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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia)

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35
Flinch, J. F., 2003, Structural evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena area
(Northern Colombia), in C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler, and J. Blickwede, eds.,
The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats,
basin formation, and plate tectonics: AAPG Memoir 79, p. 776 – 796.

Structural Evolution of the

Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area
(Northern Colombia)
J. F. Flinch
Total Exploration and Production, Centre Scientifique et Technique Jean Feger, Pau, France

ABSTRACT

T
he Lower Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia can be subdivided into
two very distinct structural provinces separated by the Romeral fault sys-
tem. The Sinu–San Jacinto Province, located west of the Romeral fault, is a
Paleocene to Oligocene accretionary wedge floored by Cretaceous oceanic crust.
The Plato–San Jorge Basin is a back-arc basin filled by Oligocene to Pliocene sedi-
ments. The basin is structured into several northwest-southeast-trending structural
highs and lows controlled by transtensional and transpressional faults that evolved
through geologic time. The basement of the Plato–San Jorge Basin is a Paleozoic
metamorphosed oceanic crust. Paleocene-Eocene siliciclastic series including shale,
sandstone, and mostly conglomerate and breccia unconformably overlie the base-
ment close to the Romeral fault. A widespread deltaic sandy section referred to as
Cienaga de Oro Formation overlies this section. The Cienaga de Oro sandstone
(locally, ‘‘Cicuco Limestone’’) represents the main reservoir of the area and is over-
lain by deep-water shale with interbedded sandstone (i.e., Porquero Formation).
The Sinu–San Jacinto area is the onshore part of the northern Colombia ac-
cretionary prism, related to the subduction of the Caribbean Plate underneath the
South American Plate. The onshore part of the wedge is dominated by west-vergent
imbricates involving Cretaceous oceanic crust (Cretaceous ophiolitic series) and
Cretaceous to Oligocene sediments. The Cretaceous sedimentary section (i.e., Can-
sona Formation) consists of organic-rich shale, limestone, and chert. The Paleocene-
Eocene section consists of deep-water shale and turbiditic sandstone, except in
the Tolú area where it is made up of shallow-water sandstone, conglomerate, and
reefal limestone (La Risa Reef). The Miocene section is composed mostly of flysch-
type deposits (i.e., Floresanto Flysch), which can be reservoir rock.
Seismic and geologic data suggest that the Romeral fault is a major strike-
slip fault that offsets the obduction suture.

REGIONAL SETTING ama) and southern Caribbean accretionary wedges

(Figure 1). The offshore northern Colombia basin is
The Sinu – Lower Magdalena area is located along floored by a 4- to 8-km-thick crust of the Caribbean
the intersection between the Central America (Pan- Oceanic Plateau (Bowland, 1993; Van der Hilst and

776
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 777

Figure 1. Tectonic sketch map of the Caribbean region, location of the study area. Modified from Case et al., 1990;
Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Muehlberger, 1992; Mauffret and Leroy, 1997; Meschede and Frisch, 1998. CB = Colombia
Basin, CC = Central Colombia, CT = Cayman Trough, GB = Grenada Basin, HE = Hess Escarpment, SJ = San Jacinto, VB =
Venezuela Basin, YB = Yucatán Basin, WC = Western Colombia.

Mann, 1994) that consists of complex basalt flows American Plates; 6.8 ± 0.2 cm/yr according to Van der
and sills with interbedded sedimentary rocks (Dris- Hilst and Mann (1994) and 3.5 cm/yr according to
coll and Diebold, 1999). The origin and age of the Kellogg and Vega (1995).
Caribbean Oceanic Plateau crust is still debatable. Seismicity suggests an eastward-dipping subduct-
The radiometric age of offshore northern Colombia ing slab defined from 50- to 250-km deep that stops
flood basalts (90– 75 Ma according to Mauffret and around the Santa Marta– Bucaramanga left-lateral
Leroy, 1997, or 91– 88 Ma according to Sinton et al., strike-slip fault. A cluster of deep-focus earthquakes
1998) is used to date the age of the Oceanic Plateau. is associated with this fault. Earthquake first mo-
According to some authors, the Caribbean Oceanic tions reflect the change from subduction below the
Plateau crust originated near the Galapagos Hot Spot Plato –San Jorge Basin to strike-slip along the Santa
in the Pacific (Mauffret and Leroy, 1997) and for others Marta–Bucaramanga fault (Kellogg and Bonini, 1982;
has an Intra Plate in situ origin in Central America Malavé and Suarez, 1995 ). Seismic tomography allows
(Meschede and Frisch, 1998). The oceanic crust of differentiation of two different segments of the Carib-
the northern Colombian basin is thought to be of bean subducting slab. The southern Bucaramanga slab
pre-Coniacian age (Case et al., 1990). The present rate dips 508 SE, and the northern Maracaibo slab dips 178
of convergence between the Caribbean and South SSE (Van der Hilst and Mann, 1994).
American Plates is about 1.3 ± 0.3 cm/yr (Van der The Panama accretionary wedge is characterized
Hilst and Mann, 1994) or 1.5 cm/yr (Kellogg and Vega, by northward-vergent imbricates, mud volcanoes,
1995). There are large discrepancies in the present minor directional faults, and by the presence of gas
motion between the subducting Nazca and the South hydrates (Reed et al. 1990, Westbrook et al., 1995).
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778 / Flinch

Slope tectonics, mostly characterized by active slump- migration of the magmatic arc as the continent was
ing, as well as active seismicity, characterize the pres- growing by lateral accretion.
ent activity of this wedge (Vitali et al., 1985).
STRATIGRAPHY

