Partridgefarming

Paweł Nasiadka
Roman Dziedzic
THE HANDBOOK OF BEST

PRACTICES OF PARTRIDGE AND
EUROPEAN HARE
CONSERVATION
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CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected] www.lasy.gov.pl
Table of contents
Part I – PARTRIDGE (P. Nasiadka)

1. Biology of partridge– an outline
1.1. Classification and distribution of partridges in Europe and Poland
1.2. Population dynamics of partridges in Poland
1.3. Habitat preferences and behavior
1.4. Reproduction and mortality rate
1.5. Ecologic and social importance of partridges
2. Threats and conservation
2.1. Threats
2.2. Conservation methods
2.3. Improving habitat conditions
2.4. Promoting the need for conservation actions
3. State Forest GBC Kamionna in Forestry Łochów – an example of good practices
3.1. The areas of release
3.2. Improving the living conditions of partridges
3.3. Fox reduction
3.4. Moratorium vs protection
3.5. Enhancing local population
Part II – HARE (R. Dziedzic)

1. Biology of hares – an outline
1.1. Classification, distribution, species description
1.2. Spatial functioning and dynamics of population
1.3. Habitat preferences, behavior, density
1.4. Reproduction, mortality rate
1.5. The importance of hares
2. Threats assessment and conservation methods
2.1 Threats
2.2 Methods of conservation
3 Best practices - description
3.1 Hare ranching in Świebodzin Forest Inspectorate
3.2 Restituting hares in Krzystkowice Forest Inspectorate
3.3 Recommendations and practical advice
Conclusions
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PART I – PARTRIDGES
Paweł Nasiadka
1. Biology of partridge– an outline

1.1. Classification and distribution of partridges in Europe and Poland
Partridge (Kuropatwa) (Perdix perdix) is a representative of the pheasant family

(Phasianidae) and gallinaceous order (Galliformes), similarly to grouse (bażant) and rarely
seen in Poland quail (przepiórka), black grouse (cietrzewie) and western capercaille (głuszce).
In Europe at present there are 6 distinctive subspecies, which include one nominative
species P. p. perdix (Linnaeus, 1758) that is native to Poland. Already in 1960s Lepold
Popławski – in the only monograph of partridges issued at the time in Poland– mentioned the
P. p. lucida subspecies (Altu, 1894), which occurred to the east of Vistula. Nowadays this
subspecies has been extinct in Poland, but it is possible that it still exists in Finland and
western Russia.
Most recent research gives evidence that partridge is more closely related to quail than
to pheasant and that classification of Phasianidae family in near future will probably undergo
changes leading to distinguishing more families in this order.
Partridge’s range includes temperate climate zone in Europe, excluding areas in north
Scandinavia, the southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula and central and south Asia, excluding
areas northeast from Ural. It also occurs in North America and New Zealand, where partridge
has been introduced as a game animal.
Partridge is a sedentary species. They can be found all over Poland, from lowlands to
mountains, although not reaching the parts of mountains which are situated higher than 650 m
above sea level. They are less often encountered in the north and south of the country; the
highest density of this bird is noted in Mazovia and in the eastern voivodeships.
Grey partridge (kuropatwa szara) is one of the smaller representatives of galliforms in
our country. The characteristic feature of the whole family of Phasianidae is the lack of
feathers on their legs. What differentiates them from other members of this family is the
colour of the eye iris – partridges’ eye irides are completely black with pupil that can’t be
clearly distinguished, quails’ irides are brown, and pheasants’ – yellow. The body shape of the
bird is rounded. It has short neck and small head with short curved bill. Birds in this family
have short legs with strong claws that are used for digging and scratching. Patridges have skin
folds in between three front toes. Short and rounded wings allow for fast flying on short
distances. Small form and short, active flight give a partridge a better chance of hiding from a
predator in an open space. It is also possible that fast, short legs help the animal in escaping.
These are the adaptive features enabling hiding life style present in most species of galliforms.
Body length of partridges ranges between 30 to 34 centimetres. Body mass is 300 to
500 g and females are smaller than males.
Sexual dimorphism is observed in this species but is not as distinct as in pheasants.
While regarded from a distance, it is hard to distinguish between the both genders, especially
in spring-during the time of the first moulting, while birds are still lacking breeding plumage.
Partridges are mottled grey-brown with bright orange head and grey crown. Those colours are
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generally less intensive in case of females.

What allows to distinguish one specimen from another is characteristic dark reddish
hoof-shaped patch at the top part of grey belly and also a reddish, featherless supercilium. The
supercilium of a female is bright brown. The male’s plumage can be more or less intensive.
Another helpful element in identifying separate individuals is the colouring of flight feathers
on wings. Scapulars of males have horizontal lighter lines, and females also have transverse
irregular white stripes.
What should be noted is the fact that adult partridges moult twice a year and males can
moult three times. It happens between March and April, from July to September and in
October. Moulting involves head and neck, and also higher part of breast in females.
The features that help to distinguish between young birds up to one year of age and
adult birds are the colours of legs, bill and the appearance of flight feathers. Young partridge’s
legs are yellow and their bills are black; older ones have grey-blue legs and grey bill. Young
birds’ flight feathers have sharp ends while older birds have them more rounded. Young
chicks are – as most galliforms – olive-brown and grey, with bright and black stripes along
their bodies. The eggs are either grey or green-grey, not much bigger than quail’s eggs.
In favourable conditions partridge lives three years on average, while record breakers
living on farms reach the age of five. It is one of the shortest living species in the country.
1.2. Population dynamics of partridges in Poland.
Partridges are gregarious animals, living in groups consisting of several to dozen or so

individuals. Only at the time of breeding, from February until the end of June, these birds live
in pairs. The flocks are not created according to any particular rule. They can be made of
parental pair and its offspring, or adult individuals, their chicks and birds that didn’t
reproduce or lost their nests. The groups are tolerant towards each other, although in time of
pairing, aggressive behaviour happens – as among other bird species. Their territories, that
have the size of up to around 4 ha, are mobile and dependant on the habitat conditions (that is
food accessibility, height of the vegetation). The size of the territories is closely related to the
bird density on the given area. In Poland, currently the density reaches up to 20 pairs/km2,
with average of 10 pairs/km2.
Not so long ago partridges were quite numerous in Poland, and thus they were the
most favourite game animals coming just after hares. Even in 1970s partridge population was
estimated at several millions of birds, but ten years later it decreased to only about half a
million. The crisis was evident not only in Poland, but in the whole Europe. Since the fifties
in most countries their population dropped by 10% which equals to several hundreds of
thousands of animals.
The reasons are multiple – the changes in agriculture, disappearing of patchwork quilt
landscape, lack of hedgerows, as well as the small amount of insects that are the main food of
young birds. The biggest threat, though, is the predation, especially by foxes. In Poland it is
one of the most hindering factors limiting the development of the population not only for this
species, but for the most of the field species that breed in nature with difficulty. The data
presented in Table 1. shows the significant decline of populations of hare and partridge while
simultaneously the population of foxes grew dynamically.
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Table 1. The populations of partridge, hare and fox in years 1995 – 2004. (According to
GUS).
Year 1995 2000 2005 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Animal Thousands
Partridge 960,7 345,6 346,6 408,2 442,3 388,4 330,3 292,2
Hare 925,7 551,4 475,4 531,8 562,4 558,7 596,7 601,7
Fox 67,4 145,1 201,2 209,5 203,3 198,3 211,9 209,2
It is interesting that in longer time perspective partridge and hare have similar rate of
disappearance from Polish country landscapes. Within the period of twenty years the
population of these two species diminished by more than a half.
Data presented in Figure 1. presents in further detail the state of population for the
Mazovia Voivodeship. Even greater decline in partridges population can be observed here.
300000
250000
Liczebność kuropatw
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Lata
Figure 1. Partridge population decline in Mazovian voivodeship in years 1981 – 2008.

(According to Polish Hunting Association in Czempin).
Legend:Liczebność kuropatw- Numbers of partridges; Lata-Years
Compared to the whole country, partridges’ situation in Mazovia, although not

optimistic, is not the worst. Comparing the population of hens in different voivodeships it is
easily discerned that Mazovia, which comprises the Mazovian and Łódź voivodeships are
defined as “leaders” regarding the situation of local populations of partridges. Estimations
made each year by game keepers show that in the above mentioned voivodeships the amount
of partridges is two to ten times higher than in the remaining regions of Poland (Figure 2).
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60
Liczebność [tys. osobn.]
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2. Partridge population in individual voivodeships in Poland in 2011/2012 (according

