CHAPTER 3

ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
We consider here various elementary functions studied in calculus and define
corresponding functions of a complex variable. To be specific, we define analytic
functions of a complex variable z that reduce to the elementary, functions in calculus
when z = x + i0. We start by defining the complex exponential function and then use it
to develop the others.

28. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Definition: The exponential function:

The exponential function ez by writing

(1) ez = exeiy (z =x + iy),

where Euler's formula

(2) eiy = cos y + i sin y

is used and y is to be taken in radians.

Notes:

1) ez reduces to the usual exponential function in calculus when y = 0 .

2) when z = 1/n (n = 2, 3, . . .). then ez = el/n is the set of nth roots of e.

Properties of ez:

1) e z1 + z2 = e z1 e z2
e z1
2) = e z1 − z2
e z2
d z
3) ez is entire and e = ez .
dx
4) ez # 0 for any complex number z.

5) ez is periodic,with a pure imaginary period 2ni:

ez +2nπ = ez .
6) while ex is never negative, there are values of ez that are.

Examples:

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29. THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Our motivation for the definition of the logarithmic function is based on solving the
equation
(1) ew = z

for w, where z is any nonzero complex number.

To do this, we note that when z and w are written z = reiΘ (-π < Θ ≤ π ) and

w = u + i v , the above equation becomes

eu eiv = r eiΘ then:

eu = r and v =Θ+2 n π where n is any integer.

That is; u = In r, w has one of the values

w = ln r + i(Θ +2nπ) (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2 , . . .).

Thus, if we write

(2) log z = ln r +i(Θ + 2nπ)

we have the simple relation

(3) elog z = z (z # 0).

Note:
It is not true that the left-hand side of equation (3) with the order of the exponential and
logarithmic functions reversed reduces to just z.
More precisely, since expression (2) can be written

log z = In |z| + i arg z

and since |ez| = ex and arg(ez)=y+2nπ ( n = 0 , ± l , ± 2 , ...)

when z = x + iy, we know that

log(ez) = In |ez| + i arg(ez) = ln(ex) + i(y + 2nπ) = (x + iy) + 2nπi

(n =0, ± 1, ± 2 , . . .).
That is,
log (ez) = z + 2nπi, (n =0, ± 1, ± 2 , . . .).

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  The principal value of log z is the value obtained from equation (2) when n= 0
there and is denoted by Log z. Thus
Log z = ln r +iΘ

and log z = Log z +2nπi , ( n=0,±1,±2,……. )

 It reduces to the usual logarithm in calculus when z is a positive real number z = r.

Examples:

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30. BRANCHES AND DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMS

If z = reiθ is a nonzero complex number, the argument θ has any one of the values
θ=Θ + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .), where Θ = Arg z. Hence the definition
(1) log z = ln r + i(Θ+2nπi)

of the multiple-valued logarithmic function in Sec. 29 can be written

(2) log z = ln r + i θ, r > 0 , α < θ < α+2π.

where α denote any real number .

with components u(r,θ)=ln r, v(r,θ)= θ.

is single-valued and continuous in the stated domain.

Notes:

1) Note that if the function (2) were to be defined on the ray θ = α, it would not be
continuous there.
2) The function (2) is not only continuous but also analytic in the domain r > 0,
α < θ < α+2π. since the first-order partial derivatives of u and v are continuous
there and satisfy the polar form r ur = vθ , uθ= - r vr .
of the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

3) Since

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Definition: A branch of a multiple-valued function f is any single-valued function F
that is analytic in some domain at each point z of which the value F(z) is one of the
values f (z).

Observe that, for each fixed α, the single-valued function (2) is a branch of the
multiple-valued function (1). The function Log z = ln r + iΘ (r>0, -π<Θ<π)
is called the principal branch.

Note that :
1) A branch cut is a portion of a line or curve that is introduced in order to
define a branch F of a multiple-valued function.

2) Points on the branch cut for F are singular points of F, and any point that is
common to all branch cuts of f is called a branch point.

