UNIT 3

CENSUS VS SAMPLE ENUMERATION

 Census and sampling are two methods of collecting survey data about the population that are used by many
countries. 
 Census refers to the quantitative research method, in which all the members of the population are
enumerated.
 On the other hand, the sampling is the widely used method, in statistical testing, wherein a data set is
selected from the large population, which represents the entire group.
 Census implies complete enumeration of the study objects, whereas Sampling connotes enumeration of the
subgroup of elements chosen for participation.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR COMPARISON CENSUS SAMPLING

Meaning A systematic method that collects and Sampling refers to a portion of the
records the data about the members of population selected to represent the
the population is called Census. entire group, in all its characteristics.

Enumeration Complete Partial

Study of Each and every unit of the population. Only a handful of units of the
population.

Time required It is a time consuming process. It is a fast process.

Cost Expensive method Economical method

Results Reliable and accurate Less reliable and accurate, due to

the margin of error in the data
collected.

Error Not present. Depends on the size of the

population

Appropriate for Population of heterogeneous nature. Population of homogeneous nature.

Definition of Census

 A well-organised procedure of gathering, recording and analysing information regarding the members of the
population is called a census.
  It is an official and complete count of the universe, wherein each and every unit of the universe is included in
the collection of data. Here universe implies any region (city or country), a group of people, through which
the data can be acquired.
 Under this technique, the enumeration is conducted about the population by considering the entire
population.
 Hence this method requires huge finance, time and labour for gathering information.
 This method is useful, to find out the ratio of male to female, the ratio of literate to illiterate people, the
ratio of people living in urban areas to the people in rural areas.

Definition of Sampling

 We define sampling as the process in which the fraction of the population, so selected to represent the
characteristics of the larger group.
 This method is used for statistical testing, where it is not possible to consider all members or observations,
as the population size is very large.
 As statistical inferences are based on the sampling observations, the selection of the appropriate
representative sample is of utmost importance.
 So, the sample selected should indicate the entire universe and not exhibit a particular section.
 On the basis of the data collected from the representative samples, the conclusion is drawn from the whole
population. 
 For instance: A company places an order for raw material by simply checking out the sample.
 The units which constitute sample is considered as ‘Sampling Units’.
 The full-fledged list containing all sampling units is called ‘Sampling Frame’.

Key Differences Between Census and Sampling

The paramount differences between census and sampling are discussed in detail in the given below points:

1. The census is a systematic method that collects and records the data about the members of the population.
The sampling is defined as the subset of the population selected to represent the entire group, in all its
characteristics.
2. The census is alternately known as a complete enumeration survey method. In contrast, sampling is also
known as a partial enumeration survey method.
3. In the census, each and every unit of population is researched. On the contrary, only a handful of items is
selected from the population for research.
4. Census, is a very time-consuming method of survey, whereas, in the case of sampling, the survey does not
take much time.
5. The census method requires high capital investment as it involves the research and collection of all the
values of the population. Unlike sampling which is a comparatively economical method.
6. The results drawn by conducting a census is accurate and reliable while there are chances of errors in the
results drawn from the sample.
7. The size of the sample determines the probability of errors in the outcome, i.e. the larger the size of
population the less are the chances of errors and the smaller the size; the higher are the chances of errors.
This is not possible with census as all the items are taken into consideration.
8. Census is best suited for the population of heterogeneous nature. As opposed to sampling which is
appropriate for homogeneous nature.

Census Method and Sampling Method

Census Method
A census method is that process of the statistical list where all members of a population are analysed. The
population relates to the set of all observations under concern. For instance, if you want to carry out a study to find
out student’s feedback about the amenities of your school, then all the students of your school would form a
component of the ‘population’ for your study.

Sampling Method
A sampling method is a process for choosing sample members from a population. Three (3) common sampling
methods are:

 Simple random sampling

 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling

(A) Census ●     A statistical investigation in which the data are collected for each and every element/unit of
method the population is termed as census method.
●     It is also known as ‘complete enumeration’ or ‘100% enumeration’ or ‘complete survey’.
●     It is useful when case intensive study is required or the area is limited.
●     Examples:
1.    Demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy, workforce, life expectancy, size and
composition of a population
2.    The census of India is conducted every 10 years.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CENSUS METHOD

(1) Intensive ●     It provides intensive and in-depth information covering many facets of the problems.
study ●     Example: In a population census, not only the number of persons is counted, but the
information is also collected on various other parameters like the number of males and females,
age, education, marital status, occupational level, income health conditions, etc.