to GUS).
Legend:
Liczebność [w tys.] – Population (in thousand)
Mazowieckie-Masovian
Łódzkie-Łódź
Lubelskie-Lublin
Świętokrzyskie-Świętokrzyskie
Wielkopolskie-Greater Poland
Podlaskie-Podlaskie
Podkarpackie-Subcarpathian
Dolnośląskie-Lower Silesian
Kujawsko-pomorskie-Kuyavian-Pomeranian
Małopolskie-Lesser Poland
Zachodniopomorskie-West-Pomeranian
Śląskie-Silesian
Warmińsko Mazurskie-Warmian Masurian
Pomorskie- Pomeranian
Lubuskie-Lubusz
Opolskie-Opole
It is also closely related to the availability of habitats in these areas due to the fact that
the western part of Poland is more forested than eastern. Since 1990 in the west of Poland a
quicker decline of forestation was noticed, which leads to, inter alia, the growing amount of
predators, especially foxes.
The drop in partridge numbers was noticeably proceeding, therefore, hen hunting was
considerably limited in Poland. Still considered a game animal, with hunting period from
11.09 to 21.10, in years 1992 – 2003 hunting dropped from 390 to 19 thousands of birds each
year. In the timespan of 10 years it dropped by as much as 90%. Since 2000 only 1% of early
autumn population has been hunted, which is very important in further rearing the brood
(Figure 3.).
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200000
Pozyskanie [osobn.] 180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Figure 3. Obtaining partridge in Poland (according to Polish Hunting Association and GUS)
Legend: Pozyskiwanie [osobn.]-Obtaining [separately]
In order to avoid the drop in partridge population since 1990s a numerous instances of
release of captive-reared partridges into the wild have been conducted in Europe. Such actions
were also undertaken in Poland. In 2002 a European program was developed that aims at
improving the living conditions and population development of European hare and partridge.
Polish Hunting Association actively participates in the program. Within the areas of Polish
forest inspectorates, including many Game Breeding Centres, each year partridges are
released or re-introduced into natural habitats.
At present, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUNC),
Perdix perdix species belongs to LC (Least Concern) category, which is a category of lesser
risk of becoming extinct, and it has its place in Red Book of Endangered Species.
1.3. Habitat preferences and behaviour
Partridges’ biotope is rather complex – they live on open, arable, preferably with
diversity of fields, grasslands, also wastelands, with not too high bushes of grass, stripes of
vegetation and thicket, creating bases where it is possible to hide from threats or unfavourable
weather conditions. Important habitats for partridges are hedges and mid-field trees with
surrounding vegetation, nowadays receding from Polish landscape. Partridge manages to quite
well live in human company and often during winter, flocks of these birds can be seen near
farms, sometimes inside henhouses, where they can find food and shelter. Partridges easily
adapt to environmental changes and they often use the sides of roads and communication
tracts, where they can find areas of wastelands.
Adult partridges feed on seed and small grassland vegetation, young shoots of grass
and grains. Young partridge’s food consists in around 50% of insects and their larvae, inter
alia, bugs, beetles, moth and butterflies and true bugs. Sometimes they also eat ant and
wingless insects’ larvae. As it is in majority of cases, the survival of chicks depends on food
accessibility.
Partridges’ diet is dependent on the season. In spring and early summer up to 10% of
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the food constitutes animal sources: various mollusca, insects larvae and adult forms and also
annelids. During examinations of the birds’ stomach content also potato bugs are sometimes

found. Plant food consists of leaves of various grass species, trefoil, chickweed, knotweed and
also grains and grassland plants’ seeds. In autumn partridges prefer exclusively plant food
with the majority of synanthropic plants, that are weed, and seeds. In winter, unfortunately,
food is sparse and they have to industriously try to peck from under the snow young shoots of
grains, the remnants of stubble and seeds. This season is exceptionally hard for them and it is
characterized by huge death rate, also from the cold.
Significant from the developmental point of view is the mentioned patchwork quilt
landscape, currently rather rare. Monocultures on farmland are detrimental for partridges
because of lack of diversity and shelter which would allow to successfully rear the brood. The
access to sandy locations gives the opportunity to properly take care of their feathers, these
places are also often visited in order to find rest or warmth in summer.
Behaviour of partridges is associated with the habitat in which this species resides.
Partridges are insidious birds, most often remaining in flocks, with rather strong social ties
and strong territorialism. Partridges are monogamous, they form pairs and spend the whole
breeding period together. This is the time when they also break up from the coveys they
belonged to previously. Certain part of the year is spent in a flock, which is connected with
the communication in situations of threat. They are not disturbed by other groups of birds, on
the contrary, sometimes it is beneficial. What has been noticed during aviary observations is
the fact that males – one after another make kieerr-ik sounds– which means they call loudly
several times and at this time females hide in high grass or they lie on the ground as fast as
they can. Due to the concealing plumage, these birds are almost invisible from above, and thy
also are difficult to notice from a distance (see photo 1). Partridges tend to crouch which often
leads to their death during farming. One of the methods of hunting this animal is the so called
“deptak” which means flushing the birds out at the very last moment. When partridges have
good shelter on the fields, they usually run fast and hide inside grass or thickets.
Pic 1. Partridge sits hard and merges with the surroundings, making itself almost invisible.
Where are the partridges? (photo by P. Nasiadka)
Partridges vocalize at various times and for different reasons. Before dawn they
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communicate using short calls; similar behaviour is observed at dusk. It is a signal of the
survival of the given individual. This is also observed among other bird species. Females

vocalize significantly less often and during rearing brood they stay silent at all times. Males
perform definitely louder calls with the approaching danger. Males make several quick and
alternating calls on purpose-in order to distract the predator. After each call one male
individual lowers its head and another one takes its turn. When a predator moves too close,
they quickly fly into the air and move for a few meters. If a female is close, a male can draw
away a fox by running into opposite direction, calling constantly.
Partridges usually forage at various times of a day, but most intensively at dawn and
before sunset. At midday they rest hiding in thicket or between ridges on grounds. During
foraging, specifically after pairing up, one individual eats and the other stays motionless
maintaining upright posture with neck outstretched. Partridges have very good sight.
They spend nights in small groups, hidden in scrapes in the ground, on an open terrain,
near roads and – when other places are unavailable – near houses. They avoid spending nights
close to their territories. In winter they prefer hedgerows and thick vegetation, because they
are easy to spot in the open space and they are exposed to the chilling wind. They often hide
in snow, hollowing out tunnels. When temperatures are below zero, they huddle into groups
close to each other, sharing warmth. They avoid moving and flying, because it requires
wasting large portions of energy, while their food supply is limited and under the snow.
Paired animals also spend nights huddled together.
1.4. Reproduction and mortality rate
When summer comes, males leave their coveys and wander – sometimes long
distances – in search of females to spend the rest of their lives with. Females usually stay in
their coveys, and thus the arrival of males leads to mixing of the existing families. Then the
pairs that were created, separate themselves from the groups for the time of brooding, that is
from the end of February until the end of June. During this time individual territories are
created, and their boundaries are vehemently guarded by the male within the pair. When a
male meets another male close to the boundary, it often leads to very violent fights and calls.
The birds fight, pecking and hitting with their wings and legs, aiming for the opponent’s head.
It sometimes happens that a lone female is exiled or attacked.
Courtship displays in groups are ‘superficial’, which means males can fight for a
female but the decision to choose one of them and move away belongs to the female only.
What is characteristic for the species is the so called ‘partridges’ wedding’ – a congregation of
several or more groups of partridges in one place which facilitates creating pairs. Actual
courtship displays take place significantly later, when the pair has spent more time together
and is isolated. The male circles around the female and fluffs his feathers, pulls his wings
down and calls frequently. The female answers in quiet squeaks, announcing her approval for
copulation.
The nest is built at the beginning of May. Its diameter is 15 cm and its depth – from 7
to 19 cm. It is built in a dug out hole, that is covered with leaves and grass. An ideal place for
a nest is shadowed with canopy of vegetation, hedges or thick vegetation. Partridges
sometimes build trial nests – holes that are regularly visited to prospect which place is the best
for nesting. After laying 10 to 20 eggs, a female usually covers them with thick layer of dry
plants. It is done, however, only after two eggs are in the nest. When there is only one egg, it
is uncovered for several first days, to check if a given place is appropriate for brood rearing. It
is easy to scare away a female, but when first brood is lost, she can start over again another
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one quite fast, although it will be significantly smaller (photo 2).

Pic 2. A partridge’s nest after successful brood-rearing (archival photograph of Łochów
Forestry).
In years 1995 – 2001 in western Poland research was carried out with the use of
telemetry. 64 pairs of birds were marked, to describe the process of rearing the brood. The
result of the research confirmed that about 80% of nests were situated in hedgerows, clusters
of wild plants, and the rest 20% in grains. The number of eggs was also observed. In the first
clutch there was on average 20 eggs (max. 24), while the second clutch consisted often of 14.
The breeding success reached 90%, where the highest number of eggs were from the repeated
brood after losing first brood between (June and July).
If a female is forced to leave her nest, she always hides the eggs. Also, when she
incubates, she covers herself with dry grass to make herself unnoticeable and to mask her
scent.
A female sits on a nest for 23 to 35 days. The male is always close, vigilant, reminding
the female when she should leave to rest and eat. After hatching, both parents take care of
chicks, they also both lead them. There are instances when a male, in order to protect his
family, attacked an opponent bigger than himself.
Partridges are precocial birds, young birds very quickly learn to fly – 15 days after
hatching. After 3 months, that is since the second half of September, young partridges reach
the weight of adults. Until winter they stay with their parents in the group. They reach
reproductive maturity after one year. During the next spring from being born they leave their
family group, but they never move further away than several kilometres from the place of
hatching. After rearing the brood partridges live in a family flock consisting of two parents
(starks) and their offspring. As the winter nears, the group is joined by other singular birds
that from various reasons didn’t have broods or lost them.
In comparison to reproduction rate, death rate is very high. Average life length of a
partridge that survived until August is only 7 months.
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Due to many complex factors, which include: predation, unfavourable weather,

farming, the age of sexual maturity is reached by only 14% to 20% of the birds. At the very
beginning, alongside the egg production, the loss rate is that of 25%. Most commonly it is

caused by haymaking or predators. In the first instance, females often die with brood
crouching over the nest. Death rate caused by hunting does not exceed 10%. The worst cause
of death that kills partridges is the severe winter, when losses often reach the level of 80 –
90%.
1.5. Ecologic and social importance of partridges
Partridges for ages have been an integral part of Polish farming landscape (photo 3).
The presence of this steadily dropping in numbers and underestimated species – also in terms
of aesthetics– representative of galliforms is important for ecological balance of fields and
grasslands. The ease with which these birds adapt to the ever-changing agriculture means that
this species can be useful to man. According to research, partridges’ diet is closely related to
the conditions of the farmlands. When there are many insects, young chicks have enough food
to survive. What is more, about 23% of insects, mainly their larvae that constitute their diet,
are the insects harmful from the point of view of agriculture. In turn, during summer adult
birds eat seeds and sprouting plants of which more than 50% are weeds. It means that
significant amount of these animals could lead to a significant improvement of the quality of
cultivated fields. Amounting to several millions of individuals 20, 30 years ago, this species
was precious for agriculture.
Pic 3. A group of partridges in agricultural landscape (photograph by P. Nasiadka)
It should be remembered that is it still a game bird. In the past it was the most
common and most widespread species of little game, and thus it gained a lot of popularity
among the hunters. Throughout decades partridges were undoubtedly a symbol of hunting for
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little game in Poland.

