Module 13: The Digestive System

Digestive System
- consists of the digestive tract, a tube extending from the mouth to the anus, plus associated
organs, w/c secrete fluid into the digestive tract
- also known as the gastrointestinal tract technically on refers to the stomach and intestines but
is often used as a synonym for the digestive tract

Functions of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion - taking in food into the oral cavity
2. Secretion - release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract
3. Mixing and propulsion - churning and propulsion of food through the GI tract
4. Digestion - mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
5. Absorption - passage of digested products from the GI tract into the blood and lymph
6. Defecation - the elimination of feces from the GI tract
Digestion - The breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other large molecules to their
component parts
A. Oral Cavity or Buccal Cavity
- lined by the oral mucosa, which has a stratified squamous epithelium
- bounded by the lips and cheeks and contains the teeth and tongue
Functions:
1. Analysis of material before swallowing
2. Mechanical processing through the action of the teeth, tongue, and palate surface.
3. Lubrication by mixing with mucus and salivary gland secretion
4. Limited digestion of carbohydrates and lipids
Organs of the Oral Cavity
1. Lips
- are muscular structures, formed mostly by the orbicularis oris muscle
- the outer surfaces are covered by skin
- the keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin becomes thin at the margin of the lips
- the color of the underlying blood vessels can be seen through the thin, transparent
epithelium, giving the lips a reddish-pink appearance
2. Cheeks
- form the lateral wall of the oral cavity
- the buccinators muscles are located w/in the cheeks and flatten the cheeks against the teeth
- the lips and the cheeks are important in the process of mastication or chewing because they
help manipulate the food in the mouth and hold the food in place while the teeth crush or tear
it
- the cheeks also help form words during the speech process
3. Tongue
- moves the food in the mouth
- major sensory organs for taste, as well as being one of the major organs in speech
- the surface is normally moist, pink and covered by rough elevation called Papillae.
Kinds of Papillae:
a. Fungiform Papillae” mushroomlike” - numerous near the tip of the tongue, contain tastes
buds
b. Vallate Papillae “walllike” - arranged in an inverted V shape on the posterior surface of the
tongue
c. Foliate Papillae “leaflike” - located in small trenches on the lateral margin of the tongue but
most of their tastes buds are generated in early childhood.
d. Filiform papillae “threadlike”
- pointed threadlike projections but distributed in parallel rows over the anterior two-third of
the tongue.
- lack of the taste buds but contain receptors for touch and increase friction between the
tongue and food.
Foramen Cecum - posterior part of the tongue
Lingual Frenulum - fold of mucous membrane in the midline of the under surface of the tongue
that helps to anchor the tongue to the floor of the mouth
Plica Fimbriate - fold of the mucus membrane, extend toward the apex of the tongue