(2) Results ●     Since, in this type of investigation, every item of the universe is taken into account, the
are more conclusions are more accurate and reliable.
accurate and
reliable

DISADVANTAGES OF THE CENSUS METHOD

(1) Costly ●     Since the data are obtained for or from each and every unit of the population, it is a very
method expensive method of investigation, especially in case of a large population size.

(2) Needs ●     Since a large volume of data is to be collected, more time and manpower is required for its
more time collection, analysis, and interpretation.
and
manpower

(3) Not ●     This method is meaningless in the case of an infinite universe where the number of items is
suitable for unlimited.
the large
population

(A) Sampling method ●     The sampling method is the one in which only some of the representative
items of the population are selected and the data are collected from these.
●     Instead of collecting information for and from all the units of population,
 we select a sample, i.e., only a few items of the population.
●     Conclusions derived from the small sample are generalised for the whole
population.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SAMPLING METHOD

(1) Economical, i.e., low cost ●     It is more economical than the census method, as the task of collection
and analysis of data is limited only to a small sample, i.e., a few units of the
population.

(2) Quick results ●     In this method, only a few units are analysed, hence we get quicker results.

(3) Indispensable or greater ●     The sampling method becomes indispensable, whereas the census method
scope is impracticable. Example:
●     If the life of bulbs is to be tested by the manufacturer
●     If the quality of nuts and bolts is to be tested
●     If blood test is to be carried out
●     If the quality of prints is to be tested while printing books

(4) Scientific approach ●     The sampling method is more scientific than the census Method, as it is
possible to determine the extent of reliability of its results.

(5) Follow up ●     Due to the small size of the sample, it is possible to cross-check the data to
test the reliability.

(6) Helpful in checking census ●     Due to scientific nature, the sampling method can be used to cross-check
results the results of the census method.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SAMPLING METHOD

(1) Difficult to achieve cent ●     The conclusions of the sampling method are based only on the results of a
percent accuracy few items taken from the whole population. Thus, these may not be cent
percent correct.

(2) Bias in the selection of ●     If the investigator is biased, then he might select a sample deliberately.
sample ●     In such cases, the selected sample may not be the best representative of
the population.

(3) Difficult to select a sample ●     In practice, it is very difficult to obtain a sample that truly represents the
having all the characteristics of population.
the population ●     A sample may not have all the characteristics of the population.

(4) Need for specialised ●     It is a special technique and beyond the capacity of every person.
knowledge and training ●     Its use requires specialised knowledge and training.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CENSUS AND SAMPLING METHOD

Parameters Census Method Sampling Method

Nature of The extensive enquiry is conducted at each The limited enquiry is conducted as only a few
enquiry and every unit of the population. units of the population are studied.

Economy More Time, Money, and Labour It requires Less Time, Money, and Labour Relatively less
 a large amount of money, time, and money, time, and labour are required.
labour.

Suitability It is more suitable if the population is It is more suitable if the population is

heterogeneous in nature. homogeneous in nature.

Reliability and The results are quite reliable and accurate The results of the sampling method are less
Accuracy under the census method. reliable because a high degree of accuracy is not
achieved.

Organisation It is very difficult to organise and supervise The sampling method is comparatively easy to
and the census method. organise and supervise.
Supervision

Verification Under this method, the results of the Under this method, the results can be tested by
investigation cannot be verified. taking out another small sample.

Nature of The census method is an old method of The sampling method is a new and practicable
method investigation and not a very scientific method. It is a scientific method.
method.

Pros of a CENSUS Cons of a CENSUS

 provides a true measure of the  may be difficult to enumerate all units of the
population (no sampling error) population within the available time
 benchmark data may be obtained for  higher costs, both in staff and monetary terms,
future studies than for a sample
 detailed information about small sub-  generally takes longer to collect, process, and
groups within the population is more release data than from a sample
likely to be available
Pros of a SAMPLE Cons of a SAMPLE
 costs would generally be lower than for  data may not be representative of the total
a census population, particularly where the sample size
 results may be available in less time is small
 if good sampling techniques are used,  often not suitable for producing benchmark
the results can be very representative of data
the actual population  as data are collected from a subset of units and
inferences made about the whole population,
the data are subject to 'sampling' error
 decreased number of units will reduce the
detailed information available about sub-groups
within a population

Many people interpret census as the opposite of sampling, in which all the members of the population are taken
into account instead of only a fraction. But the census is based on the sampling frame to enumerate population.
Therefore, it is quite clear that these two quantitative research methodologies are different, but it can’t be said that
one is above the other.
OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLING
 To obtain reliable information about the population.
 To arrive at the characteristics of the parent population.
 To test the reliability of difference between the sample estimates and population parameters.
 To test the validity
 To collect the desired information about the universe in minimum time and high degree of reliability.
 To get the precision of estimate and reliability of estimate.
The primary objectives of collecting and analysing a sample investigation are to reveal characteristics of a
population as follows:

 Estimating the parameters of the population like means, median, mode, etc.
 Testing validity statements about the population
 Investigating the changes in population over time

In other words, the sampling process involves three main elements – selecting the sample, collecting the
information, and also making inferences about the population.
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING

1. Principle of ‘Statistical Regularity’: The principle of statistical regularity is derived from the theory of
probability in mathematics. According to this principle, when a large number of items is selected at random
from the universe, then it is likely to possess the same characteristics as that of the entire population. This
principle asserts that the sample selection is random, i.e. every item has an equal and likely chance of being
selected. It is believed that sample selected randomly and not deliberately acts as a true representative of
the population. Thus, this principle is characterized by the large sample size and the random selection of a
representative sample.
2. Principle of ‘Inertia of Large Numbers’: The principle of Inertia of large numbers states that the larger the
size of the sample the more accurate the conclusion is likely to be. This principle is based on the notion, that
large numbers are more stable in their characteristics than the small numbers, and the variation in the
aggregate of large numbers is insignificant. It does not mean that there is no variation in the large numbers,
there is, but is less than in the smaller numbers.

Thus, both the principles talk about the sample size i.e. the larger it is, the larger is the accuracy of the results
obtained.

Principle # 1 : The first sampling principles says that there will be a difference between the population mean and
parameters and sample statistics. The reason for this difference is that the sample is only part of the population but
not the whole population itself. The selection of units through random sampling can help minimize this differences.
There are several other ways that can be used to get the most representable sample. Different samples drawn for
the same population may vary in their sample statistics. The difference that exists between population and sample
characteristics is known as the sampling error. Sampling error can be minimized but it cannot be avoided
completely.

Principle # 2 : The second principle of sampling states that greater the sample size and the more accurate and
generalizable the sample will be of population mean. The difference between the population mean and sample
statistics can be reduced greatly if the sample size is taken large. Hence sampling error can be reduced if the sample
size is large. Taking large sample means greater effort and time to process the data but the sampling error is
reduced.

Principle # 3 : The third sampling principles is very important it states that greater is the difference in the population
characteristics, greater will be difference between population mean and sample statistics. When the population is
varied and widespread the sample taken also contains greater variability and the results obtained may not be
representable and generalizable of the population mean. The sampling error can result but it can be reduced by
making clusters or strata of the population. From each strata sample can be taken and the variability in the
population characteristics can be reduced in this way.

Principle # 4 : The fourth principle of sampling is about the non sampling errors and biases. In sampling from any
population any other error that occurs that has been invested because of the researcher is known as researcher
bias. Faulty estimates and poor use of techniques can also result in errors and these errors are known as non
sampling errors. Before selecting sample from the target population sampling principles should be understood to
make the process of sampling valid and reliable.
1) Principle or Law of statistical regularity : this law is based upon mathematical theory of probability. It is based
upon the following two conditions.
 Large sample size: as the sample size increases, the true characteristics of the population are more likely to
reveal.
 Random selection: the sample should be selected randomly in which each and every unit of the universe has
an equal chance of being selected.
2) Principle of inertia of large numbers: – it is based upon the concept that as the sample size increases the better
results we will get. For example if we have to study the weight of the students studying in a college then fairly
adequate sample of the students help us to arrive at good results.
3) Principle of validity: – if valid tests are derived only then sampling design is termed as valid.
4) Principle of optimization: – this principle states that with the help of sample one must be able to get optimum
results with maximum efficiency and minimum cost.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SAMPLE
 Small or adequate in size.
 High degree of accuracy.
 Free from errors due to unbiased.
 No substitution to originally selected units.
 Representative of the whole universe
 It should be independent
 It should be homogenous
 It should be adequate

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING OVER COMPLETE ENUMERATION

 It is a much cheaper method to collect the required information from the sample as compared to complete
enumeration as lesser units are studied in the sample rather than the population.
 From a sample, the data can be collected more quickly and save time a lot.
 Planning for sample surveys can be done more carefully and easily as compared to complete enumeration.
 Sampling is the only available method of collecting the required information when the population object/
subject or individual in the population are of destructive nature.
 Sampling is the only available method of collecting the required information when the population is infinite
or large enough.
 The most important advantage of sampling is that it provides the reliability of the estimates.
 Sampling is extensively used to obtain some of the census information.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the eligible individuals
have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This method is more time consuming and
expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees
the sample that should be the representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely chance of being selected
in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance, this method is known as “Method of chance
Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.
Example: Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can assign a
number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number generator to select a
sample of 200 numbers.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting the random
selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total
population size by the desired population size.
Example: Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To select a
sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting
number, say 5.  From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up
with a sample of some students.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete the sampling
process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population. After separating the population
into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.
For example,  there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and
bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A,
10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

CLUSTERED SAMPLING
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population set. The group has
similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses
simple random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example: An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of students. If we
want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required
data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.