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN COLOMBIA The stratigraphy of the study area varies laterally
from west to east and is strongly controlled by the
The tectonic map of northern Colombia (Figure 2) tectonic evolution of the active margin (Duque-Caro,
shows the migration of magmatic arcs (from Juras- 1979). The stratigraphy of this part of northern Co-
sic to Paleogene) and accreted ophiolitic terranes lombia can be subdivided into the Plato – San Jorge
(i.e., Jurassic and Cretaceous ophiolitic series). The Basin to the east and the Sinu – San Jacinto Province
map also shows the Sinu –San Jacinto accretionary to the west (Figure 4).
wedge with related piggyback basins separated from
the Plato – San Jorge Basin by the Romeral fault. No- Stratigraphy of the Plato–San Jorge Basin
tice that a zone of inversion structures is associated
with the Romeral fault (Figure 2). Notice also the ma- Basement
jor displacement of the Santa Marta–Bucaramanga The basement of the Plato – San Jorge Basin, Aya-
strike-slip fault that accounts for more than 100 km pel, Balsamo, and Sucre areas, is quite different from
of left-lateral offset, if we take the edge of the Juras- the oceanic basement of the Sinu – San Jacinto area.
sic strata as a reference. In the geologic map (Figure 3), In this eastern domain, the basement is metamor-
the Jurassic and Cretaceous ophiolitic units have phic and older in age than in the west. The oldest
been separated as well. The basement of the Plato – rocks exposed are Precambrian granulite, migmatite,
San Jorge Basin consists of Precambrian and Paleozoic amphibolite, and biotite gneiss. Paleozoic high-grade
metamorphic rocks. Locally, Lower Cretaceous sedi- metamorphic rocks consisting of granitic orthogneiss,
ments overlie the deformed basement. These strongly hornblende- and biotite-bearing gneiss, and migma-
deformed Cretaceous strata bounded by basement tite overlie this section. Green-schist facies metamor-
faults can be attributed to the inversion of normal- phic rocks consisting of amphibolite, micaceous and
fault-bounded Cretaceous basins. Jurassic sediments, actinolitic schist, quartzite, and marble top the Paleo-
obducted ophiolitic rocks, and granites occupy the zoic section (Ingeominas, 1997). Lower Jurassic grano-
eastern part of the geologic map (Figure 3). They diorites and other granitoids intrude these metamor-
represent the Jurassic oceanic crust and its overly- phic terranes. In the southern part of the study area,
ing pelagic section structurally emplaced above the the metamorphic and magmatic basement is over-
Paleozoic basement. Close to the Santa Marta – lain by Lower Cretaceous serpentinized peridotite,
Bucaramanga fault, the structure of the Middle Mag- gabbros, pillow lava, and basalt. South of the study
dalena Valley consists of a set of inverted Oligocene- area, the metamorphic basement is overlain by in-
Miocene basins located at the front of the Central terbedded shale, sandstone, conglomerate, and lime-
Cordillera. Farther to the north, only Miocene and stone of Cretaceous age.
Pliocene to Pleistocene fluvial-alluvial sediments are
exposed on the surface. The western part of the Plato– Cienaga de Oro Formation
San Jorge area is occupied by large basement-involved The Cienaga de Oro Formation is exposed along the
inversion structures similar in age and geometry to northwestern San Jorge Basin. The base of this unit
those located west of the Santa Marta –Bucaramanga consists of conglomerate, mostly quartzite, quartz,
fault in the Middle Magdalena Valley. North of the lidite, and igneous rocks. Most of this unit is made
Monteria area (Figures 3 and 4), the contact between up of well-bedded, varicolored quartz sandstone,
the Sinu – San Jacinto fold belts and the Plato Basin is locally conglomeratic, with interbedded limy silt-
the Romeral fault system (Duque-Caro, 1979). South stone, carbonaceous and silty shale and occasional
of Uraba, the Cretaceous ophiolitic units are involved limestone and coal beds, limy-sandstone, and lime-
in the deformation and are intruded by Paleogene stone. The Cienaga de Oro formation was deposited
granites. The structure of this area is characterized in a deltaic to shallow-water sedimentary environ-
by thrust imbricates and related folds (Duque-Caro, ment and is considered to be Oligocene – lower Mio-
1979). In the Lower Magdalena area, the granites are cene in age (Reyes-Harker et al., 2000, Reyes-Santos
younger toward the west, indicating the westward et al., 2000) (Figure 5a). It constitutes a wedge-shaped
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 779

Figure 2. Tectonic map of northern Colombia, based on surface geological data from Ingeominas (1997) and sub-
surface data from this study. The location of Jurassic and Cretaceous ophiolites, magmatic arcs, and the accretionary
wedge are indicated. The Santa Marta – Bucaramanga strike-slip fault and the inversion zone associated with the
Romeral fault are the main structural features of the area.
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780 / Flinch

Figure 3. Geologic map of northern Colombia. Surface geological data were modified from Ingeominas (1997).
Main thrust faults and structural highs were added to the geologic map based on seismic data from this study.
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 781

Figure 4. West-to-east chrono-lithostratigraphic chart from the Uraba foredeep (offshore) to the Plato subbasin
(onshore). This chart is based on well-log data from Ecopetrol and surface data from numerous authors. Notice
the major stratigraphic changes across the Romeral and Uranita faults.

