methods, involve women having a great knowledge of their own
menstrual cycles and being keyed in to signs and symptoms of the fertile phase of
the cycle, during which time they abstain from intercourse.

Family planning has two methods:

Natural Method:
periodic abstinence or fertility awareness methods
Artificial method:
Contraceptives. Delaying pregnancies in young girls who are at increased risk of
health problems from early childbearing, and preventing pregnancies among older
women who also face increased risks, are important health benefits of family
planning.

Arguments in Family Planning:

The church stands against the contraceptive (artificial) method because it negates
the law and main context of husband and wife, and also it denies the creation of
human life.

Human Cloning
Has been occasionally suggested as a way to improve the genetic endowment of
mankind, by cloning individuals of great achievements.
The production of individuals, entities or populations, identical or nearly identical
to the parent or original organism, from which they were obtained or derived.
Refers to Therapeutic Cloning and Reproductive Cloning.
In the second half of the 20th century advances were taking place in genetic
knowledge as well as in the genetic technology or what we called genetic
engineering. In that second half of the 20th century there were many proposals
including about human cloning.
In 2004, the issue of human cloning was raised in several countries where
legislatures if research on embryonic stem cells should be supported.
Types of Human Cloning
Therapeutic Cloning
Reproductive Cloning

Therapeutic Cloning
The first Therapeutic Cloning via somatic cell nuclear transfer took place in 2013
Intended to create embryonic stem cells through in vitro fertilization that can later
be used for research and therapeutic purposes.
Example:
Stem cells injected to the person who have diabetes, Alzheimer’s Disease,
Parkinson’s, Spinal injuries and etc.

Reproductive Cloning
To produce an exact gene copy of person, but only the genes not the personality or
the experienced of the copied person.

Pros:
Improving life prospects
Can duplicate human
Cons:
Violating their right to choose their plans for themselves.
Against moral values.
Clones maybe treated as objects and could interfere the family system.

Affirmative Arguments for Therapeutic Cloning

- Can be a cure to diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer’s Disease,
Parkinson’s, Spinal injuries and etc.
Negative:
Risks to egg donors
Affirmative Arguments for Reproductive Cloning
Solving infertility
Fighting genetic disease
Negative:
Harms to Society
Risks of Physical Harm to the clone
Risk of psychological Harm to the clone

CARE OF CREATION: ON POPE FRANCIS’ ENCYCLICAL

“LAUDATO SI”

What is laudato si?

Laudato Si’ is an encyclical of Pope Francis published in May 2015.

It focuses on care for the natural environment and all people, as
well as broader questions of the relationship between God, humans,
and the Earth.
Perhaps you might wondering if what meaning is the word
‘’encyclical”?

 The first words of Laudato Si’ are Italian and translate as

“praise be to you.” They are part of a quotation from St.
Francis of Assisi’s “Canticle of the Creatures” that opens the
encyclical in which the saint praises God by meditating on the
goodness of sun, wind, Earth, water, and other natural forces.
The choice of this passage to begin Laudato Si’ is a reminder of
how people of faith should not only respect the Earth but also
praise and honor God through their engagement with creation

 Laudato Si is divided into six chapters.

Chapter One: What is Happening to Our Common

Home” summarizes the scope of current problems related to the
environment. Issues discussed include: pollution climate change
water scarcity loss of biodiversity global inequality

“Chapter Two: The Gospel of Creation – nature/ earth as a

gift.
“Chapter Three: The Human Roots of the Ecological
Crisis” unreflective use of technology an impulse to
manipulate and control nature.

“Chapter Four: Integral Ecology” presents the encyclical’s

main solution to ongoing social and environmental problems.

“Chapter Five: Lines of Approach and Action” applies the

concept of integral ecology to political life.
  Chapter six: Ecological Education and
Spirituality concludes the encyclical with applications to
personal life – ecological conversion.

1991 pope John II wrote the encyclical Centesimus Annus

this was precisely talked about nature as a gift from God and
the need for humans to cooperate with God in promoting the
rightly ordered flourishing of the environment.