4. Teeth
- consists of 32 teeth in the normal adult mouth
- place in the periodontal ligaments, which are connective tissue fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls and embedded in to the cementum
Periodontal Disease
- inflammation of the periodontal ligaments, gingival, and alveolar bone.
- Most common disease cause of loss in adult.
Times Of Eruptions of Teeth
A. Deciduous Teeth / Primary teeth
 1. Upper teeth
a. Second molar (24-34 months)
b. First molar (12-16 months)
c. Cuspid or Canine (16-24 months)
d. Lateral incisor (12-24 months)
e. Central incisor (8-12 months)
2. Lower teeth
a. Second molar (24-34 months)
b. First molar (12-16 months)
c. Cuspid or Canine (16-24 months)
d. Lateral incisor (12-15 months)
e. Central incisor (6-8 months)
B. Permanent teeth
1. Upper teeth
a. Central incisor (7-8 yrs )
b. Lateral incisor (8-9 yrs.)
c. Cuspid or Canine (11-12 yrs.)
d. First premolar or Bicuspid (9-10 yrs.)
e. Second premolar or Bicuspid (10-12 yrs.)
f. First molar (6-7 yrs.)
g. Second molar (12-13 yrs.)
h. Third molar or Wisdom tooth (17-21 yrs.)
2. Lower teeth
a. Central incisor (7-8 yrs.)
b. Lateral incisor (7-8 yrs.)
c. Cuspid or Canine (9-10 yrs.)
d. First molar or Bicuspid (9-10 yrs.)
e. Second molar or Bicuspid (11-12 yrs.)
f. First molar (6-7 yrs.)
g. Second molar (11-13 yrs.)
h. Third molar or Wisdom tooth (17-21 yrs.)
Parts of a Teeth
1. Crown - part of the tooth that is visible and is covered by:
a. outer enamel - hardest substance in the body
b. inner dentine - calcified connective tissue which makes up the bulk of the tooth
2. Neck - part surrounded by the gum
a. Root - part embedded in bone
b. Pulp Cavity
- the central cavity filled with soft, pulpy connective tissue, blood vessels (supply with nutrients)
and nerves (for sensivity) and blood vessels in the shell of the dentine
- contain cells capable of making more dentine
5. Salivary Glands
- glands that lie external to the mouth and pour their secretory product (saliva) into ducts that
empty into the oral cavity
- they produce saliva
- are compound alveolar glands (resembling grapes, at the end of the ducts)
- salivary gland secretion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, with parasympathetic
being the most important
- there are three pairs:
a. Parotid Gland
- Largest of the salivary glands
- located between the skin and underlying masseter muscle in front of and below the
external ear
- the largest of the salivary glands and are serous glands
b. Submandibular
- “Mixed or compound glands”, because they contain both serous and mucus
 - located below the mandible
- produces more serious than mucus secretions
c. Sublingual
- smallest of the salivary glands, they lie in front of the submandibular glands, under the
mucous membrane covering the flour of the mouth
- produce primarily mucous secretions
Saliva
- is a mixture of serous ( watery) and mucus fluid
- helps keep the oral cavity moist and contains that begin the process of chemical digestion
- secreted at the rate of approximately 1 liter/day
- it contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase w/c breaks the covalent bonds
between glucose molecules in starch other polysaccharides
- prevents bacterial infection in the mouth by washing the oral cavity, and it contains lysozome,
w/c has weak antibacterial action
6. Palate And Tonsils
Palate
- roof of the oral cavity, consists of two parts: the anterior part contains bone and is called the
hard palate and the posterior portion consists of skeletal muscle and connective tissue and is
called the soft palate
- the uvula is a posterior extension of the soft palate
- functions of palate:
a. the palate separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity
b. prevents food from passing into the nasal cavity during chewing and swallowing
Tonsils
- are located in the lateral posterior walls of the oral cavity, in the nasopahrynx, and in the
posterior surface of the tongue
- they provide protection against pathogens and other potentially harmful material entering
from the nose and mouth
7. Pharynx/ Throat
- a funnel shaped tube that extends from the internal hares to the esophagus posterior and to
the larynx interiorly.
- composed of skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane
Three segments:
a. Oropahrynx
- opens into the oral cavity
- functions in both respiration and digestion
b. Laryngopharynx - function in respiration and opens into the larynx
c. Nasopahrynx - functions in respiration and opens into the nasal cavity
Deglutition
- the act of swallowing
- facilitated by saliva and mucus and involves the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
Three stages:
a. Voluntary Stage - bolus, or mass of food formed in the oral cavity is pushed by the tongue
against the hard palate, forcing the bolus toward the posterior part of the mouth and into
oropharynx
b. Pharyngeal Stage
- involuntary passage of bolus through the pharynx into the esophagus
- this phase of swallowing begins with the elevation of the soft palate, which closes the
passage b/n the nasopahrynx and oropharynx
c. Esophageal Stage
- involuntary passage of bolus through the esophagus into the stomach
- muscular contraction of the esophagus occurs in peristaltic waves
B. Alimentary Canal/ Digestive Tract
1. Esophagus
- a collapsible muscular tube that lies posterior to the trachea and the heart
- it serves as a dynamic passageway for food, pushing the food toward the stomach.
 - secretes mucus and transported into the stomach
- the upper and the lower ends are provided with esophageal sphincters that regulate the
movement of foods into and out of the esophagus
2. Stomach
- partially digestion of food
- where enzymatic digestion of proteins begins
Functions of the stomach:
a. mixed saliva, food, and, gastric juice to form chyme
b. reservoir for holding food before release into small intestine
c. secretes gastric juice, which contains HCI, pepsin, intrinsic factor, and gastric lipase.
d. HCI skills bacteria and denatures proteins.
Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins
Intrinsic factor aids absorption of vitamin B12
Gastric lipase aids digestion of triglycerides
e. secretes gastric into blood.
Rugae
- the mucosa lies in large folds when the stomach is empty
- the folds allow the mucosa and submucosa to stretch, and folds disappear as the stomach is filled
Segments
a. Anterior – cardiac – near the heart
b. Middle – fundus- the most superior part
- body – the largest part of the stomach w/c turns to the right, forming a greater curvature on
the right
c. Posterior – pylorus – the opening of the stomach to the small intestine
3. Small Intestine
- is about 6 meters long