Another aspect worth noting is the biological diversity of partridges and partridge
conservation. This currently disappearing species belongs to a vulnerable group in terms of
endangerment. In Poland there are 6 species of wild galliforms. All of them, excluding
pheasant – which is a foreign species – and hazel grouse (jarząbek), are in need of
conservation (table 2).
Table 2. Populations and conservations status of galliforms in Poland (according to GUS,

2012).
Population Conservation status in Conservational status
Species
[individuals] Poland in world (IUCN)
Wester capercaille (Głuszec) strict protection,
ca. 480 Least concern (LC)
(Tetrao urogallus) endangered
Black grouse (Cietrzew) strict protection,
ca. 570 Least concern (LC)
(Tetrao tetrix) endangered
Common quail (Przepiórka)
unknown strict protection Least concern (LC)
(Coturnix coturnix)
Hazel grouse (Bonasa game species,
80.000 Least concern (LC)
bonasia) population decline
game species,
Partridge (Perdix perdix) ca. 290 000 Least concern (LC)
population decline
Common pheasant
ca. 460 000 game species Least concern (LC)
(Phasianus colchicus)
The numbers of some of these birds are worrisome. Despite being protected, these birds are
still not in good perspective of increasing the amount of individuals, the trend is declining. It
is most visible in case of the black grouse which only 2 – 3 years ago amounted to 1000
individuals. Compared to capercaille, it is not protected in any means of active conservation.
In regard to partridge, the decline is significant but not that violent, yet, an intensification of
protection efforts ought to be considered here as well.
It is entirely possible that partridge will be soon excluded from hunting game species,
however, if it would be an effective action-it is not easy to predict. Thus, partridge as a
species with unsure fate ahead of it and with many unknowns regarding its future, should
raise the interest of game keepers and researchers, but also of all of people who are not
indifferent to the fate of Polish native birds.
2. Threats and conservation
2.1. Threats
2.1.1. Climate factors
Among threats described below, climate is one of the more important and influential
for the whole population of the species. What has been taken into account are not the changes
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observed during several decades that undoubtedly influence the life and development of the
organisms, but the weather changes that come with seasons.

Partridges, as birds active during the day, are exceptionally appreciative of sunbathing
and they can very often be found warming themselves up in dug holes and in bumps on the
ground. Poland – a land located in temperate climate, sometimes with violent breaks in the
weather – might not be the most suitable place for partridge population. But it is worth
remembering that these birds adapted to these changes too, having developed mechanisms
like higher birth rate, re-nesting and the ease of adaptation to habitats.
For partridges the leanest periods of the year are spring and winter. When spring
comes, it is still cold and rainy, but this is the time when partridges start their most important
phase in life – brooding. Rain lasting for several days a week is detrimental for the
development of the brood. Partridges are adverse to prevailing wetness, adult birds avoid
wetlands and habitats that are subject to flooding.
After winter the ground is soaked with water and near the end of spring sometimes
there are intensive rains, which causes the water to stagnate. During flooding periods, eggs
often quickly chill. Little temperature fluctuations or constant wetness are enough to prevent
eggs from hatching. The method of building several nests by females is thus an effective
survival strategy. Extreme vulnerability to temperature drops– mainly to the temperatures
below zero – also concerns young chicks. Rising food demand and long rains in spring and
early summer are the cause for the problems with sustaining the optimal temperature. They
are also the cause for limiting the numbers and activity of insects that are an important source
of high-protein food for newly hatched chicks. Losses during spring are significant. As it was
mentioned before, they reach about 25% of population, and big part of them is caused by
spring weather changes.
Summer is an easy time for partridges if there is sufficient food base. This is the time
of increased partridge activity. The hardest time of the year is winter. Hard and long, with
heavy snowfall and low temperatures for an extended period of time, it decimates partridges.
Death rate after this period reaches even 90%. Such a small animal is unable to survive in
long standing thick layer of snow. Each energetic expense is related to such a following
weakness that whole flocks of partridges sit motionless and warm themselves together. Thick
layer of snow makes it impossible to forage food. Being digging birds, partridges can find
several grass or grain shoots in places where ground is uncovered, but still it is not enough to
satisfy their needs. On windy fields chilling happens really quickly. Individual birds are also
an easy target for predators because they are clearly visible on the snow. Partridges use mid-
field trees, thickets, hedges and surrounding houses to find shelter, warmth and food. Human
help is often vital. It is enough to organize feeders with seeds on the fields, where partridges
can hide, or just to throw some seed under the hedge. But it should not be done in places
where cats and dogs reside, because a partridge slowed by snow has little chances in this case
to use this free food.
2.1.2. Habitat factors
Partridges – as their close relatives, quails – prefer dry habitat. They are not overtly
fond of dry lands or steppe. They adopt well to habitats changed by man. Sandy places, used
as dust bathes are particularly important for partridges.
Previously mentioned patchwork quilt landscape of grasslands, stubbles and
wastelands is currently very rarely seen. Optimal habitats for partridges started to disappear in
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the 1950s, with consequent introduction of collectivization into agriculture and development
of plantation agriculture. First signs were observed in Germany (at the time GDR), when
partridge numbers started to drop sharply. Unfortunately, monocultures are becoming more

popular in Poland, which means that the food base for partridges is also disappearing. It is
noticeable in these regions of country where partridges are receding. Western part is abundant
in huge agricultural areas, but it does not mean a stable partridge numbers.
The way that fields are managed is also important. Crop structure considerably
influences the amount of partridge food base. Bearing in mind that partridges are strongly
territorial, it has to be taken into consideration that they will not move in search for better
foraging grounds place, as opposed to other species. It is recommended to leave the stubble
until the end of spring, to allow partridges to find seeds and larvae for chicks. Re-seeding
various types of grass on purpose brings good effects.
The population of partridges is also influenced by the lack of beetle banks, wastelands,
idle lands and set-asides. Even a small portion of a field (5%) left as a wasteland is beneficial
for partridges. Parts of field roads that have not been mowed ensure food base for adult and
young birds, and also can have aesthetic values due to various grassland plants growing there,
such as cornflowers and poppy.
2.1.3. Anthropogenic factors
Partridge is a bird closely linked to agricultural changes brought into landscape, and
this is why anthropogenic impact on environment is not such a limiting factor compared to the
influence of human activity on black grouse or western capercaille.
One might expect that their adaptability would make partridges’ existence easier.
These birds are more resilient to environmental changes, their clutches are more numerous
and they easily adapt to changes and also they are not afraid of people.
Unfortunately, some aspects of partridges’ behaviour might prove fatal. In a dangerous
situation, partridges can fly or run a short distance, but most often they crouch on the ground.
A female persistently sits on a nest and will not leave chicks or the eggs she warms. When
haymaking season begins, or especially the earlier process of mowing the grasslands
commences (May – June), many nests are destroyed, oftentimes together with their
inhabitants. This does not leave the chance for another brood in this season. When farming
machines are in use, they start working at the edge of the grassland or field, moving towards
the centre, which means that birds – even frightened males– are unable to escape.
An integral part of modern farming is the use of chemical plant protection products –
herbicides and pesticides. The lack of insects, when they are the only thing young chicks feed
on, disables the normal development and the birds which die of hunger. What is more, using
herbicides to get rid of plants that facilitate the proliferation of insects preferred by chicks
leads to even more severe limitation of food base. The mass utilization of pesticides is one of
the main reasons for the decline in numbers of partridges in majority of European countries,
also in Poland. Moreover, wide use of fertilizers has a negative influence on the environment.
Fertilizers are introduced into matter circulation as elements of plants that are partridges’
food, and they consequently accumulate in animals organs.
Partridges, being a species that likes to reside in the edges of fields and wastelands,
often hide in stripes of vegetation and drainage ditches near roads. They can often be seen
escaping from under the vehicles’ tires. Releasing partridges in areas close to the fast roads
might be a problem, although it seems that accidents rarely happen.
In the past poaching was a huge problem. It can be correctly assumed that in some
Page 14
regions of eastern Poland illegal hunting of partridges was lower than controlled hunting use
only by a margin. Illegal hunting happens mainly in winter and manifests itself in a form of

stealing eggs from nests. Currently poaching does not constitute a big problem endangering
the species’ existence.
Hunting currently includes only 5 – 10 % of the population on the areas abundant in
partridge, and it has definitely the smallest influence on partridges’ population in Poland.
What is more, along with a decrease in partridge numbers, the interest of hunters in catching
them also declines. On the other hand, it is the hunters who are responsible for conservation
of animals and now they manage releasing partridges into the environment, which requires a
lot of effort and financial investments.
2.1.4. Biotic factors
In the observation and research regarding partridges population, the influence of