3) The origin and the ray θ= α make up the branch cut for the branch (2)
of the logarithmic function.

4)The branch cut for the principal branch consists of the origin and the ray Θ = π.

5) The origin is evidently a branch point for branches of the multiple-valued

logarithmic function.

Examples:

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31. SOME IDENTITIES INVOLVING LOGARITHMS

Let zl and z2 denote any two nonzero complex numbers,

1) log(z1z2) = log z1+log z2 .

This statement is not, in general, valid when log is replaced everywhere by Log.

z 
2) log 1  = log z1 − log z2 .
 z2 
3) If z is a nonzero complex number, then zn = en log z , (n=0, ±1,±2,……).

4) It is also true that when z # 0,

This property is also true when n is negative integer.

Examples:

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32. COMPLEX EXPONENTS

Definition:
When z ≠ 0 and the exponent c is any complex number; the function zc
is defined by means of the equation
zc = ec log z
where log z denotes the multiple-valued logarithmic function.

EXAMPLE:

Properties:
1 −c
1) z c = z
d c c −1
2) dz z = cz

3) The principal value of zc occurs when log z is replaced by Log z .

P.V. zc = e c lo g z .

Examples:

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Definition: The exponential function with base c, where c is any
nonzero complex constant, is written

cz = e z log c

Note that although ez is, in general, multiple-valued the usual

interpretation of ez occurs when the principal value of the logarithm is
taken.

When a value of log c is specified, cz is an entire function of z. In fact,

d z
c = c z log c .
dz

Examples :

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33. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Definition :
1) The sine and cosine functions of a complex variable z is defined as
follows:
eiz − e − iz eiz + e − iz
sin z = , cos z = .
2i 2
2) These functions are entire since they are linear combinations of the
entire functions eiz and e-iz.

3) Knowing the derivatives of those exponential functions, we find

that
d d
sin z = cos z , cos z = − sin z
dz dz
4) It is easy to see from definitions (1) that

sin(-z) = - sin z and cos(-z) = cos z;

A variety of other identities from trigonometry are valid with

complex variables.

5) sin(z1 + z2) = sin z1 cos z2+ cos z1 sin z2,

6) cos(z1 + z2) = cos zl cos z2 - sin zl sin z2;

7) sin2 z + cos2 z = 1,

8) sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z , cos2z = cos 2 z-sin 2 z,

9) sin(z+π/2) =cos z, sin (z – π/2) = - cos z.

10) sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y،

11) cos z = cos x cosh y - i sin x sinh y,

12) sin(z+2π)=sin z, sin(z+π)=-sin z;

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13) cos(z+2π)=cos z, cos(z+π)=-cos z;

14) |sin z|2 = sin2x + sinh2y;

15) |cos z|2 = cos2x + sinh2 y;

16) from the last two equations that sin z and cos z are not bounded on the
complex plane, where as the absolute values of sin x and cos x are less
than or equal to unity for all values of x.

17) A zero of a given function f (z) is a number z0 such that

f(z0)=0. Thus:

and

Definition of the other trigonometric functions:

Note that tan z and sec z are analytic everywhere except at the
singularities

While cot z and csc z have singularities at the zeros of sin z

namely;

Their derivatives are:

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The period of each of these trigonometric functions follows from their
definitions, that is; tan(z+π) = tan z,
cot(z+π) = cot z, while;
sec(z+2π) = sec z,
csc(z+2π) = csc z.
Examples:

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34. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of a complex variable are defined as
they are with a real variable; that is,

Since eZ and e-Z are entire, it follows from definitions (1) that sinh z and cosh z are
entire. Furthermore

The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions are closely related to those
trigonometric functions:

Some of the most frequently used identities involving hyperbolic sine and cosine
functions are

Example:

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The period of sinh z and cosh z is 2πi and

Differentiation Formulas:

Examples:

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35. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC AND
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Inverses of the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions can be described in terms of

logarithms.
In order to define the inverse sine function sin-1 z, we write
w = sin-1 z when z = sin w.
That is, w = sin-1 z when

Example:

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Examples:

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