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
Ethical Subjectivism
“Subjective is influenced by or based on personal beliefs or feelings, rather than
based on facts.”
According to an online website The Basics of Philosophy:
Ethical Subjectivism holds that there are no objective moral properties
and that ethical statements are in fact arbitrary because they do not express
immutable truths. Instead, moral statements are made true or false by the
attitudes and/or conventions of the observers, and any ethical sentence just
implies an attitude, opinion, personal preference or feeling held by someone.
According to an online website Encyclopedia.com:
A subjectivist ethical theory is a theory according to which moral
judgments about men or their actions are judgments about the way people
react to these men and actions—that is, the way they think or feel about
them.
Ethical subjectivists believes that moral judgements are descriptions of our
attitudes or character.
According to the book entitled The Elements of Moral Philosophy by
James Rachels and Stuart Rachels, The Evolution of the Theory: It began as a
simple idea—in the words of David Hume (1711-1776), that morality is a matter of
sentiment rather than fact.
The First Stage: Simple Subjectivism - When a person says that
something is morally good or bad, this means that he or she approves of that thing,
or disapproves of it, and nothing more.

My Own Examples of Ethical Subjectivism:

Our Fight Against Revision of History (Marcos Regime)
Catholic Priests Supporting Leni Robredo for President

Advantages of Ethical Subjectivism:

 There will be more opportunities for Debates.
Disadvantages of Ethical Subjectivism:
1. Your claim will be doubted.
2. It will spread Fake News.
3. Many crimes will be happening.

EUTHANASIA

Euthanasia may be defined as an action in which a person intentionally

killed or allowed to die because it is believed that the individual would be better
off dead.
The term "euthanasia" is derived from the Greek words "eu" (good) and
"thanatos" (death). Instead of condemning someone to a slow, painful, or
undignified death, euthanasia allows the patient to have a relatively "good death."
 Example in the case of an irreversible coma, or the vegetative state or brain-
dead state where there are no chance of revival. It is also termed as mercy killing.
As it is seen as a call for mercy for terminally ill patients
Merriam Webster Definition
It is the act or practice of killing or permitting the death of hopelessly sick or
injured individuals in a relatively painless way for reasons of mercy.

TYPES OF EUTHANASIA
Voluntary Euthanasia
- Euthanasia is voluntary when it is requested by the person, personally to
end one’s life in a pain- less manner

Legal in Belgium, Colombia, Netherlands, and Canada

Involuntary Euthanasia
- When the person who undergoes Euthanasia wants to live instead, in
other words, this is performed on the person without asking for his/her
consent
- This is against the patient’s will
- It is illegal in all countries

Non-Voluntary Euthanasia
-To put it simply, when the person’s consent is unavailable
-For example, adults who have permanently lost consciousness, infants, etc.
It is illegal in all countries
 WAYS TO CONDUCT EUTHANASIA
ACTIVE EUTHANASIA
- Actively performing the act of euthanasia.

For example, withdrawals of life support system, administering a lethal

injection, consumption of a deadly drink of drugs/ poison.

PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
- Passively and not actively facilitating a person’s death.

An example of this is withholding necessary treatments, medicines, etc.

Types of Euthanasia (6)

- Voluntary Euthanasia
- Voluntary passive euthanasia
- Non voluntary euthanasia
- Non voluntary passive euthanasia
- Involuntary active euthanasia
- Involuntary passive euthanasia

It is important to note that voluntary passive euthanasia is generally morally

and legally permissible across the globe.
 ARGUMENTS

Against Euthanasia

 The first objection to euthanasia may be termed the objection from sanctity
of life. The sanctity of life is usually founded on religious beliefs according
to religions such as Christianity, Judaism, etc.

 It would undermine the commitment of doctors and nurses to save lives.

 It would discourage the search for new cures and treatments for the
terminally ill.

ARGUMENTS
In favor of Euthanasia

• Euthanasia enables a person to die with dignity and in control of their

situation.

• Death is a private matter and the state should not interfere with the
individual's right to die.

• Family and friends would be spared the pain of seeing their loved one suffer
a long-drawn-out death.
 As of now…
Euthanasia is a topic of ongoing debate.

What is a good death?

 freedom from pain
 at peace with God
 presence of family
 mentally aware
 treatment choices followed
 finances in order
 feel life was meaningful
 resolve conflicts
 die at home

Die with Dignity

Dying with dignity is a movement that promotes the ability to meet death on
your own terms.
NATURAL LAW

Aquinas’s Natural Moral Law

• Generally Natural Law means that there are certain laws that occur naturally
as part of the universe, they are fixed and unchanging and separate from
human opinion – and potentially discoverable through reason. We find that
others have come to the same conclusions.