predators as main factor conditioning the survival of the species cannot be overlooked.
The most important phases in the lives of partridges are breeding season and winter.
During both of these periods the highest death rate is observed. The loss of brood in 70% is
caused by predators destroying the eggs. Chicks are more often victims of hunger and weather
conditions.
Main predators threatening partridges are carnivorans, especially fox, marten, stoat
and badger. The influence of birds of prey has not been well observed. Probably the most
negative impact is caused by corvids (rook, hooded crow, raven) when their activity during
time of brood can be definitely disadvantageous. Regarding birds of prey (northern goshawk,
common buzzard), they can be a factor influencing the process of releasing partridges that in
the time of release are still unfamiliar with predators and their behaviour. Such partridges are
an easy prey even for a buzzard that is not a specialist in hunting hens.
Situation is different in regard to mammals, especially in case of the main predator of
partridges – fox. Research shows that reducing the population of foxes, the numbers of which
have steadily risen in recent years, is positively correlated with brood rearing success of
partridge. Foxes hunt adult birds throughout the whole year, thus in winter and spring the
death rate is the highest and it is directly related to the partridges’ reproduction.
On a wid- spread fields the nests are often located near the farm roads. These roads
unfortunately are also the paths used by foxes when patrolling their territories, so tragic
meetings ending badly for partridges are not so unusual. If areas were more structurally
diverse, predators would have more options for a place of hunt to choose from, so they would
not be as dangerous a threat for brood or incubating females.
While describing the unfavourable biotic factors, it is impossible to overlook
domesticated animals – dogs and cats. After the Second World War shootings of these
predators were conducted (even up to 80 thousands of animals per year), when they were
placed in a group of so called hunting pests. Currently a rather controversial ban on shooting
is in force, which leads to a situation where homeless or uncared-for dogs and cats are another
unusually successful factor reducing the population of animals living in fields and grasslands.
During the research concerning this problems, Polish Hunting Association in Czempin
applied questionnaires which provided an observation that in years 2000/2001 about four
thousands of instances of killings were caused by dogs and cats. 90% of the animals killed by
cats were small game – that is hare, pheasant, partridge, without mentioning the unregistered
number of smaller animals that are sometimes rarely seen in Poland.
Page 15
2.1.5 Diseases and parasites

Small game like partridges contract diseases easily and pass them on other individual
members of the flock. In special cases, infectious diseases are transmitted during a search for
a partner among coveys, during copulation or an overnight stay in groups. Some of the
diseases might decimate whole groups of partridges, even though it happens very rarely.
General diseases which afflict these birds are:
 Leg itch mite (athlete’s foot) – evoked by Knemidocoptes mutant or Knemidocoptes
gallinae mites. It is not very contagious and mostly, nestlings are infected by hens in
the nest. The symptoms are: peeling skin, crusts and growths on legs and on fledgeless
parts.
 Mycoplasmosis – evoked by bacteria or a few species of mycoplasmas. It is an
extraordinarily severe disease, transmitted by droplet contact, with which a nestling
can be infected even in the egg. Its symptoms are: head cold, palpebral and subfrontal
sinuses edema. Because of the respiratory tract obstruction, the bird has breathing
problems which often leads to death.
 Salmonellosis – caused by Salmonella bacteria. The disease is incurable, often found
in bigger groups. It is transmitted by eggs and adult individuals. Direct disseminators
might be ducks and geese which do not suffer from the disease. Salmonellosis is most
visible among nestlings - through diarrhea.
 Infectious laryngitis and bronchitis – a disease found frequently, manifesting itself in
peculiar breathing problem: stretching the neck while inhaling and laying the head low
while exhaling. The secretion from respiratory openings is visible, which often
suffocates the birds.
 Infectious bronchitis – the symptoms are similar to mycoplasmosis and laryngitis and
bronchitis. Weakness, spiracle leakage, sneezing, dyspnea are found in sick birds.
 Syngamiasis – caused by Syngamus trachea nematodes. These parasites attach to the
trachea wall and drink the bird’s blood. When it coughs up the laid eggs of a
nematode, it swallows and excretes them with feces. The infection is caused by
annelids and snails which feed on bird excrement. Similarly to inflammations and
mycoplasmosi, it causes leakages and dyspnea. The bird suffers from a sibilant cough,
it rubs its eyes and bill. Big clusters of infections lead to death of all the birds,
especially young individuals. (photo no. 4).
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Pic. 4 Syngamiasis. Visible in the picture, Syngamus trachea nematode in a dead partridge’s
cut open trachea (photo by R. Dziedzic)
 Heterakidosis – caused by nematodes – Heterakis sp., which place themselves in

intestines. The disease manifests itself in losing weight, diarrhea until the organism
gets emaciated.
The disease more relevant to the state of being locked and bad nutrition is pterofagia,
which afflicts caught wild birds or big bird concentrations in aviaries. It symptomizes in
plucking their own feathers or other birds’ in the flock. It may also transform into
cannibalism.
Partridges apply various sanitation measures to protect themselves, mainly from parasites.
The most important ones are cleaning their feathers a couple of times during the day and sand
or dust baths, to which they dedicate a fair part of the day in the summertime during their
midday rest.
2.2 Conservation methods

Protection of partridges, as well as any other endangered species, demands system
solutions, which need the integration of various subjects responsible for animal environment,
economic processes taking place in it or economic requirements, which the protection must
meet. When it comes to partridges, three elements are constitutional in aforementioned
system. These are: the knowledge of the current state of partridges on a given territory;
working out a method of constant monitoring local populations and introducing birds coming
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from diverse sources.

Actions connected to the estimation of partridges’ population number and spatial
distribution of family groups on a given territory belong to the scope of recognition of the
current state of the population.
The selection of protection methods is an obvious consequence and result of the
recognition of the state of the population. Their spectrum is determining methods of bird
monitoring, protecting birds in particular phases of their lives and what is more, finding
methods to limit dangers. The last element of the system is related to indicating very poor
states of partridges and involves series of actions connected with bird introductions, and that
is when, using which material, where etc.
It is worth emphasizing that protection measures will be effective purely and simply
when the tasks from all the aforementioned elements are reliably executed.
2.2.1 Population assessment

The old saying of Siberian fur-bearing-animals huntsmen goes: “To have more game,
you must know how much of it you have now”. And it is correct both when it comes to
animals whose life is not in danger and they do not come under hunting usage, and when it
comes to rare species, in this case partridges. Indeed, estimation of the current state of
population is essential to protect actions both from the aspect of estimating the original state
before taking action, and concerning documenting changes taking place in population as a
result of taken protection actions. Yet, the inventory rank would not be complete if it referred
only to protected or reconstructed species. In case of partridges, however, there is a very
trophic system which consists of a discussed partridge on one hand, and of its main predator,
which is a fox, on the other hand. This scheme has been repeatedly confirmed in scientific
research in different countries. The results of this research show unequivocally that the main
cause of partridges’ death rate, both the wild partridges’ and birds’ re-introduced to the
hunting ground, is the fox. Therefore, the estimation of the population of foxes on partridge’s
restitution area is prioritized as the second task to be performed after taking an inventory of
partridges. The estimation of the habitat quality, wintering conditions improvement etc. are
only next in line.
When should the inventory be taken then? Legal requirement is clear-cut in this
matter. The estimation of the game state needs to be treated as a peculiar balance of the
ending production year (the end of March) and an opening balance of the year beginning on
1st of April. Such game counting event shows its state the open season begins with what kind
of protection and hunting measures can be taken thereupon. If the population size and the
number of planned partridge re-introduction actions are small, repeating the counting event
once or more times a production year should be considered. The estimation of fall population
concentrations should be especially emphasized. It happens so because growing season – the
brooding season is, so called, a population bottleneck for most of the game populations. What
is more, this critical period of time is practically totally deprived of the possibility of our
interference, because of unpredictable weather conditions, lack of influence on the way and
date the agro-technical operations are performed by farmers, and often too passive attitude of
hunters shooting predators. The death rate of young partridges stays out of control then.
Sometimes it is so high that it might eliminate earlier protection effort. This is what methods
of the local populations estimation performed in fall and winter are for.
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Methods of taking an inventory of partridges are, from methodical and technical

aspect, easy to perform. All they need is consistency, and what sounds surprising but is
incredibly important, respect for private land property. When they are repeated and

documented every year in comparable weather conditions and at the same places, they might
be the source of priceless information about the current state of game on hunting grounds. In
the longer period of time, they may also provide valuable data on trends taking place on
hunting grounds under species restitution.
There are two very helpful and seldom used in practice methods of estimating the state
of partridges on hunting grounds presented below. Those are the methods of counting the
coveys and birds getting louder during spring mating. The advantage of the presented
methods is a direct contact with animals and the possibility of estimating their condition or
increase. They are also more precise in case of low partridge density. The method of belt
appraisal which also estimates partridge density was skipped in this part; however, it was
described in the part dedicated to the hare.
Winter counting of partridges flocks
Very small population numbers of partridges often disable estimating their population
density using the appraisal method. Sometimes the number of birds is just too small and
coveys might be scattered so that the appraisers might not encounter the birds which results in
the lowered population number. The method of searching and counting the flocks during
snow retention might be helpful in this situation. Field works, as in the case of belt appraisal,
need to be begun with dividing the site on small, car-accessible areas. Partridges tend to keep
close to roads and buildings during winter. It is not known what causes it, nevertheless, the
phenomenon can be used while counting the flocks. You should set off only when weather
conditions are favorable. A slight frost and little mantle of snow definitely help the
observations. Driving slowly the selected areas, huntsmen look out for coveys which are
clearly visible then. It is important not to startle hens, neither while driving near the flock nor
approaching their potential whereabouts on foot. And those might be the skirts of fields near
habitations or of fields and orchards adjoining the farmstead, which are usually set in
backyards. The observers should put the location of partridges on maps and count the birds in
coveys as much as possible. Such pieces of information should be summed up and the
counting event should be repeated at least twice with similar weather conditions. The flock
counting method will obviously not give us very precise number of the population density on
the hunting ground; we are more likely to get general data. Nevertheless, after seeing the hens
once again near the previous whereabouts, the hunting ground hosts should be alarmed to
head to this area and set traditional bird houses for partridges (though sometimes they are set
too profligately and it is not justified) or pay more attention to these places during individual
predator hunts. We often do not realize the fact that a flock of partridges, with small
population size on the hunting ground which is additionally full of predators, is doomed to
extinction if the huntsman will not take strong measures against foxes, martens and other
predators, which will sooner or later “detect” our hens anyway.
The additional advantage of counting the winter coveys is an easier choice of places
for future introductions of farm birds. We must assume that if there are still resettled places by
partridges on our territories, maybe the survival rate of breeding birds in these places will be
higher and clutching and removal of the birds will be more effective.
The count of vocalizing partridges