WHAT IS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on subjective
judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the members of the population have a chance to
participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because they are
conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the
sample that outlines the entire population.
Example: In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to complete a
survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed
customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the customers in that
area.

CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher picks a single person
or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the result and
move to another group if needed.

QUOTA SAMPLING
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to represent
the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful
collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

PURPOSIVE OR JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is
instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum
marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the samples have traits that
are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those
sampling units also belong to the same targeted population.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING VS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which Non-probability sampling method is a technique in

samples taken from a larger population are chosen which the researcher chooses samples based on
based on probability theory. subjective judgment, preferably random selection.

These are also known as Random sampling methods. These are also called non-random sampling methods.

These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.

These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in probability The hypothesis is derived later by conducting the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the objective of research study in the case of non-probability sampling.
 this method is to validate the defined hypothesis.

SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERROR

 Sampling error is one which occurs due to unrepresentativeness of the sample selected for observation.
 Non-sampling error is an error arise from human error, such as error in problem identification, method or
procedure used, etc.
 An ideal research design seeks to control various types of error, but there are some potential sources which
may affect it.
 In sampling theory, total error can be defined as the variation between the mean value of population
parameter and the observed mean value obtained in the research.
 The total error can be classified into two categories, i.e. sampling error and non-sampling error.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR SAMPLING ERROR NON-SAMPLING ERROR

COMPARISON

Meaning Sampling error is a type of error, occurs due to An error occurs due to sources other than
the sample selected does not perfectly sampling, while conducting survey activities is
represents the population of interest. known as non-sampling error.

Cause Deviation between sample mean and Deficiency and analysis of data
population mean

Type Random Random or Non-random

Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census.

Sample size Possibility of error reduced with the increase It has nothing to do with the sample size.
in sample size.

Sampling Error

 Sampling Error denotes a statistical error arising out of a certain sample selected being unrepresentative of
the population of interest.
 In simple terms, it is an error which occurs when the sample selected does not contain the true
characteristics, qualities or figures of the whole population.
 The main reason behind sampling error is that the sampler draws various sampling units from the same
population but, the units may have individual variances.
 Moreover, they can also arise out of defective sample design, faulty demarcation of units, wrong choice of
statistic, substitution of sampling unit done by the enumerator for their convenience.
 Therefore, it is considered as the deviation between true mean value for the original sample and the
population.

Non-Sampling Error

 Non-Sampling Error is an umbrella term which comprises of all the errors, other than the sampling error.
 They arise due to a number of reasons, i.e. error in problem definition, questionnaire design, approach,
coverage, information provided by respondents, data preparation, collection, tabulation, and analysis.
 There are two types of non-sampling error:
  Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by respondents, or their answer is
misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It consists of researcher error, respondent error and interviewer error
which are further classified as under.

 Researcher Error

 Surrogate Error
 Sampling Error
 Measurement Error
 Data Analysis Error
 Population Definition Error
 Respondent Error
 Inability Error
 Unwillingness Error
 Interviewer Error
 Questioning Error
 Recording Erro
 Respondent Selection Error
 Cheating Error
 Non-Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a part of the sample do not respond.

Key Differences Between Sampling and Non-Sampling Error

The significant differences between sampling and non-sampling error are mentioned in the following points:

1. Sampling error is a statistical error happens due to the sample selected does not perfectly represents the
population of interest. Non-sampling error occurs due to sources other than sampling while conducting
survey activities is known as non-sampling error.
2. Sampling error arises because of the variation between the true mean value for the sample and the
population. On the other hand, the non-sampling error arises because of deficiency and inappropriate
analysis of data.
3. Non-sampling error can be random or non-random whereas sampling error occurs in the random sample
only.
4. Sample error arises only when the sample is taken as a representative of a population. As opposed to non-
sampling error which arises both in sampling and complete enumeration.
5. Sampling error is mainly associated with the sample size, i.e. as the sample size increases the possibility of
error decreases. On the contrary, the non-sampling error is not related to the sample size, so, with the
increase in sample size, it won’t be reduced.

To end this discussion, it is true to say that sampling error is one which is completely related to the sampling design
and can be avoided, by expanding the sample size. Conversely, non-sampling error is a basket that covers all the
errors other than the sampling error and so, it unavoidable by nature as it is not possible to completely remove it.