- important in the digestion and absorption of nutrients, over 90% it takes
- the MUSCULAR of the small intestine consists of two layers of smooth muscle:
a. outer - Thinner layer contains longitudinal fibers
b. inner - Thicker layer contains circular fibers
- the mucosa is made up of simple columnar epithelium with four major cell types:
a. absorptive cells - have microvilli, produce digestive enzyme, and absorb digested food
b. goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
c. granular cells or Paneth cells – help protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria
d. endocrine cells- produce regulatory hormones
Functions:
a. Segmentations mixed chyme with digestive juices and bring food into contact with the mucosa for
absorption; peristalsis propels chyme through the small intestine.
b. Completes the digestion of the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, begins and complete the
digestion of nuclear acids.
c. Absorption of 99% of nutrients and water.
Segments:
a. Anterior – duodenum – about 25 cm long
b. Middle – jejunum – 2.5 m long
c. Posterior – ileum long – 3.5 meters
4. Large Intestines - attach to the posterior abdominal wall by its MESOCOLON, which is double
layer of peritoneum.
Functions of the large intestines:
a. Churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive the contents of the colon into the rectum.
b. Bacteria in the large intestine produce some B vitamins and vitamin K.
c. Absorption of ions, and vitamins.
d. Defecation (emptying the rectum)
e. Absorption of large quantity of water
Segments:
a. Cecum
- the anterior segment
 - attached to it is a vermiform structure – appendix
b. Colon
- middle segment
- the mucosal lining contains numerous straight tubular glands called crypts, w/c contain many
mucus-producing goblet cells
- consists of four parts:
a. ascending colon
b. transverse colon
c. descending colon
d. sigmoid colon
c. Rectum
- posterior segment w/c is straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination of the sigmoid
colon and ends at the anal canal
- the muscular tunic is smooth muscle and it is relatively thick in the rectum compared with the
rest of the digestive tract – temporarily store fecal matter
5. Anal canal
- the last 2-3 cm of the digestive tract
- it begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at the anu
- opening of the anal canal to the exterior
- guarded by an INTERNAL CANAL SPHINTER of the smooth muscle and an EXTERNAL
CANAL SPHINTER of the skeletal muscle.
C. Digestive Glands
1. Pancreas
- made up of small cluster of glandular epithelial cells
- lies posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach
- divided into:
a. Exocrine portion: Pancreatic acini – secrete pancreatic juice - a mixture of fluid and
digestive enzymes that empty into the small intestine via the pancreatic duct
b. Endocrine portion: Isles of Langerhans - secrete insulin – metabolism of carbohydrates
2. Liver
- heaviest gland of the body
- it is inferior to the diaphragm
- receives blood from two sources:
a. the hepatic artery – bring oxygen rich blood to the liver, w/c supplies the liver cells with
oxygen
b. hepatic portal vein – carries blood that is oxygen poor but rich in absorbed nutrient and
other substances from the digestive tract to the liver
c. hepatic vein – where blood exits the liver and empty into the inferior vena cava
- divided into:
a. right lobe - Large
b. left lobe – Small
- the right and left hepatic duct which transport bile out of the liver unite to form the common
hepatic duct
- the common hepatic duct is joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common
bile duct
- secretes about 700 mL of BILE each day
Gall Bladder - is a small sac on the inferior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile
Lobules - functional units where in the lobes of the liver are made up.
Jaundice - Disease in liver when bile’s enter the blood stream.
Cirrhosis- hardening of the liver
Hepatitis – inflammation of the liver
Functions of the liver:
1. perform important digestive and excretory functions
2. stores and process nutrients
3. synthesizes new molecules
4. detoxifies harmful chemicals
Bile
- partially and excretory product and partially a digestive organ
- Emulsification - Breakdown of large lipid globules into a suspension of droplet
secreted by the hepatic cells of the liver
- temporarily stored in the gall bladder via the cystic duct
Functions of the bile:
a. carbohydrates, lipid, and protein metabolism
b. processing of drugs and hormones
c. excretion of bilirubin (is a bile pigment that result from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
d. synthesis of bile salts
e. storage
f. activation of vitamin D
D. Valves of The Digestive System
1. Cardiac valve - located between the posterior end of the esophagus and the cardiac of the
stomach
2. Pyloric valve - located between the pylorus of the stomach and the duodenum of the small
intestine
3. Ileo-cecal valve - located between the ileum of the small intestine and the cecum of the large
intestine
Physiology of Digestion
1. Ingestion - the act of taking in food into the mouth
2. Digestion
a. mechanical
b. physical
c. chemical
3. Absorption - Entrance of ingested and secreted fluids, ions, and the small molecules that are
products of digestion in the epithelial cells lining the lumen of the GI tract
4. Circulation - Where in the nutrients are transported by the blood to the cells
5. Assimilation - incorporation of digested food into the protoplasm of the cell so that it will be use
as source of energy for their metabolic activities
6. Egestion - elimination of waste material or undigested food through the anus
The Major Digestive glands and Enzymes
Place of Source Secretion Enzyme Digestive Function
Digestion
Mouth Salivary glands Saliva Ptyalin/Salivary Begins
amylase carbohydrates
digestion;breakdown
starch into malrose

Mucous glands mucus lubricates

Esophagus Mucous glands Mucus lubricates

Stomach Gastric glands Gastric fluid Lipase Converts fats to fatty
acids and glycerol
Converts proteins to
pepsin polupeptides

Lubricates
Mucous glands Mucus
Small intestine Liver Bile Emulsifies fats:
activates lipase

Pancreas Pancreatic fluid Amylase Converts starch to

maltose & other
 disaccharides

Lipase Converts fats to fatty

acids and glycerol

Converts nucleic
Nuclease acids to
mononucleotides

Converts proteins to
Trypsin peptides and amino
acids

Converts
Intestinal glands Intestinal fluid Enterokinase trypsinogen to
trypsin

Converts lactose to
Lactase glucose and maltose

Converts maltose to
Maltase glucose

Converts sucrose to
Sucrase glucose & fructose

Mucous glands Lubricates

Mucus
Large intestine Mucous glands mucus Lubricates