• Origins: these laws may have been put there by God, or simply exist
without reason.

• The interpretation of Natural Law we are considering is the one developed

by Aquinas and which functions within morality and Christianity,
necessitating a God who is responsible for the laws.

◉ Natural law is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings
possess intrinsic values that govern their reasoning and behavior.
Natural law maintains that these rules of right and wrong are inherent in
people and are not created by society or court judges.

◉ Natural Moral Law can also be referred to as “Natural Law” thus, making
both these terms used interchangeably.

For Aquinas, the purpose of human life was to

achieve perfection with God. For Aquinas this
perfection could not be discovered by natural law
alone. He also appealed to eternal law and divine
law.
• Eternal law refers to the principles by which God governs the universe
 • Divine law refers to the Bible, which guides us in reaching our goal of
perfection.

• Natural law is the part of eternal law that applies to human choices and can
be known by our natural reason

For Aquinas this perfection was not achievable in

this life, but only after death.

The Primary Precepts – Basic principles of Aquinas’ Natural Law

In four words, 'Do good, avoid evil'. In more detail, Aquinas
• Protection of the innocent

• Reproduction

• Ordered society

• Worship God

• Learning

◉ According to Plato, we live in an orderly universe. The basis of this orderly

universe or nature are the forms, most fundamentally the Form of the Good,
which Plato describes as "the brightest region of Being." The Form of the
Good is the cause of all things, and when it is seen it leads a person to
act wisely.

◉ Aristotle (384–322 BCE) is considered by many to be the father of natural

law—argued that what is “just by nature” is not always the same as what is
“just by law.”

◉ Aristotle believed that there is a natural justice that is valid everywhere with
the same force; that this natural justice is positive, and does not exist by
"people thinking this or that."
 ◉ Aquinas wrote most extensively about natural law. He stated, "the light of
reason is placed by nature [and thus by God] in every man to guide him
in his acts." Therefore, human beings, alone among God's creatures, use
reason to lead their lives. This is natural law.

What is Natural Moral Law?

Generally, Natural Moral Law means that there are certain laws that occur
naturally as part of the universe, they are fixed and unchanging and separate from
human opinion – and potentially discoverable through reason.

Fake News
History
The term seems to have emerged around the end of the 19th century. There
is no exact event and date as to how and when “Fake News” started.
What is ‘Fake News’?
The term fake news means “news articles that are intentionally and
verifiably false” [1] designed to manipulate people’s perceptions of real facts,
events, and statements. It’s about information presented as news that is known by
its promoter to be false based on facts that are demonstrably incorrect, or
statements or events that verifiably did not happen. 
"Fake news" is fabricated information that mimics news media content in
form but not in organizational process or intent. Fake-news outlets, in turn, lack the
news media's editorial norms and processes for ensuring the accuracy and
credibility of information. Fake news overlaps with other information disorders,
such as misinformation (false or misleading information) and disinformation (false
information that is purposely spread to deceive people)." [David M. J. Lazer, et al.,
"The Science of Fake News," Science 09 Mar 2018: Vol. 359, Issue 6380, pp.
1094-1096.].
Fundamentally, those who operate fake news websites want as many visitors
to their sites as possible. While some may want their visitors to see the content and
have it influence their political values, others simply want internet users to click on
them, which often takes users to a website where users see more content
(ideological or not) and/or see advertising. When a website has ads on it, those
visits pay the website owner advertising revenue. Both of these motivations—
ideological and commercial--need as many people to click on the website link and
visit as possible.

Why is ‘Fake News’ shared?

Mental shortcuts or cognitive biases also affect the way we use information.
Four types of cognitive biases are especially relevant in relation to fake news and
its influence on society: First (1), we tend to act on the basis of headlines and tags
without reading the article they’re associated with.
Second (2), social media convey signals that affect our sense of the
popularity of information, which leads us to greater acceptance.
Third (3), fake news takes advantage of the most common political mental
shortcut: partisanship (the quality or action of strongly supporting a person,
principle, or political party, often without considering or judging the matter very
carefully). And fourth (4), there’s a weird tendency for false information to stick
around, even after it’s corrected.
Recent evidence indicates that misinformation may spread on social media
not only because people are confused or lack the competency to recognize fake
news, but also (or even mostly) because people fail to consider accuracy at all
when they make choices about what to share online.