Spring is a courtship display time not only for forest birds. In March and April, one
Page 19
may use the calling and accosting of the playing partridges to estimate the spring population
density of mating birds. The count of vocalizing males can be performed in a few ways. A
group of a few or more appraisers can be assigned to areas selected earlier – places in which

intercepts will be performed again. If the group of contestants is small, one may plan transects
on the selected area, just like the belt appraisal technique, on which appraisers would shift
around in the early evening. The appropriate time to start the intercepts is late afternoon and
dusk. Partridge males begin to vocalize during the gray of the day. The appraisers should
know and orientate on the area, because every vocalizing male should be put on the site plan
by the direction from which it was heard. This way of taking stock is useful during conducting
intercepts on small areas (for example, one intercept station per 500 hectares of fields). After
having finished the count, a person summing up the inventory might plot out playing birds on
the map very precisely and determine the localization of partridge’s couples. Currently, if one
is in possession of a recording of the mating birds (e.g. a cell phone recording), one might
successfully provoke birds, which do not want to vocalize at a specific moment. However,
one should exercise caution and if there is no break in the weather (a drizzle, wind), one
should abstain from proceeding. Sometimes partridges after such an “artificial” courtship
display are confused with a “new” intruder’s presence on their territory and they attack him. It
is an unnecessary challenge and energy spending. Permanent intercept stations as well as
transects enable determining the area (according to the map) on which partridges were
registered. The population density of partridges (couples) may be then calculated by
estimating the number of vocalizing males per the selected land area.
2.2.2 Release of partridges into the wild

Partridge re-introduction can be performed in a few ways. There has been no clear-cut
evidence indicating the superiority of any method so far and the success of re-introduction
depends not only on the way of setting the birds free, but also on the site preparation, crop
structure, predation scale etc.
The general division of methods results from the fact whether the birds are directed
straight to the hunting ground after farmstead breeding, or are still kept in acclimation or
quarantine aviaries. If it is the former, after the spring hatch (it may be an artificial hatch in
hatchers or a natural hatch by partridges or hen caps), birds are bred on farms until the second
half of summer, i.e. until August and the beginning of September. The aforementioned
breeding is not an objective mimesis of nature. The birds are kept in a large density, fed and
watered by men with specially prepared food and their contact with natural environment is
restricted because of e.g. sanitary reasons. At the end of summer and in the beginning of fall,
partridges are entrapped and transported to the place where they are released. Undoubtedly,
the most dangerous manipulative activity is the entrapment. It is highly advised to perform it
in the evening or at night, and keep the birds in huge transportation cages in a cold place
which is far away from the source of additional stress. Transportation to the hunting ground
should take place the same night, and the release early in the morning. The release should
preclude the birds from flying and panicking. The best way to release the birds is to open the
transportation cage in thick vegetation of a mid-field refuge near a box or other shelter with
which they were in contact during entrapment. The food laid on the feeding rack should be the
same as the one they have been fed hitherto. However, it is essential to mention that the
release of partridges should definitely not be an opportunity to loud celebration, public show
for big audience or school trips! We must remember that we deal with living animals, which
are under a lot of stress because of all the hardships (entrapment, transportation) they are
Page 20
going through so the ethical responsibility of a re-introduction manager is to provide all the
necessary release conditions that would eliminate their stress (photo no. 5).

Pic. 5 Transportation and any manipulation of partridges are very stress-inducing and
maximum effort should be put to prevent them from unnecessary suffering
(photo by P. Nasiadka)
The technique of releasing birds from farmstead breeding described above should be
also applied to the remaining re-introduction methods. They focus on keeping the birds
temporarily in quarantine or adaptation aviaries. The aim of the first of already mentioned
aviaries is, as the name says, quarantine of birds transported to the hunting grounds. As it has
been already said, for this short period of time, partridges are exposed to extreme activities
which might result even in their death. To determine the state of birds in which they are sent
to the recipient, it is a good idea to keep them for 24 or 48 hours in small aviaries which
would provide peace and shelter in places of direct settlement/introduction. If partridges are
going to be kept in large acclimation aviaries in prospect of their spring
settlement/introduction, one should assign a small area to them the day they arrive to observe
their behavior and condition after the transportation. The area of quarantine aviary has not
been unambiguously defined yet. It depends on the number of settled/introduced birds, field
conditions, supervision possibilities etc. After the fixed period of time, the aviary needs to be
opened not startling the birds and enabling them to come outside. It has to take place early in
the morning. After having opened the aviary, the settlement/ introduction site must be
abandoned; and dismantling and transportation of the quarantine aviary must be performed
the next day which gives the opportunity to search the site for dead birds.
Acclimation aviaries, unlike the quarantine ones, are relatively large fenced areas in
which the partridges are kept for a significantly longer period of time. It enables the birds to
get used to somehow new environment, learn how to collect the natural feed, and sometimes
to get to mate and have brood. From the aspect of acclimation, the aviary may only serve as
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an acclimation device or an acclimation-breeding device if the option of getting to mate and

creating families come into play. The acclimation applies mostly to partridges transported to
the hunting ground in fall. Following the perennial tradition (in the south of the Czech

Republic the history of hen wintering goes back over 100 years), many leaseholders and
hunting ground managers keep partridges for the hardest winter period when there is no food
and shelter to set the birds free in spring before mating. A variant form of this method is
letting the birds mate in aviaries and releasing them coupled. In both cases, the acclimation
should be conducted in the way that the birds could learn in time how to use the food stock
and shelter in the aviary with less and less of human interference. Therefore, the adaptation
aviary should be big enough to enable the birds to shift around freely and high enough for a
short flight. Obviously, it is not possible to create large format aviaries from objective
reasons. Yet, a fenced from sides and top area of 0.5 ha is minimum for the proper
acclimation and adaptation of approximately 50-100 partridges in winter. The environment
inside the aviary should be reasonably natural, and the cultivation should be similar to the one
the birds would meet outside. Feeding the partridges in adaptation aviaries should depend on
weather and birds’ condition. One needs to begin with doses corresponding to the farm ones
and then gradually decrease the amount of food until the complete reduction.
The bird entrapment should be performed in early spring – at the end of February, in
the beginning of March. Weather conditions should not restrict the entrapment in that time.
Birds are prepared for tough winter conditions, which are about to end anyway, and the faster
they will be transported to the open environment, the more likely it is for them to mate. If
there are some partridges remained for breeding, one needs to abstain from entrapment until
the couples are observed. They are easily identified because partridges stay close to each other
and out of the way of the main flock. They are also easily separated.
Among other re-introduction methods, there is a method that deserves particular
attention – the method using the adaptation ability of parental couples of other nestlings after
losing their own offspring. This method is used in known couples’ localizations (e.g. after
spring inventory of vocalizing males). Having three- or four-week nestlings from farm
breeding at one’s disposal, one may „lay” them to a wild couple. It is performed early in the
morning; the nestlings initially locked in transportation cages are located in the couple’s
acreage. Young birds after being transported to the hunting ground, led by the natural instinct,
start to vocalize immediately after setting the cage. If wild partridges react to their voice
(vocalizing as well at first, then approaching the young ones), then one may imperceptibly set
the birds free, e.g. with a cage door opened on a string by a person hidden in a car). The
chance of succeeding is the bigger the younger the nestlings are, the shorter period of time
after losing brood of the wild birds and the better knowledge of the couple’s living acreage.
Another method of, not as much bird settlement/introduction, but supporting local
small population densities was put forward by the British. In this method, the basic rank of
partridge span is attributed to the family flock. Indeed, partridges are very familial species,
they spend a year after the hatch in their family flocks until the next spring. The family flock
size usually decides about their winter survival and sometimes the coveys join other family
coveys and birds which did not proceed with clutch or lost it. In other words, partridges which
winter alone are doomed to the extinction. To increase the chances of the flock survival a new
method has been found, it is about settling/introducing family flocks from the farm breeding
or adaptation aviaries. It is performed in fall after the harvest and general agricultural works,
that is after the biggest rural landscape disturbance. Technically, settlements/introductions do
no differ from other kinds of release. They are conducted early in the morning, imperceptibly
opening quarantine aviary or letting the hens into thick refuges near the living places of wild
Page 22
flocks. The birds should quickly realize their mutual presence. The lack of instinct to defend
their territory at that time and the plentitude of food after the harvest serves to accept their
mutual presence and deteriorating weather conditions often strengthen the emergent coveys.