shelf-edge unit with a thickness range of between 600 ate with occasional interbeds of sandy and silty gray-
to 1000 m. Isopach maps confirm the wedge shape of blue fossiliferous shale. Conglomerates are well-sorted
this unit, which pinches out towards the east. and rounded and contain boulders of quartz and lidite.
The Sincelejo unit has an average thickness of 700 m,
Porquero Formation and it is interpreted as a continental unit of upper
The Porquero Formation consists of gray-greenish Miocene age (Reyes-Harker et al., 2000) (Figure 5a).
silty and carbonaceous shale, lutites, and siltstone
with occasional interbeds of lenticular sandstone. Corpa Formation
This unit conformably overlies the Cienaga de Oro The Pliocene to Pleistocene Corpa Formation con-
Formation and is locally referred to as the Porquero sists of gray shale and siltstone with occasional in-
flysch. The lower part of this unit contains upper terbeds of sandstone and conglomerate bounded by
Oligocene –lower Miocene deep-water fauna, sug- major unconformities (Reyes-Santos et al., 2000).
gesting a deep-water environment (Figure 5a). The The Pleistocene strata consist of alluvial deposits and
upper part of the section consists of carbonaceous fluvial terraces.
shale with interbedded sandstone and coal. This
upper middle Miocene unit represents mostly delta- Stratigraphy of the Sinu–San Jacinto Area
plain sediments.
Basement
Sincelejo/Tubara Formation The basement of the Sinu–San Jacinto accretionary
The Sincelejo or Tubara Formation unconformably complex is exposed west of Uraba, along the Isthmus
overlies the Porquero Formation. This upper Miocene of Panama, and locally in the southern part of the
unit consists of cross-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained Monteria region (Ingeominas, 1997) (see Figure 3).
sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone, and conglomer- The basement consists of Upper Cretaceous gabbro,
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Figure 5. Composite idealized stratigraphic columns of the study area. (a) Plato – San Jorge Basin. This column illus-
trates the main Neogene units that unconformably overlie the Paleozoic basement. (b) Sinu – San Jacinto area. This
idealized section of the Sinu – San Jacinto area shows the Cenozoic turbiditic to shallow-water section that constitutes
the Sinu accretionary wedge and related piggyback basins. This Cenozoic section unconformably overlies the Cretaceous
oceanic basement and its deep-water cover. (c) Uraba area. This idealized column illustrates the sedimentary filling of
the flexural basin that overlies the oceanic crust and a volcaniclastic unit of probable Eocene age.

basalt, and pillow lava, intruded by Paleocene monzo- Carreto Formations. The Paleocene section is well-
diorite, monzonite, sienite, and gabbro. These oceanic exposed in the Tolú area, where it consists of normally
crust deposits are unconformably overlain by the vol- graded sequences of fine-grained sandstone, siliceous
caniclastic facies of the Barroso Formation. This unit siltstone, and gray shale of the San Cayetano Forma-
consists of basalt and diabase interbedded with sand- tion (Duque-Caro and Guzmán, 1995) (Figure 5b).
stone and conglomerate that represent reworked vol- The Paleocene siliciclastic section is overlain by Eo-
canic rocks and volcano-sedimentary deposits. cene platform carbonates of the La Risa Formation,
consisting mostly of reefal limestone. The Lorica-1
Cretaceous-Paleogene well encountered 3000 m of middle Eocene Chengue
The Cretaceous sedimentary section unconform- Formation, which consists of interbedded gray-to-
ably overlies the basalt, green-schist, gabbro, and pil- brownish silty mudstone, marl, and fine- to coarse-
low lava of the oceanic crust. The lowermost Creta- grained, subangular to subrounded gray sandstone.
ceous sedimentary unit is Coniacian in age and is Occasional fine-grained, quartz-rich sandstone inter-
locally referred to as the Cansona Formation; it is vals are common in the upper part of the section.
time equivalent with and has similar facies as the La Stratigraphic variations in the Eocene section be-
Luna Formation of Venezuela. The Cansona Forma- tween the Tolú and Lorica areas suggest strong fa-
tion consists of lidite, chert, and limestone inter- cies changes in the Sinu area. In the Uraba region, a
bedded with pelagic organic-rich shale and siltstone. thick volcaniclastic unit of probable Eocene age un-
The organic-rich shaly section constitutes the Finca conformably overlies the oceanic crust (Figure 5c).
Vieja Member of the Cansona Formation (Figure 5b).
The Cansona Formation can reach 150 m of thick- Oligocene-Miocene
ness in the San Jacinto area (Duque-Caro, 1973). The Neogene sediments are widespread in the Sinu –
Upper Cretaceous section constitutes a deepening- San Jacinto area (Duque-Caro, 1972). Most of the
upward section that is overlain by Paleocene –middle Neogene units are exposed on the surface and also
Eocene hemipelagic shale with interbedded turbidi- were penetrated by several exploratory wells. The
tic sandstones and conglomerates of the San Cayetano/ Oligocene section is composed mostly of shale with
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 783

occasional interbeds of sandstone in the onshore STRUCTURE

area (Ingeominas, 1997). The Oligocene – lower Mio-
cene Floresanto Formation consists of deep-water The structure of the Sinu – Lower Magdalena area
turbiditic sandstone, limestone, sandy-claystone, and from the foreland to the hinterland can be sub-
pelagic shale with occasional thin-bedded conglom- divided into: the Uraba flexural basin, the Sinu – San
erate (Figure 5b). The upper Miocene Paujil Forma- Jacinto accretionary wedge, and the Plato – San Jorge
tion consists of sandstone and conglomerate inter- Basin. Figure 7 is an east-west-trending sketch of a
bedded with shale and occasional siltstone that rep- depth section showing the lateral contacts and
resent shallow-water beach deposits. internal structure of these units.