How is ‘Fake News’ shared?

- Social Media such as Facebook, Instagram, Google, Twitter, etc.
- Deepfake videos or videos in general
- Rumors from friends, family, and people around us.
In terms of social media, a clickbait is one of the biggest contributors in the
number of social media users a website or blog receives. They attract the attention
of the user(s) to read the content or enter a certain website.
The Fight Against ‘Fake News’
The fight of fake news stats with us. We can be receivers or sharers of
information to the people around us. Around the world, there are figures and
organizations working to fight the battle of the spread of misinformation.
However, the fight of fake news also greatly depends unto each one of us.
Our ability to very information we receive and information we share.
Current approaches against fake news as an individual:
- Fact checking
- Check sources of information
- Don’t be intuitive - Intuitive means having the ability to understand or know
something without any direct evidence or reasoning process (So are mothers
when they know you're lying). Presuming held information can be
dangerous as such that you don’t have a firm foundation and data on what
you have. Always double check and background check.

SUICIDE
WHAT IS SUICIDE
- Suicide is death caused by injuring oneself.
- Suicidal behavior need not result in death nor must the condition that hastens
be self-caused.
- What is essential for a behavior to count as suicide is that the person in
question chooses to die.

RISK FACTORS
- Job loss
- Financial problems
- Depression
- Relationship problems

PROTECTIV FACTORS
- Coping and problem-solving skills
- Mental health care
METHODS FOR SUICIDE
- Hanging
- Fire arms
- Jumping
- Stabbing

ARGUMENTS PRO SUICIDE

- Hume believes that we do not contemplate suicide lightly. We need to
overcome fear and gain motive to commit suicide, so it is not a transgression
to ourselves.

- Australian Philosopher, Peter Singer, supports Hume by saying that the

individual has a choice to live. If they think their future is worth living for; if
it is not, then it is their decision.

- It is not an insult to the value of life if one commits suicide. It may be

protecting the lives or well-being of others.

AGAINST SUICIDE
- Suicide is an act of cowardice or laziness undertaken by individuals too
delicate to manage life’s vicissitudes.
- Suicide is contrary to natural self-love
- Suicide injures the community of which the individual is a part.

CONCLUSION
Some philosophers believe that suicide is morally improper because life should be
valued and suicide implies disobeying our duties to live life. Contrary to this belief,
other philosophers believe that we have the right to make any decision concerning
our bodies, especially if we want to stop suffering that may be caused by pain or
terminal illness.
According to Socrates, “Virtue is knowledge” because through virtue you
can live your life in the best possible manner.

The nature of the soul can only be understood in terms of virtue. Virtue is
the best condition of the soul. If you do actions blindly you can never be
satisfied and happy. The word ‘virtue’ translates ‘arete’ which means
excellence in Greek. It has a wide range of meanings moral as well as
immoral but Socrates emphasized on its moral content. According to
Socrates, the task of philosophy is to make men better.

This report presents to you the meanings of virtue and vice and the key
difference between virtue and vice. Both terms, virtue and vice, deal with
human behavior in such a way that they explain the good and bad
characteristics of humans. That means, virtue stands for the good deeds
and thoughts of humans whereas vice indicates bad or evil side of people.
Virtues and vice can be seen in humans and these are not innate
characteristics. When a person grows older, s/he cultivates both virtues
and vice according to his/her wish. Thus, a person does not become
virtuous by birth but his/her actions decide whether s/he is good or bad.

How to Understand the Classical Vices and Virtues?

Virtue Theory, Moral Philosophy, and Chivalry as Understood
Throughout the Ages

Here's a list of vices and virtues and look at vices and virtues as
understood by philosophers like Aristotle and Aquinas.

That means we will discuss a range of “virtue theories” pertaining to both

“moral virtues” and other types of virtues (such as virtues related to specific
“spheres of life,” such as statesmanship in the political sphere, health in the
physical sphere, friendship in the social sphere, etc).
What are Vice and Virtues?
Although we can, we shouldn’t just understand “virtue” as some floating
metaphysical form. Instead, virtue should be understood as any positive
sentiment that leads to the happiness of ourselves and others (the “good”
qualities a person can possess so to speak).
Likewise, “vice” is simply the absence of virtue, that which does not lead to
happiness (that which we generally consider “bad” qualities).