There are 5 methods of partridge re-introduction depicted in the table no. 4. Starting
from the classic one, that is re-introduction of birds from the fall farms, and ending with
supporting the local wild populations. (No. 4 and 5).
No. Spring Summer Fall Winter Spring Summer Fall REMARKS

1 Farm Territory Classic
Adaptation With
2 Farm Territory adaptation
aviary
Farm Adaptation Clutch Territory
With clutch in
3 aviary the aviary
Territory
Farm Territory
4 Adoption
(nestlings)
Farm
Territory
5 Family flocks
Breeding
Territory
aviary
Table no. 4 Chronological diagrams of different methods of partridge re-introduction
2.3 Improving habitat conditions

The animal habitat plays the key role in the survival rate and condition of local
populations. This knowledge gained such huge acceptance among scientists and practitioners
taking care of nature protection or hunting, that it became undoubtedly an “ecological axiom”.
Unfortunately, practically, conserving or improving habitat conditions for game is beyond the
legal boundaries of hunting clubs or non-governmental preservation associations. This matter
concerns, in most cases, private land ownership and methods of using these lands resulting
from economic needs of the owners.
The parts of animal habitats which decide about their occurrence are food stock and
shelter protecting the animals from predators and enabling them to build a nest and clutch.
Rural landscapes in Poland, especially in the central and eastern part of the country, seem to
be diversified enough to be a proper habitat for partridges, at least in reference to the shelter
accessibility. The situation is worse, though, when it comes to the food stock. The
aforementioned economic reasons make them a habitat poor in food stock for partridges,
despite the field fragmentation and their small area. It concerns both, adult birds feeding
mainly on plants and nestlings which require their food to consist in 60 % of meat. During the
vegetation, especially in crop growth phase (ergo clutching and giving birth by hens), the crop
is very often treated with pesticides and weedkillers becoming barren monocultures.
The possibilities of improving habitat conditions of partridges involve the adaptation
of species composition of crops. However, this measure is possible on a small scale limited to
the lands being in possession of the manager of the hunting ground area or being leased by
him. The managers or lessees, who have their own land, may operate in two ways. The first
ones mentioned above, are short-term and concern cultivating plants for prey and partridge
Page 23
shelters. Those can be cultivations of buckwheat, lupine, ornithopus, and in case of little
hoofed pressures – primarily of boars, but also potatoes or beets. The last type of cultivation is
definitely the most expensive one and gives good service to partridges mainly during the

vegetation; nevertheless, it is a good idea to set beds for these plants if one knows about the
birds’ localization. When it comes to grains and other plants, crops are set to create shelter
and food stock during the fall-winter period, and to provide clutching places during intensive
farming. The distinctness of “partridge crops” is not limited only to their founding place, but
to the way they are maintained or rather relinquished to maintain in the first place. These
crops cannot be treated with either fertilizers or pesticides. Only then may they become a
refuge of various species of plants and insects for local hen flocks. A remark connected to
completely other matter than protection of partridges should be made here. It is related to the
social reception of the actions taken either by the hunting club or forest inspectorate. If the
sources of the reception are only unkempt fragments of farm crops localized among fields
maintained accordingly to agrotechnical rules, then it is difficult to expect the reception to be
positive. What is more, leaving the “unattended” in public opinion crops may cause
unwillingness to programs because of weed infestation on fields or the lack of “fight with
insect pests”. It is a good idea to take care of social development of legible information
transfer about protective actions of partridges earlier. It will hugely increase the acceptance
level for partridge protection (although breaking stereotypes especially in traditionally
conservative agricultural societies is not easy) and it might even help to avoid destroying
these crops, for example during the common practice in recent years of burning off the
wastelands.
“Protection” crops were justifiably compared here to wastelands. Indeed, such crops
are not subordinated to typical agrotechnical treatments and what is more, they remain
unharvested for winter. It is only then that they play their most important role as a shelter and
food stock for partridges. Unfortunately, in spring they resemble rather a wasteland than a
developed field. All the agrotechnical works such as plowing, plantation, possible fertilization
have to be performed out of the time period of nesting and egg sitting by hens in such a way
that the birds getting ready for winter found food and shelter on them.
Another type of works in the open territories has a more time-prospective character
and it involves setting up mid-field refuges. These refuges and the way of setting them up
were multiply described in textbooks about developing field hunting ground areas. Their
constructions consist of sectors, starting from the tree sector in the middle of the refuge, short
fruit trees around the center and thick bushes and fields sector outside. Because the refuges
are meant to be useful for the whole animal group living in agricultural landscapes, their
“structure” should be universal. From the point of view of a partridge, mid-field refuges might
be a bit simplified and limit themselves only to a tree and fruit bush grove surrounded by a
field. A bird house with food laid down in winter, put in the middle of the refuge only tops it
up.
2.4 Promoting the need for conservation actions

It is definitely a cliché to say that effectiveness of any protective actions depends not
only on the way re-introduction is performed or on the choice of materials for the
reintroduction, but also social awareness and reception of the protection works.
This issue, partially raised in the previous chapter, concerns a wide spectrum of the
activity of people not directly affected by restitution, but working or spending leisure time in
the habitat of the endangered species. And that is what all the actions aiming to bring
Page 24
awareness and promoting the protection of partridges should be about. It should be heavily
emphasized that promoting the protection of partridges is a task which goes beyond
organizational or financial capacities of a single hunting club. These actions demand

consolidation and co-operation of a wide circle of people, of whom undoubtedly the most
important ones are the local-governments, and then the rest of the people engaged in
restitution programs.
Referring to agriculture, the need of protection and actions taken for this purpose
concern protecting the places in which partridges are distributed and promoting agricultural-
environmental programs serving to protect the nature. Even though, the appropriate programs
have a few years old tradition in Poland and studies are generally available, they are too little-
known to the wide circle of farmers. Therefore, information about programs and possible help
in preparing applications should be addressed to and directly reach the farmers. Agricultural
advice facilities and other self-governing units, whose employees and the scope of actions
have a direct contact with people working on farms play a very import role.
Outside the European Union programs, initiatives taken individually by, for example
forest inspectorates or hunting clubs are valued. Their scale is obviously smaller than the
potential of agricultural-environmental programs, but in the perspective of protection of local,
small populations of partridges, the efficiency of such actions is not a foregone conclusion.
They are about agreeing with the farmers on the scope of field works, which would be
accepted by field managers and profitable to partridges at the same time. Such arrangements
may be made skipping the agreement procedure or by writing up a contract with the land
owner in which the farmer guarantees to perform a treatment in another season or on one part
of their acreage. It is worth mentioning that agreements between the farmers and huntsmen
are nothing new in their relations. They involve the field protection from the damage made by
animals and the method of developing crops from the damaged farming the same way as
discussions on subject matters such as plowing the stubble only in spring the next year after
the harvest.
Undoubtedly, the biggest needs of promoting the protection of partridges are in the
area of these actions raising awareness to the farmers of the disastrous impact of burning off
the wastelands, ditches and meadows in spring. Nowadays, it is difficult to explain the reasons
to harm lives on hundreds of hectares of open territories. Apparently, the actions informing
about disastrous consequences of burning grass are too little persuasive and the criminal
responsibility for burning grass is too small. Informative actions should be taken consistently
every year, starting from early spring and their initiators should be every possible agency.
Self-governments indicating the fire hazard of burning the wastelands, the State Forests –
considering the fire danger of not only the state forests but also of the private forests; hunting
clubs and NGOs showing the disastrous impact of fires on nature.
A slightly different form of promoting the protection of partridges is connected to
popularizing the knowledge about this and other kinds of agricultural landscape. One of the
more interesting forms are various posters and ecological paths which not necessarily have to
be on fields. Including information about partridges on pedestrian trails or on the stops on
bicycle trails, or on parking lots in forests would be certainly an indirect but maybe effective
way of promoting the protected species.
3. State Forest GBC Kamionna in Forestry Łochów – an example of good

practices
Łochów Forest Inspectorate which became an example of a good practice, has been co-
Page 25
operating with Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW) for many years in a wide range
of forestal studies, including the hunting studies. The result of this co-operation was carrying

out the research in 2009 on partridge re-introduction, which was funded by the State Forests
and the Faculty of Forestry was the contractor. The research is carried out according to the
methodology developed and constantly refined by the author of this part of the textbook.
Owing to the financial support from the State Forests and a huge involvement of many
foresters from Łochów Forest Inspectorate, the telemetric research is possible as well as
landscape development for the partridges is, owing to the contact with local community.
Currently, the project planned for 2011-2014 is in session. However, it will not be the only
research-implementation initiative taken on Forest Inspectorate premises.
3.1 The areas of release

On the northeast of Warsaw, on the borders of Masovia and Podlasie, there is the
Łochów Forest Inspectorate in which the game breeding center Kamionna is located. The
Forest Inspectorate is on the borders of two geological formations. One of them is the
Podlachian Lowland dominated by the flat landscape created largely by the Bug River, and
the second one is the Siedlecka Upland with is characterized by almost unnoticeable terrain
undulations.
Erstwhile, this area was bordered by the Bug and Liwiec rivers and was overgrown by
a thick forest called Kamieniecka Forest. Contemporarily, it would be difficult to call the
landscape of this region a wilderness. The Forest Inspectorate supervises 40 thousand hectares
of forests (approximately 17 thousand ha of state forests and 20 thousand ha of private
forests) but the vast majority of them have small areas, rarely exceeding a few hectares. The
Erstwhile Forest ceased to exist at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. The subsequent
history – annexations and world wars contributed to the annihilation of generally private
forests. Those forests belonged to the Kurnatowski, Kiszka, Radziwiłł, Ogiński and
Kobyliński families until World War II.
After 1945, as a result of changes of the political system, two state forest inspectorates
were created: Łochów and Węgrów, and later after the reorganization in 1979, the Łochów
Forest Inspectorate was created and it exists until today.
The modern Łochów forests are mostly secondary forests, set up by a man on
degraded soils. However, the naturally valuable fragments have preserved and they comprise
seven reservations of a total 600 ha acreage and 6 areas of the European network Natura 2000.
The average annual temperature in Łochów oscillates between 7 – 7.5 °C. Summers
are usually warm and winters are cold. The frost-free period lasts 160 up to 170 days. The
precipitation is very small – 500-600 mm a year. It rains mostly in July, the most rarely in
winter and early-spring months, that is January – February. The snow retention lasts 60 up to
90 days.
The discussed region is a typically rural area, where agricultural lands cover 60% of
the forest inspectorate. The inspectorate runs the hunting economy in area no. 255. It is a
typical field area. Its acreage is 5735 ha and forest lands cover only 1204 ha.
The structure of the GBC land usage covers: forests – 28.3%, arable lands – 40.1%,
meadows – 15.1%, pastures – 7.1% and other lands – 9.2%.
Low-productive soils prevail here: rusty, gleyic podzols and podsol soils. There are no
brown soils. Highly developed in the past, agricultural and economic activity is declining year
by year. Agricultural wastelands and overgrowing pastures become more and more apparent
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in the landscape.