Pliocene and Pleistocene Uraba Basin

The Pliocene Corpa Formation consists of gray shale The region of Uraba is occupied by an Oligocene
and siltstone with occasional interbeds of sandstone to Pliocene flexural basin that unconformably over-
and conglomerate. They represent fluvio-deltaic fa- lies the deformed oceanic basement of the Panama
cies in the west and fluvial-alluvial facies in the east. accretionary wedge, also referred to as the Northern
Offshore sedimentation during the Pliocene and Panama folded belt (Reed et al., 1990; Vitali et al.,
Pleistocene was controlled by the shifting of the Mag- 1985). A thick volcaniclastic unit encountered by
dalena River delta, the Sinu River delta, and probably several wells (i.e., Apartado-1, Uraba-1, and Chigor-
another major fluvial system located along the odo-1) unconformably overlies the acoustic base-
southern Uraba region. Seismic data have provided ment formed by oceanic crustal rocks (Ingeominas,
evidence for the presence of a major Pleistocene 1997). Seismic data suggest the presence of imbri-
deep-sea fan located north of Cartagena and south of cates in the basement that are overprinted by nor-
the present Magdalena delta (Kolla et al., 1984). The mal faults with half-graben geometries (see Figures 7,
present sea-bottom morphology of this area sug- 8, and 9). The relationship between the half-graben
gests the presence of Pleistocene to present channel- structures and the volcaniclastic deposits is not clear.
levee complexes and meandering channel systems The foredeep section grades from Oligocene deep-
(Pirmez, et al. 1998). The Holocene Magdalena fan water facies to shallow-water siliciclastic Pleistocene
developed to the north of its present mouth and is sediments. Nearly north-south trending, dominantly
dominated by mass wasting and erosion. The most west-vergent anticlines, with local backthusts involv-
recent sea-level rise coupled with tectonic activity ing the Neogene section of the Uraba Basin, represent
(Pirmez et al., 1998) apparently induced this switch the leading edge of the Sinu accretionary wedge. The
of the Magdalena fan from the south to the north. structure of the Uraba Basin is illustrated by cross
Major sediment supply to the area was triggered by sections shown in Figures 8 and 9.
the uplift of the Andes mountains since the Mio-
cene, a process that still is active today. The Sinu–San Jacinto Accretionary Wedge
Historically, this area has been separated into the
Stratigraphy of the Uraba Basin Sinu folded belt and the San Jacinto folded belt.
The Uraba Basin is a Neogene basin located east of From a structural point of view, both areas belong to
the Panama isthmus and is made up of a thick Oli- the southern Caribbean accretionary wedge that ex-
gocene to Holocene siliciclastic section floored by tends from Uraba to Venezuela along the Caribbean
Cretaceous oceanic crust. Upper Cretaceous basalt margin, but from a stratigraphic point of view, the
and gabbro of the Caribbean oceanic crust consti- San Jacinto area is characterized by surface expo-
tute the basement of the Uraba Basin. The basement sures of Cretaceous strata (older rocks than in the
is locally overlain by a volcaniclastic unit of pre- Sinu area). The leading edge of the Sinu accretionary
sumed Eocene age (Figure 5c). The clastic section wedge is represented by the Uramita fault. The Ura-
begins with deep-water shale and occasional inter- mita fault is interpreted here as a west-vergent thrust,
beds of sandstone of probable turbiditic origin(?). but other authors (Duque-Caro, 1984, 1990; Ruiz
This lower unit may be Eocene and mostly Oligo- et al., 2000) interpret this structure as a right-lateral
cene in age and represents a shallowing-upward sed- transpressional fault. As in all accretionary wedges,
imentary cycle. The Miocene section is composed the inner parts of the prism involve older rocks than
of shallow-water sandstone, shale, and occasional in- the more external parts of the prism, which involve
terbeds of coal and conglomerate (Figure 5c). younger rocks (see Figures 7 and 10). According to
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784 / Flinch

this interpretation, the San Jacinto province repre- deep-water onlap of the Porquero Formation onto
sents the inner part of the wedge where Cretaceous the Cienaga de Oro shelfal unit. This lower Miocene
and mostly Paleocene deformed strata are exposed. subsidence event marked the beginning of a well-
On the contrary, the Sinu area represents the ex- differentiated back-arc basin in that area.
posed younger part of the prism that consists mostly
of Eocene and Oligocene imbricates overlain by Mio- Regional Transects
cene piggyback basins. Some authors (Laverde, 2000) The structure of the Lower Magdalena area can be
emphasize the role of cross-cutting strike-slip faults illustrated by a series of east-to-west-trending com-
in the Sinu San Jacinto area. posite seismic sections. Figure 6 shows the location
The geologic maps of the Monteria area (Figure 3) of the seismic transects and the depth section (Fig-
display the complex imbrication of the accretionary ure 7). Two transects run through the Uraba Basin
wedge and the geometry and age of the overlying and show the relationship between this basin and
piggyback basins. the frontal part of the Sinu accretionary wedge. The
other transects display the internal structure of the
Plato–San Jorge Basin accretionary wedge that dominates the classical
A complex fault zone, referred to in the literature Sinu–San Jacinto area and its contact with the Plato–
as the Romeral fault, separates the complex imbri- San Jorge Basin; that is, the Romeral fault. The tran-
cated zone of the Sinu – San Jacinto area (i.e., the sects proceed from south to north (from the Uraba
inner accretionary wedge) from the Plato –San Jorge area to the Santero area).
Basin. This fault system has a long and complex
structural history of extension and compression and, Uraba-Monteria Transect
probably, strike-slip. The Ayapel, Balsamo, and Sucre This transect is a composite dip profile that il-
areas belong to the so-called Plato – San Jorge Basin, lustrates the geometry of the Uraba flexural basin
which is a Neogene basin underlain by a structurally and its contact with the Sinu accretionary wedge
complex metamorphic basement of continental affin- (Figure 8). The transect displays half-graben features
ity. The San Jorge subbasin in the south is separated overlying the basement. In the western part of the
from the Plato subbasin in the north by the Mag- Uraba Basin, inversion structures evolved on the
angue High. This structural high is characterized by faulted oceanic basement. A basal volcaniclastic unit
northwest-southeast-trending normal faults. The is overlain by an Oligocene to Pliocene sedimentary
basement consists of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks wedge. This foredeep section directly overlies the
and is intruded by granodiorites of the so-called An- deformed basement. The leading edge of the Sinu
tioqueño batholith, which is exposed around the accretionary wedge is represented by a west-vergent
Medellı́n region. These rocks constitute Paleozoic ac- thrust, locally referred to as the Uramita fault. The
creted terranes sutured since the Paleozoic to the Chigorodo-1 well drilled a thrust-ramp anticline as-
western margin of South America (Restrepo-Pace, sociated with the Uramita fault. The internal struc-
1992; Duque-Caro, 1990). The structure of the Plato – ture of the Sinu accretionary wedge is characterized
San Jorge area consists of fault-bounded blocks and by thin-skinned west-vergent thrusting defined by
listric normal faults (Reyes-Santos et al., 2000). Reyes- a Cretaceous décollement. Upper Eocene to Mio-
Harker et al., (2000) interpret part of the Plato – San cene piggyback basins overlie the underlying wedge
Jorge area between the Bucaramanga and Ariguani- imbricates.
Algarrobo Faults as being a pull-apart basin since the
late Eocene. Oligocene transtension was, according Uraba Transect
to these authors, associated with the Romeral and Pal- This transect (Figure 9) illustrates the frontal thrust
estina Faults. The Neogene basin that overlies this of the Sinu accretionary wedge, locally referred to as
basement can be interpreted as a back-arc basin that the Uramita fault. The Uraba transect shows the ge-
alternated between transtension and transpression ometry of the Uraba Basin and the contact with the
and was controlled by large half-graben geometries Sinu accretionary wedge in the Monteria area. Large-
and strike-slip faults. Basement-involved thrust struc- scale folding affects the Neogene section and proba-
tures and positive inversion structures are common bly involves the oceanic basement. The well Neco-
in the Sucre and Ayapel regions of the Plato – San cli-1 was drilled on the flank of this major fold. Nor-
Jorge Basin. Initial basement-involved thrusting in mal faults affect the basement and the volcaniclastic
the Plato – San Jorge subbasins was marked by a major cover of the Uraba Basin. West of the Uramita fault
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 785