Understanding the Basics of Vices and Virtue

The basics of vices and virtue, like so many things, were perhaps best
expressed by Plato and Aristotle.

“Now goods are of two kinds: there are human and there are divine
goods…

“For wisdom is chief and leader of the divine class of goods, and next
follows temperance; and from the union of these two with courage springs
justice, and fourth in the scale of virtue is courage. All these naturally take
precedence of the other goods…

…Of the lesser (human) goods the first (the highest) is health, the second
beauty, the third strength, including swiftness in running and bodily agility
generally, and the fourth is wealth…”

– Plato’s Laws Book I

Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38

Virtues and Their Relation to Morals and Ethics:

Ethics are like rule-sets for avoiding vice and ensuring virtues; virtues and
morals are the metaphysical concepts underneath the ethics.

Depending on what we are talking about, if we are talking about “divine”

“moral” laws, or if we are talking about something more human like politics
or economics, we can consider different virtues. As Plato says and Aquinas
agrees, “Now goods are of two kinds: there are human and there are divine
goods…” Below we can see that physical, social, and political virtues are of
the human kind, moral virtues are of the “divine” kind, and practical morals
bridge the gap.

TIP: Practice makes perfect. Once you understand a virtue and its related
vices it's all about reinforcement. Act as if, and you become virtuous over
time. When the nation inspires virtue in its citizens as part of its laws and
civil religion, even better. 

The Foundation of Virtue Theory: Aristotle’s Theory of Means and Thomas

Aquinas’ Vices and Virtues

While many philosophers and thinkers clearly defined vices and virtues
over the years, Aristotle began the tradition by adding in a nuanced, yet
often forgotten, mechanic that I would argue forms the basis of virtue
theory.

That mechanic is the idea of deficiency, mean, and excess within a “sphere
of action”. It is called Aristotle’s Theory of Means or “the Golden Mean” and
it is a fundamentally useful little trick that can be applied in a number of
ways.

The Logic Behind Aristotle’s Theory of Means

Aristotle defined vice and virtue as: vice is an excess or deficiency of virtue,
and virtue is the mean between two accompanying vices that exists within
a “sphere”.
Meanwhile, another famous virtue theorist, Thomas Aquinas, added in
another useful mechanic from his Christian perspective.

Aquinas separated virtue into cardinal virtues (natural virtues that can be
known through the senses and reason or ethics) and theological virtues
(divine virtues that can be partially rationalized and intuited but never fully
known or roughly morals). Aquinas then stated that complete virtues are
virtues that combine the two.

 
 Aristotle defines his virtue theory over more than one of his works. In his
Rhetoric he says, “The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance,
magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom.”
 For Greeks like Aristotle they had a concept called Arete. Arete is the chief
good, the aristocracy of virtues. It is a single word that stands as a
placeholder for the ends of virtue. Or rather, it is a word that lacks an
English equivalent. 
 To sum up the argument of Plato and Aristotle simply, the greatest virtue is
moderation and the greatest ends is justice. Moderation ensures the other
virtues, and a balance of virtues assures the greatest happiness for the
most, and that is true justice. Meanwhile, vices are generally lower-order
pleasure seeking that is immoderate. 
A vice isn’t bad in moderation, really here, the general warning will be to
seek balance and avoid extremes. This being important to all virtues and
vices is why moderation is “the chief virtue”.

How can we learn to be virtuous? 

As Aristotle stated, virtue is learned by experience. One’s character must
be cultivated. We learn charity by being charitable, learn honor by being
honorable, learn humility by being humble, learn to take joy in healing
rather than vice seeking by experiencing the pains and pleasures of life.
Etc. One can teach the theory, but one can’t instill virtue in another person.

 
Aquinas' Virtue Ethics

Thomas Aquinas’ Cardinal Virtues and Theological Virtues Complete and

Incomplete Virtues
Aquinas also describes the virtues as imperfect (incomplete) and perfect
(complete).

A perfect virtue is any virtue with charity; charity completes a cardinal

virtue. Acts that are ethical and have natural goodness are virtuous, but
real virtue requires embracing a type of morality which can’t be clearly
defined.