3.2 Improving the living conditions of partridges
The improvement of shelter and preying conditions for partridges in their settlement
places is often the key factor which decides about the success of reintroduction of this species.
Certainly, this thesis is right, nevertheless, it rather comes from generalization of one of the
rules of widely understood nature protection than from the results of the research carried out
on partridges. The experience from Łochów shows that also in this issue, the environmental
science axiom may be used to varying degrees depending on the need. The evaluation of the
environment quality depicted in the chapter further (3.5.2), which was conducted for purposes
of the project in Łochów Forest Inspectorate, shows that the current state of the environment
is not the worst in regard to food stock and shelters. The situation is probably the same on
most of the territories dominated by small homesteads with fragmented fields. However, the
species composition of vegetation for the future partridges’ areas and the rate of changes in
fall become a problem. The species composition of crops is poor both during the vegetation
and in winter, and harvest (keeping the monoculture of species) causes incredibly fast and
significant transformation of the environment. In a few weeks’ time, only bare ground is left
from thick fields of corn.
A lot of attention in Łochów is paid to this problem within the partridge reconstruction
program, but the results have not been significant so far because of the current progress of the
program, but interesting enough to share them.
The first action taken at the Kamionna game breeding center was the choice of the re-
introduction place for the first partridges coming from the “Perdix” aviary. They chose fields
in the central part of the area near the homebred hen flock localized in winter. It turned out
that a few years old fallow lands (basically waste lands), grain-cultivating fields and pieces of
meadows are in direct vicinity. Among all the types of environments, waste lands seemed to
the the optimal shelter, and crop fields a rich source of prey and food stock. Unfortunately,
after the harvest, the fields were quickly plowed and only black fallow land was left from
stubbles filled with seeds. Thus, it was decided that the fields need to be leased for the
purpose of the Project and cultivation should be started, and its crops would remain
uncollected and would be a shelter and food stock for partridges.
The rules of such a lease can be used by other agencies taking analogical protection
measures. The Forest Inspectorate made an offer for the farmer – the field owner and after
getting accepted they wrote up the lease agreement. It is worth mentioning that for the
purposes of, e.g. hunting clubs and small acreages (a few ares), one may make a verbal lease
agreement (unwritten) which do not find use, however, in formalized conditions.
The agreements written up with field owners in Łochów contained a few elements
about which potential followers should know. Those were the following pieces of
information:
1. Who the contracting parties are- forest inspectorate – field owner
2. The duration of the agreement – it is better to renew the agreement every year than
write it up for a few years. If partridges were startled or if they migrated, we might
be left with unnecessary expense – the rent.
3. Unambiguous field signature – lot number, its area
4. The rate of the lease rent and the date of its payment – in such details as whether
the payment will be paid in cash or on the specific bank account (the second option
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with land owner’s account should be preferred)

5. The description who is obliged to pay taxes and other expenses connected to the
land in this situation.

Lease agreements drawn up this way enabled developing about 6 ha of acreages for
partridges, which were left for winter with lupin, buckwheat and cabbage. These crops were
keenly used not only by the partridges, but also by pheasants, hares and even roe deer. The
agrotechnical treatments performed on “partridge’s” fields were limited to the spring sowing
only. No fertilizers, pesticides or herbicides were used (photo no. 6).
One more solution of improving the habitat conditions of partridges found use at the
game breeding center Kamionna in the Forest Inspectorate. It concludes agreements with
farmers who obliged themselves after the harvest to move plowing from fall to spring. This
issue resulted from the autumnal observations of partridges equipped with telemetric
transmitters. After release, these birds felt at home at post-harvest stubbles and spent more
than 70 % of their time there. Partridges did not only find food there, but also perfect disguise
and a place to have sand baths. What is more, it was observed that after the disturbance
caused by the plowing, they came back to their first habitat – a meadow, but they were
quickly harried by predators.
Pic. 6 Crops (buckwheat in the foreground) on fields leased from the farmers for partridges
re-introduced near Baczki at the Kamionna GBC in the Łochów Forest Inspectory
(archival photo of Łochów Forest Insp.)
Thus, there began the action of convincing the farmers who were planning the spring
sowing to leave the stubbles for winter. The result turned out to be promising. Part of the
farmers did not have any objections and after making the agreement (oral or written ones)
they did not start plowing. However, there was a group of field owners who did not agree for
changes and justified it by saying that their fields were “wet” and because of that, the spring
plowing was impossible. Such situations are acceptable by all means. Though, there was a
group of farmers who did not participate in the program just because of the change of the
existing, traditional way of developing fields. This group will certainly be a target group for
the information campaign planned in re-introduction places of partridges.
The last practice, which unfortunately remains in plans, is the intention to lease field
segments from farmers to broaden the balks. It intends to break the monocultural character of
the fields sown mainly with grains and to create places for potential preying and nesting for
partridges. Currently, the lease system (oral, written), granting the use and the way of working
Page 28
out the rent rate are being considered.
3.3 Fox reduction

When the Łochów Forest Inspectorate joined the partridge reconstruction program in
2007, they simultaneously started making an effort to build the “Perdix” aviary and the works
to restrict the fox’s population. It seems untypical, because according to the existing hunting
practice and the stereotype in a sense, which originated from pheasant re-introduction, the
partridge reconstruction should also consist in re-introducing farm birds and it should be a
single re-introduction of significant number of these animals. Whereas, there was not even a
word about “industrial” releasing partridges in targets of the program, a lot of attention was
paid to foxes instead.
The population restrictions commenced with two things at the same time. The first one
was an increased hunting of this predator both individually and collectively, and also using
terrier dogs the last few years. Hunts, except the ones in burrows, do not require a comment
because they are widely known how to be organized and executed both in the State Forests
game breeding centers and hunting clubs. The only drawback in its intensification is
encouraging huntsmen to stay more often on hunting grounds. When it comes to Łochów
Forest Inspectorate, the final and convincing arguments for hunting foxes are the results of the
telemetric observation of the re-introduced partridges. It turned out that the majority of birds
were killed by the foxes, not what they thought previously – by the whole set of predators
(accipitriformes, corvids, cats etc.) The examination of dead bodies of hens testified for this
fact. The scale of settling territories of the Forest Inspectorate by foxes does probably not
differ from other areas in Masovia, or maybe from all the places dominated by the forest-rural
landscape in the country, thus it is highly recommended for the potential followers of this
program to start „fighting” foxes at first, and then to re-introduce the birds.
What does the term foxes “reduction” actually mean in the situation when partridges
are released once or twice a year to a particular place on the hunting ground? Traditionally,
one says about fox reduction in hunting clubs considering animals acquired more or less
accidentally on the whole area. The standard of the reduction is annually increasing number of
shot predators. The experience from Łochów does not confirm this way of thinking and
acting. Why? Because the accidental acquisition of a fox from the place remote from the re-
introduction localization would not bring any help to released birds. One must remember that
foxes are territorial animals and undoubtedly these territories cover the whole area, so
„withdrawing” the predator from the territory which does not cover the re-introduction site
will not have any influence on restriction of fox pressure on the partridges. The first negative
experiences from Łochów (and they are recollected with a hope that they will not be repeated
at other managers’ or lessees’ areas willing to re-introduce the partridges in a similar way)
showed that on one hand, the increase of fox acquisition in game breeding center was noted
but on the other hand, the majority of partridges were killed by the foxes in places where they
were released. There is only one conclusion that can be drawn: it is not about the statistics
when it comes to the bird re-introduction, but about the effective protection of the birds.
This protection was called “watching the partridges with a hunting rifle” and maybe it
is not a sophisticated name for it, but it conveys the message. As it was noticed, there is no
sense of acquiring predators just anywhere, one needs to search for them near the re-
introduced partridges. The result was clear when partridges were released in fall, year by year
near Marianowo. The first year people believed in the misconception that fox concentration is
not high in this region and they should not have any significant influence on partridges. The
Page 29
reality showed a completely different thing. The released birds lasted only two months then.
The next year, if a fox was acquired the morning preceding opening a portable aviary on the
fields nearby, and they were intensely acquired in this area before, the released flock, in a

truncated form survived until spring. In the meantime, the batteries in telemetric transmitters
went dead (battery life – 6 months), but the spring interceptions of the vocalizing couples
indicated their presence in this territory. There is no need to comment it further.
What kind of rules should be in force during fox reduction while re-introducing
partridges? First of all, one needs to hunt the foxes intensively in the whole re-introduction
area before releasing the birds. The aforementioned hunt concerns the area of 300-400 ha
around the re-introduction site, because that is the partridges’ acreage in Łochowo (sometimes
the birds are startled, sometimes they decide about leaving the place after release). If the birds
are startled after the release and move to another place, then the hunts need to be “moved”
after them. As one can see, partridge re-introduction does not end after their release. They
need to be supervised in the beginning and fox hunts make it even easier. The huntsmen
usually see or hear the partridges during the winter hunts which lets the supervisor follow the
coveys or is a signal to search for them if they were startled.
Re-introduction of these animals creates new challenges for managers or lessees of the
areas. It is about the availability of deer blinds which are light enough to be transported or the
availability of portable devices which are easily attached to the mid-field trees. Individual fox
hunts are efficient and more importantly safer when huntsmen have the deer blinds. The
Łochów Forest Inspectorate bought a few portable blinds if they were needed for partridge re-
introduction process. (photo no. 7).
Pic. 7 One of the portable deer blinds used for fox hunts, prepared to be transported near the
future partridge settlements/introductions in the Kamionna Forest Inspectorate
(photo by P.Nasiadka)
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Fox population reduction is not limited to the areas mentioned above, where partridges
are re-introduced. Within the remaining areas, numbers of foxes should be also reduced.