Figure 6. Location map of

seismic transects and depth
section.

(the leading edge of the Sinu

accretionary wedge), the Neo-
gene anticlinorium is over-
lain by Paleocene shale of
the wedge. Piggyback basins
of lower Miocene to Pliocene
age are superimposed on the
wedge imbricates of domi-
nantly Paleocene-Oligocene
age.

Monteria to
Ayapel Transect
Figure 10 is a seismic tran-
sect that extends from the
offshore area to the Plato sub-
basin and illustrates the ge-
ometry of the accretionary
wedge and related piggyback
basins. Seismic data suggest
that most of the supra-wedge
basins are thrust-related pig-
gyback basins, but some may
be controlled by normal fault-
ing and shale diapirism (El
Arbi and Kellogg, 1992). The
western (offshore) part of the
transect consists of Oligocene
imbricates overlain by a thick
Miocene to Pleistocene sedimentary wedge, dominat- verted half-graben structures. East of this major con-
ed by Pliocene-Pleistocene clastic sediments. The La tact, the structure is characterized by inverted half-
Risa-1 well was drilled at the edge of a piggyback grabens filled by Eocene(?) volcaniclastic rocks (recog-
basin floored by Cretaceous and Paleocene imbri- nized in the well Puerta Negra-1) and the Oligocene
cates. The internal structure of the wedge is complex Cienaga de Oro Formation.
and is defined by the structural stacking of several
décollement levels. In the southern Monteria area,
piggyback basins overlying the accretionary wedge Monteria to Ayapel Transect through
are Oligocene and Miocene in age. The central part of Purgatorio Quarry
this transect is occupied by thick Oligocene deposits Figure 11 is a transect subparallel to the previous
drilled by the Arboletes-1 and South Cordoba-1 wells. one that runs through the Purgatorio Quarry, where
The contact between the Sinu –San Jacinto accre- organic-rich strata of the Upper Cretaceous Cansona
tionary wedge and the basement-involved units of Formation are exposed on the surface. Figure 12 is a
the Plato subbasin (Sucre and Ayapel regions) are seismic enlargement of the Purgatorio Quarry area
clearly shown on this transect. The Romeral fault is that illustrates basement-involved imbricates of oce-
not well-imaged in this seismic section but separates anic affinity. The section shows a major angular un-
zones of two very distinct structural styles: accretion- conformity located at the contact between the oce-
ary wedge imbricates from basement-involved in- anic crust and the Cretaceous sedimentary section.
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786 / Flinch

Figure 7. (a) Depth cross section from Uraba to Ayapel southern onshore Sinu area (present-day). (b) Hypothetical
reconstruction with top Oligocene – lower Miocene datum (after Flinch et al., 2000). This cross section shows the thrust
contact between the obducted oceanic crust and the continental basement offset by the Romeral fault. The contact
between the Sinu – San Jacinto accretionary wedge and the Uraba foredeep also is displayed.

Figure 8. Seismic line drawing of transect from Uraba to Monteria area. This transect illustrates the contact between
the Uraba Basin and the accretionary wedge at the Monteria area, represented by the Uramita fault. The Chigorodo well
encountered most of the foredeep section represented by basal volcaniclastic rocks overlain by deep- to shallow-water
siliciclastic Oligocene to Pleistocene sediments bounded by major onlap surfaces.
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 787

Figure 9. Seismic transect

through the Uraba Basin. This
section shows the faulted-block
geometry of the Uraba oceanic
basement and the contact with
the accretionary wedge. A ma-
jor unconformity, characterized
by truncation below and onlap
above, separates the upper Mio-
cene from the Pliocene section.

Notice the complex geome-

try of the basement caused
mostly by basement-involved
thrusting but also by irregu-
lar topography, possibly re-
lated to seamounts, as in pres-
ent oceanic basins. The tran-
sect illustrates the complex
imbricated geometry of the
accretionary wedge. The struc-
ture of the wedge seems to be controlled by two
décollement levels, one in the oceanic crust, and the Ayapel Transect
other perhaps in the Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene This transect (Figure 14) runs through the Jobo-
shale section. Surface geologic maps (Ingeominas, Tablón field in the Ayapel area. The structure of this
1997) also support the presence of two décollement area is characterized by basement-involved thrust-
levels. Figure 13 is a seismic section that illustrates ing that was succeeded by normal faulting. Inver-
the contact between the Sinu–San Jacinto wedge and sion of Oligocene normal faults occurred adjacent to
the Plato–San Jorge Basin, which are separated by the Romeral fault system. The contact between the
the Romeral fault. basement of the Plato Basin and the basement of

Figure 10. Seismic transect from Monteria to Ayapel area. The contact between the Sinu accretionary wedge floored
by oceanic crust and the Plato – San Jorge Basin is well-shown in this transect. Notice the role of the Romeral fault system
that offsets the thrust of the Cretaceous oceanic crust above the Paleozoic continental basement of the San Jorge Basin
(obduction contact).
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788 / Flinch