Ex. Giving to charity to lower your taxes is ethical, giving a homeless

person your last $5 and skipping dinner shows a different aspect of
character.

Now for an example of dividing these into cardinal and theological using
Aquinas’ model:
 The four cardinal virtues are prudence, temperance, justice, and
fortitude. The cardinal virtues are natural and revealed in nature, and
they are binding on everyone.
 Three theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity. The theological
virtues relate to a more divine morality; they must be intuited and
reasoned.
Conscience in Psychology
In the field of psychology, conscience is a feeling of obligation to do good. We
will feel that we are oblige to do good and be good to others.

Conscience in Ethics

The moral conscience is the immediate source of information guiding human

actions.

In the field of ethics, conscience is the one who will dictate us on what we should
and what we should react in a certain situation. An action with the provided ethical
lessons that will serve as the basis of its action.

Conscience in Bible

According to the Bible (Hebrews 9:14) says the blood of Christ not only saves us,
but it cleanses our conscience so we understand what honors God.

In the Bible, conscience was cleansed by the blood of Christ and because of that
we will be able to understand on what we should act and react on a situation that
pleases and extends the glory of God.

Conscience in Theology

It is the one who will talk to every individual on how to act based on the law of
God and the conscience is the voice of God.

In the field of Theology, conscience is the voice of God that tells us on what we
should do that based on the law of God.

Conscience in Catholic Church

It is the application of the principles of morality rather than the source of those
moral principles.

When it comes to the Catholic Church, the conscience dictates our action based on
the moral principles that pleases and based on the law of God rather than those
moral principles created by those expert people in the field of humanity.
Now that we’re done on the definition of conscience from the different fields. Let’s
proceed to the kinds of conscience. Here are the different kinds of conscience.

Kinds of Conscience (7)

• Correct Conscience

• Erroneous Conscience

• Certain Conscience

• Doubtful Conscience

• Lax Conscience

• Scrupulous Conscience

* Delicate Conscience

Correct Conscience

It tells us when something is a good choice or a bad choice and that decision is in
agreement with what that thing actually is according to the objective law.

Correct conscience made us to know if that certain action that we will about to do
is good or bad according to the objective law.

Erroneous Conscience

It judges something incorrectly, when something is bad you think it is good and
when it is good you think is bad.

Erroneous conscience will make us think that a good action is bad and vice versa.

Certain Conscience

It means convinced without any doubt that an action is good or bad.

Certain conscience makes us think that an action convinced us without thinking if
that action is good or bad. It makes us convince without thinking if it can also
benefit others or it can harm others.

Doubtful Conscience

It means when you cannot choose between good and bad choices.

If in certain conscience you will be easily convinced without thinking if its good or
bad. In doubtful conscience you can’t choose if an action is good or bad and
because of that you can’t made a decision if you’re convinced or not. Because in
the first place you can’t even identify if that certain action can benefit him or harm
him.

Lax Conscience

It means when you see no sin where there actually is a sin.

Lax conscience makes us view that a certain action has nothing that can harm us
when in fact there is.

Scrupulous Conscience

It means a conscience that judges that there is sin where there is really no sin, or
that judges that something is a mortal sin when it is only a venial sin.

Scrupulous Conscience makes us think that a certain thing can harm us when in
fact it doesn’t.

Delicate Conscience

It judges correctly and with careful attention concerning the acts that are about to
be performed.

In Delicate Conscience its makes us to be careful on deciding if a certain action

that we are about to do is good or bad.
Methods of Forming our Conscience

Method 1: Using Rational Thinking

1. Use reason as your conscience if you don’t feel an immediate gut reaction.

2. Think about the values and behavior of people you do and don’t respect.

3. Educate yourself by reading about people who lived conscience-guided lives.

4. Study some unexpected sources of inspiration.

Method 2: Developing Emotional Awareness

1. Unlock your conscience by practicing empathy.

2. Educate yourself on how you can effectively put your empathy skills into
practice.

3. Challenge how you think about the world.

4. Travel and experience other cultures.

5. Think about your own behaviour.

Method 3: Putting It into Practice

1.Use your knowledge of right and wrong to move from thinking to doing.

2. Work on your communications skills.

3. Practice techniques that put your conscience into action.

4. Set specific goals for using your conscience in daily activities.

5. Live your values.

6. Stand up for your beliefs.