Figure 11. Seismic transect from Monteria to Ayapel through Purgatorio. This transect shows the inversion structures
related to the Romeral fault system that cross-cut the obduction contact, and the relationship between the oceanic
crust and its sedimentary cover.

the Sinu accretionary wedge is not well-imaged by mittently from the lower Miocene to the Pliocene in
the seismic data. The Sinu prism is characterized by the Plato – San Jorge area.
Cretaceous to Oligocene west-vergent imbricates. A
major onlap separates the Cienaga de Oro Oligocene Sucre Transect
formation from the lower Miocene Porquero Forma- The transect of Figure 15 runs through the Sucre
tion. Several major angular unconformities suggest area in the Plato Basin and illustrates the basement-
that basement-involved thrusting took place inter- involved structural style of this province. The transect

Figure 12. Seismic section through the Purgatorio Quarry area. The major truncation surface shown by the section is inter-
preted as the top of the oceanic crust, which is overlain here by the Cansona Formation (i.e., the major source rock of the area).
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 789

shows prominent structural highs and normal faults

in the distal part of the basin. A major onlap surface

Figure 13. Seismic section of the contact between the Sinu – San Jacinto wedge and the Plato Basin. The seismic section shows the east-vergent thrust,
defines a major angular unconformity and suggests
that major subsidence began in the lower Miocene
and was defined by deep-water turbiditic facies above
shallow-water sandstones and carbonates. Wells were
drilled at the crests of major basement-involved anti-
clines. The transect suggests that Pliocene or even
Pleistocene compression has affected this area.

interpreted here as the obduction suture. This section also illustrates inversion structures associated with the Romeral fault system.
Santero to Sucre Transect
This transect (Figure 16) runs from the state bor-
der of Sucre in the San Jorge Basin to the Tolú area.
The transect illustrates the structure of the Santero
area, where the Tolú exploration wells are located.
The southeastern part of the transect illustrates nor-
mal faults affecting the basement of the basin. The
central part is affected by basement-involved com-
pressional and inversion structures that have dis-
rupted the apparent extensional geometry of the ba-
sin. Major inversion occurred in the Tirón –Nueva
Granada area (where the Tiron oil field is located).
The transect also illustrates the major unconformity
between the Cienaga de Oro prekinematic unit and
the overlying synkinematic Neogene strata (Porque-
ro Formation). The contact between the Paleozoic
basement and the Sinu accretionary prism, the Rom-
eral fault, is not obvious from the seismic line. West
of this zone, the structure of the prism is character-
ized by west-vergent thrust imbricates involving
Cretaceous to Oligocene strata and related piggyback
basins that are filled by Miocene to Pliocene sedi-
ments. The Tolú basin is, in fact, a piggyback basin
floored by Cretaceous oceanic crust with a thin Cre-
taceous sedimentary cover, the Cansona Formation.
Oligocene flysch and Pliocene shallow-water siliciclas-
tic sediments overlie Eocene limestone and shallow-
water sandstone.

STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION

The Sinu – Lower Magdalena area underwent a

complex tectonic evolution of obduction and accre-
tion since the Cretaceous, in the context of B-type
subduction of the Caribbean and South American
Plates (Case et al., 1990; Mann, 1999). Structural styles
are strongly different on either side of the Romeral
fault system. Several isopach maps and the regional
transects, as well as a reconstructed section in depth
(Figure 7), were made in order to understand this
complex tectonic evolution.
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790 / Flinch

Figure 14. Seismic line drawing through the Ayapel area through the Jobo-Tablon field. This transect shows the east-
vergent basement-involved thrust that characterizes the Plato – San Jorge area. A major onlap surface separates the
Oligocene from the lower Miocene section, suggesting the beginning of thrusting. Growth strata above thrust-related
anticlines extends up to the upper Miocene.

Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene American continent. Across most of the study area,

the Romeral fault represents the contact between
During the Coniacian, deep-water, organic-rich accreted Paleozoic basement and the Cretaceous
shaly limestone and chert overlay basalt and gabbros oceanic crustal rocks with their overlying sedimen-
comprising oceanic crust. Deep-water sediments, most- tary section. South of the Uraba area, the thick Upper
ly shale with occasional turbiditic sandstone, were de- Cretaceous –Paleocene section pinched out against
posited during the Paleocene. This deep-water section the emergent oceanic basement of the Central Cor-
was deposited west of the paleo-Romeral fault sys- dillera. The Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene section
tem. No deposition took place east of that position. may have been deposited in a trench setting related
By that time, basement comprised of Paleozoic gab- to the subduction of the Caribbean Plate underneath
bros, mafic crystalline rocks, basalt, and metamor- the South American Plate. The Paleocene isopach
phosed deep-water facies was already accreted to the map suggests the emplacement of a north-northwest–
South American continent (Restrepo-Pace, 1992). This south-southeast-trending oceanic ridge. Figure 17 is
Paleozoic accreted terrane was being intruded by gra- a block diagram that illustrates the Sinu –Lower Mag-
nitic batholiths and was incorporated into the South dalena area during the Paleocene.

Figure 15. Seismic line drawing in Sucre state, Bajo Cauca area. This transect illustrates the geometry of the Plato Basin
stratigraphic units. Along the eastern flank of the basin, the Pliocene-Pleistocene section onlaps above the tilted
(westward-dipping) Oligocene to lower Miocene section.
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 791

Figure 16. Seismic transect from the Sucre area to the Tolú Basin (Santero area). This transect shows the structure
of the accretionary wedge and the oceanic basement imbricates at the Tolú area. Major inversion structures occur at the
westward flank of the Plato Basin.

Figure 17. Block diagram

reconstruction of the Sinu –
Lower Magdalena area during
the Paleocene. Transpressional
activity at the Romeral fault is
indicated.
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792 / Flinch

Figure 18. Block diagram

reconstruction of the Sinu –
Lower Magdalena area during
the Eocene. Transtension at
the Romeral fault is coeval
with thrusting at the flysch
dominated accretionary
wedge.

cess of 3000-m-deep formed

in the Arboletes –South Cor-
doba area (see Figure 12). Pal-
inspastic reconstructions of
seismic data suggest a wedge-
type geometry in this area
during the Oligocene (Fig-
ure 19). While accretion was
taking place in the west (Sinu–
San Jacinto area), east-west-
trending normal faulting and
strike-slip deformation(?) was
taking place in the Sucre and
Ayapel areas (Plato–San Jorge
subbasin) in an overall trans-
tensional regime. Pull-apart
activity in the Plato–San Jorge
Basin may have started dur-
ing the Eocene (Reyes-Harker
et al., 2000, Reyes-Santos et al.,
2000). Oligocene transtension
has been suggested, based
on seismic data along the
Romeral and Palestina Faults
(Reyes-Harker et al., 2000).

Upper Eocene–Oligocene Miocene

A thick volcaniclastic unit was deposited above During the Miocene, the piggyback basin fill
the Cretaceous oceanic crust in the Uraba area. This changed from marine to transitional and finally to
thick unit may be related to the northern Panama continental deposits. Shallow-water to continental
accretionary wedge or to an island arc located be- deposition in the east was coeval with deep water
tween the Panama and northern Colombia prisms. deposition in the west, in the vicinity of the present
Similar volcaniclastic rocks were deposited in a half- shoreline of the Caribbean Sea. The uplift of the ac-
graben in the southern region. Figure 18 is a sketch- cretionary wedge resulted in a major regression or
block diagram of the study area during the Eocene. seaward shift of facies.
According to surface geologic data, the base of the East of the Romeral fault system, a north-south-
piggyback basins may be as old as upper Eocene in trending basement-involved thrust system developed
age (Ingeominas, 1997), and well log data suggest along with major inversion of preexisting half-graben
that the accretionary wedge is overlain by upper structures. Lower Miocene inversion has been re-
Eocene to Miocene piggyback basins. Deposition ported along the Ariguani-Algarrobo fault system
in these basins was mostly turbiditic as late as the (Reyes-Harker et al., 2000). Upper Miocene compres-
middle Miocene, when it became transitional to con- sion also is interpreted from seismic data (Reyes-
tinental. A large Oligocene flysch depocenter in ex- Santos et al., 2000). Northwest-southeast-trending
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 793

Figure 19. Block diagram

reconstruction of the Sinu –
Lower Magdalene area during
the Oligocene. Transtension
along the Plato – San Jorge Ba-
sin is coeval with thrusting at
the flysch-dominated accre-
tionary wedge and the devel-
opment of the Uraba flexural
basin.

Oligocene normal faults were

inverted during the Miocene,
so areas that were low during
the Oligocene became high
areas during the Miocene.
Basement-involved, doubly
vergent thrusting in the east
was coeval with thin-skinned
thrusting in the west.

Pliocene-present
Since the Pliocene, sedi-
mentary depocenters shifted
toward the offshore. A major
regression was responsible
for a rapid facies change
from coastal to marine sedi-
ments to marginal marine
and eventually to continen-
tal sediments. The shallowing-
upward sequences that re-
sulted from this regression can be seen clearly along transport direction (i.e., the Tolú ridge). The nature
piggyback basins of the Floresanto area (see Figures 2 of the contact between the Plato – San Jorge Basin
and 3, and transects in Figures 8 –11 and 14 –16). and the Sinu Prism also is not clear and is discussed
Widespread fluvial-alluvial deposition represented in the next section.
by the continental Corpa Formation took place along
both sides of the Romeral fault. Compression and The Accretionary Wedge and
inversion took place close to the Romeral fault, as Related Piggyback Basins
seen in the Tiron field (Reyes Santos et al., 2000). Seismic and surface data suggest that piggyback
basins developed from the upper Eocene to the
upper Miocene. Most of these basins initially were
DISCUSSION filled by deep-water sediments (flysch) until the
middle Miocene, and then by transitional to conti-
The seismic transects, depth sections, and tenta- nental (‘‘molassic’’) deposits. The presence of paral-
tive reconstructed section (Figure 7) illustrate the lel and very widespread Oligocene turbiditic sand-
complex structure of the study area. The evolution of stones in the Floresanto area may suggest the pres-
the Sinu – San Jacinto accretionary wedge can be ence of an Oligocene foreland basin that was later
traced by the shifting of sedimentary depocenters. deformed. This hypothesis is consistent with the re-
This apparent migration toward the offshore area was construction shown in Figure 8, and it would imply a
disrupted by lateral ramps and by the emplacement younger age for the piggyback basins located above
of oceanic basement ridges oblique to the thrust the accretionary wedge. The shifting of sedimentary
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794 / Flinch

Figure 20. Diagram illustrat-

ing the concept of blocked
subduction applied to north-
ern Colombia. Obduction of
the proto-Caribbean oceanic
crust during the Upper Creta-
ceous is followed by Neogene
subduction and accretion,
which is still active today.

two very different structur-

al styles. Thin-skinned de-
tachment thrusting existed
west of the Romeral fault
(Sinu –San Jacinto accretion-
ary wedge), consisting of de-
formed Upper Cretaceous–
Paleocene trench deposits.
This was coeval with base-
ment-involved deformation
east of the Romeral fault sys-
tem (Plato–San Jorge Basin).
Regardless of the major role
played by the Romeral fault,
seismic and surface data sug-
gest that the Romeral fault is
not the suture between ob-
ducted Cretaceous ophiolit-
ic units with Paleozoic con-
tinental basement. Seismic
depocenters reflects the westward migration of the data show a major westward-dipping thrust in the
accretionary wedge through time. acoustic basement overlain by volcaniclastic sedi-
ment that was reactivated during the Neogene. This
The Romeral Fault System contact is crosscut by the steeply eastward-dipping
One of the most intriguing aspects of the struc- Romeral fault. These observations, along with the
ture of the region is the contact between the meta- presence of widespread ophiolitic rocks east of the
morphic basement that underlies the Plato – San Romeral fault (see Figure 1), suggest that the Rom-
Jorge Basin to the east and the strongly deformed eral fault was not the obduction suture. The ophio-
Upper Cretaceous to Neogene sedimentary section lites thrust onto the basement of the South Amer-
of Sinu – San Jacinto to the west. This major geologic ican Plate may represent obducted fragments of a
contact, poorly exposed on the surface and with a large peri-Caribbean set of Cretaceous island arcs,
complex subsurface seismic expression, is the Rom- the so-called Great Arc of the Caribbean of Burke
eral fault. The mapping patterns inferred from (1988), or parts of the over-thickened Caribbean
seismic data suggest a steeply eastward-dipping fault Plateau crust. The structural evolution of the study
with at least three clear kinematic stages: reverse area can be interpreted in terms of blocked subduc-
offset during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, nor- tion (Figure 20); that is, after an obduction event
mal offset during the Eocene-Oligocene, and com- ceases and is blocked (Upper Cretaceous– Paleocene
pressional (reverse) offset during the Pliocene to in the study area), subduction takes over (from the
Pleistocene. Inversion structures are present along the Paleocene to Holocene), is responsible for accretion,
Romeral fault system. The Romeral fault system rep- and begins a process of exhumation of the preexist-
resents a sharp rheological contact that separates ing obducted slab.
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Structural Evolution of the Sinu-Lower Magdalena Area (Northern Colombia) / 795

CONCLUSIONS Annual Revue of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 16,

p. 201 – 230.
Case, J. E., W. D. N. MacDonald, and P. J. Fox, 1990, Carib-
The Sinu – San Jacinto area is a Paleocene to Oligo-
bean crustal provinces; Seismic and gravity evidence,
cene accretionary wedge. Older rocks of this prism
in G. Dengo and J. E. Case, eds., The Caribbean region:
are exposed to the east, which is referred to as the San Geological Society of America, The geology of North
Jacinto Mountains. The younger imbricated part of America, v. H, p. 15 – 36.
the prism is known in the literature as the Sinu area, Driscoll, N. W., and J. B. Diebold, 1999, Tectonic and
and it is exposed to the west. stratigraphic development of the Eastern Caribbean:
The Sinu –San Jacinto accretionary wedge repre- New constraints from multichannel seismic data, in
sents the older part of the northern Colombia accre- P. Mann, ed., Caribbean basins: Amsterdam, Elsevier
Science B.V., Sedimentary Basins of the World 4,
tionary wedge, while the younger part of the wedge
p. 591 – 626.
is the Oligocene to Holocene offshore Sinu wedge. Duque-Caro, H., 1972, Ciclos tectónicos y sedimentarios
The Plato –San Jorge area represents a back-arc en el norte de Colombia y sus relaciones con la paleo-
basin that was controlled by transtension during the ecologı́a: Boletin Geológico Ingeominas, v. 19, no. 3,
Oligocene and by transpression during the Miocene. p. 1 – 23.
Major subsidence and tilting occurred at the base of Duque-Caro, H., 1973, The geology of the Monteria area:
the Porquero Formation. The underlying Oligocene Colombian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Geo-
Cienaga de Oro represents the major reservoir unit. physicists 14th Annual Field Conference, Guidebook,
Bogotá, Colombia, p. 397 – 431.
The Romeral fault system is a complex fault zone
Duque-Caro, H., 1979, Major structural elements and
that has undergone Oligocene extension/transten- evolution of northwestern Colombia, in J. S. Watkins,
sion and Miocene to Pliocene compression/trans- L. Montadert, and P. W. Dickerson, eds., Geological
pression. This fault system offsets the obduction su- and geophysical investigations of continental mar-
ture between the proto-Caribbean oceanic plate and gins: AAPG Memoir 29, p. 329 – 351.
the South American continental plate. Duque-Caro, H., 1984, Structural style, diapirism, and
The Coniacian Finca Vieja member of the Can- accretionary episodes of the Sinu – San Jacinto terrane,
sona Formation represents the major source rock of southwestern Caribbean borderland, in W. E. Bon-
ini, R. B. Hargraves, and R. Shagam, eds., The South
the Lower Magdalena area. Younger Tertiary oil- and
American – Caribbean Plate boundary and regional
gas-prone source rocks also exist in the area. tectonics: Geological Society of America Memoir 162,
The Paleocene-Oligocene Sinu –San Jacinto prism p. 303 – 316.
is dominated by turbiditic flysch deposits, except in Duque-Caro, H., 1990, The Choco Block in the northwest-
the Tolú area, which is dominated by shallow-water ern corner of South America: Structural tectonostrati-
sandstone and carbonate. graphic and paleogeographic implications: Journal of
South American Earth Sciences, v. 3, p. 71 – 84.
Duque-Caro, H., and G. Guzmán, 1995, Geologia de la
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
plancha 38: Informe No. 2188, Ingeominas, Bogotá,
Colombia.
I would like to thank Ecopetrol of Colombia, El Arbi, T., and J. N. Kellogg, 1992, Structure of the Sinu –
TEPMA (Total Colombia), and Total for permission to San Jacinto fold belt — an active accretionary prism in
publish this paper. I also would like to thank P. northern Colombia: Journal of South American Earth
Casero, M. F. Marianne, M. V. Grand, and A. Rossato Sciences, v. 5, no. 2, p. 211 – 222.
for support in this study. The manuscript has strongly Flinch, J. F., M. V. Grand, and P. Casero, 2000, Accretion
benefited from the comments and corrections by and obduction along the Sinu-Lower Magdalena area
(Northern Colombia): Memoria VII Simposio Bolivar-
two reviewers, Pete Emmet and Tomás Villamil. I
iano, Exploracion Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandi-
appreciate the suggestions of A. W. Bally and J. M. nas, Sociedad Venezolana de Geologos, Caracas,
Jaramillo. Venezuela, September 2000, p. 218 – 229.
Ingeominas, 1997, Atlas geológico digital de Colombia,
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