However, the effects of such actions are very poor. The Animal Breeding Centre in the Forest
Inspectorate of Łochów is not the exception in this regard, but it most likely proves the rule
that there are areas in every rural circuit where no fox has been hunted for many years. In the
case of serried forests and big games, such places deserve to be called the refuges…...(?)
Circuit’s tenants and administrators do not want opening foxes refugees because of two
reasons. The first is territorialism and the second is the necessity to build earths. That is why
the area of every hunting circuit is divided by foxes into parts, on each of which there are fox
earths. So fox population reduction should begin with locating the fox earths in the circuit.
Location of fox earths – the beginning of fox hunting
Fox earths in Łochow were localized relatively late, a few years after introducing
partridges. Nevertheless, experiences from Łochów allow to state that such activities should
be taken before introducing birds. The organization and fieldwork are relatively easy. In most
cases, a gamekeeper knows where earths are located. That is why he should inform
a person responsible for fox monitoring about new earths. Because fox earths localization
may be unpredictable, information from farmers can be priceless. The example of Łochów
shows that if it had not been for people living near partridges areas, there would be small
chances of finding earths in abandoned houses, below barns or in fields. Each such location
should be checked and marked on a circuit map. Additional inspection should be done on the
areas where the location of fox earths is unknown but there are, at least theoretical, conditions
for fox settling. These are fragments of forests on hills, hills with sandy soils, areas on which
sand was collected, earthwork for unfilled foundations, ditches and remains of other earth
buildings such as trenches, popular in these circuits (phot. 8).
Pic. 8. Hunting dogs used for fox population reduction. Earths should be sought in abandoned
settlements, ditches and agro-technical equipment (photo by P. Nasiadka).
In the age of advanced technology, all fox earths should be marked on maps giving
their GPS coordinates. It is practical because the control of earths and hunting near to them in
the future may be conducted without engaging their discoverers.
Individual and group fox huntings are well-known and commonly used so they do not
require further explanation. However, the situation is somewhat different in the case of
hunting with the help of hunting dogs. It is an old and traditional method of capturing foxes
but it was regarded as niche because of its character. This method requires well trained dogs
Page 31
and may end with digging up earths, visits to a vet with a wounded dog or even a dog’s loss.
But despite all inconveniences, this is the most effective way of fox hunting and should be
propagated in the circuits where partridges and hares populations are restored.

A few practical details concerning fox hunting are worth noting. They may be useful
for the followers of this method.
1. Fox hunting with the help of hunting dogs, despite the fact that it is often
conducted by two or more cooperating hunters, must not be treated as a group
hunting. That is why a circuit’s tenant and administrator are not obliged to put
them in a group hunting calendar and report it to adequate authorities.
2. If there are no hunters owning hunting dogs, the organization of such a hunt may
take place on invitation or as a service performed by hunting dogs’ owners if
a participation in hunt is a part of their business activity. People from outside who
take part in this event must pay a participation fee and they are obliged to pay for
a visit to a vet if a dog is wounded. The worst situations, such as a dog’s loss,
should be explicitly discussed earlier between an inviter and an invited.
3. The effectiveness of a hunt organized by inviting dogs’ owners depends on the
amount of settled fox earths. One should prepare themselves before such a hunt in
order not to end fruitlessly after finding empty earths. Usually agreements do not
relate to the amount of hunted foxes but only to the arrival and lending dogs.
4. Fox hunting may be organized often (without limits) if there are hunting dogs in an
animal breeding centre or in a hunting club. Each hunting should begin with
searching in haystacks and seedling areas because foxes like to settle in such
places.
5. There are no time limits to fox hunting with the help of hunting dogs during the
hunting season. However, such hunts should be intensified during an estrous cycle
(January, February) and organized during rainy weather when foxes reluctantly
leave their earths.
6. Fox hunting should take place in the whole hunting circuit. Certainly, the places
where partridges live should be the priority.
7. Fox hunting with the help of hunting dogs is not a group hunting so a leader is not
chosen. It is also not a kind of a hunt in which many hunters should participate.
However, before approaching to an earth (very silent approach), it is advised to
select a hunter who will have a decisive voice in the hunt organization. The main
point is that this dynamic hunting should be safe.
Summing up the part concerning fox population reduction, its creativity and vividness at this
stage of reintroducing partridges should be emphasized. Introducing birds should be looked
after because only locating foxes may appear to be misleading and will not bring expected
results.
3.4 Moratorium vs. protection

If 30 years ago an average hunter was asked whether one of the methods used in
hunting should be stopping hunts, he would have been certainly surprised. If it was added that
such a situation should take place in the case of a partridge or a hare, he would have excluded
such tool from the methods of contemporary hunting. Unfortunately, during
a few decades, the situation changed. Game which previously was the basis for hunting in
rural circuits became rare. Because of that, partridge hunting was almost completely stopped
Page 32
in the majority of circuits in Poland.

Moratorium, which is the name for temporal stopping of using game species
population, is undoubtedly an expression of care for animals. In practice, it became an integral

part of all programs aiming to rebuild small game. It can be seen in The Animal Breeding
Centre of Kamionna in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów. Since 2007, partridges have not
been hunted because of their introduction. They had not been obtained either before that time
because there had only been few flocks of them, possible to observe in the winter.
Other important activities concerning game species’ presence despite of moratorium

should be noticed here. Moratorium does not allow circuit’s tenants and administrators to stop
inventorying, feeding animals in the winter and improving their living conditions.
Unfortunately, it is different in practice and endangered species disappear.
Apart from moratorium, there is also another form of animal protection in Łochów that
is passive protection. It concerns all non-game species including animals which directly
threaten partridges or may cause losses in hatchings and nestlings. In the area of these species
there is a contradiction between different protection aims which should not be analyzed in this
handbook. Nevertheless, while entering partridges rebuild programs, one should be aware that
the accipitriformes and corvids are protected and killing them is illegal.
However, it is not an impasse. There are cases of intervening beaver, cormorant and
raven shoots so there is a legal way allowing to shoot corvids in the areas where partridges are
introduced. Efforts for the best promise should begin with the assessment of species
population stands which should be reduced. The previous years showed that this important
element is often undermined by the opponents of shoots – various bodyguards committees.
Because of that, the assessment of crows, rooks, ravens or magpies state should be entrusted
to an independent subject whose authority will not be underestimated in the future.
The second important issue is determining the reduction area explicitly. The
boundaries of the areas where partridges are introduced should be clearly determined and also
additional areas on which partridges could move should be added. In the documentation, the
shooting areas should be marked based on road, rivers or another distinct landscape features.
It is not advised to show the whole circuit as the area of corvids reduction if reintroduction of
partridges occurs in a part of the circuit which can be explicitly determined. An accepted
motion will possibly refer to a hunting circuit or an animal breeding centre but determining
clearly the reduction area by an applicant will reflect his actual intentions and competences.
The next important element in motions for intervening shootings is a clearly
determined conduct with shot animals. It is worth considering. Maybe adequate contracts with
schools, museums and research centers should be signed in order to give them birds after
shoots to be used for didactic or scientific reasons.
A well-constructed motion to the Regional Management of Environmental Protection,
supported with inventory’s results by independent experts, local governments’ opinions etc.,
should be the evidence for caring about protected species and show of respect for species
which are the subjects of reduction.
The last important thing to be discussed in this chapter is the issue of organizational
and legal moratorium or reduction. In the first case, the decision about stopping partridges
hunting may be made by a hunting club or an administrator of an animal breeding center. If
hen huntings are not put in year’s hunting plans and it states that the amount of hens is not
sufficient for hunting, it should be accepted by a forest district office (in the case of hunting
clubs) or by a director of the Regional Management of Environmental Protection (in the case
Page 33
of animal breeding centers).

Reduction shoots look quite different. Motions in this case should be directed to
Regional Managements of Environmental Protection, functioning in the areas where hunting

circuits are located. Because the power of argumentation of one hunting club may be too
week, it is recommended to join motions from hunting clubs with bordering circuits and
submit them with the help of forest district offices (they accept plans) or local governments
which issue their opinions about such plans. When forest district offices and districts have
information from hunters about their planned programs of partridges introduction, they also
know the state of corvids on their areas and this may be the additional source of
argumentation for reduction of shoots of these birds.
3.5 Enhancing local population
3.5.1 The reasons of population decline in Forestry Łochów

Undoubtedly, it may be stated that the areas of the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów do
not differ fundamentally regarding the reasons for partridge extinction from other regions in
Poland. Everywhere, including surroundings of Kamionna, Baczki, Laski or Marianów (towns
located in the area of the forest inspectorate) there was a progress in agricultural machines use
so extensive economy changed into intensive economy. Farmers used fertilizers similar to
those used everywhere else. The market situation forced them to cultivate land in specific
ways and, for this reason, monocultures came into being. Perhaps due to fragmented
agricultural landscape, such changes happened slower and they were not as important as for
example in the Wielkopolska region or other regions with more fertile ground and bigger
cultivated areas. The reasons for hen extinction in this area were the effect of disadvantageous
landscape changes. It is hardly possible to control them because of their many-sided nature
including social or economic conditions and agricultural traditions.
The second group of reasons for partridge extinction in discussed area is because of
the changes of fauna in agricultural landscape in Łochów. It is not about ownerless dogs and
cats. These animals, in fragmented agriculture, have always been present in farms and by
people working in the fields. It should be also admitted that the limited hunting effectiveness
of dogs and cats was of no importance for partridges population when it appeared in great
numbers. Losses may have concerned hatchings when hens led sedentary lifestyles and did
not leave their nests.
The real threat for partridges occurred when the agricultural landscape started
becoming urbanized and there appeared beneficial conditions for the development of species
directly threatening them. In Łochów, partridges got caught in the proverbial crossfire. The
first resulted from non-agricultural land use near villages and settlements and their
all-year-long influence on the environment. In the agricultural landscape there are periods of
intensive work on fields and intervals of tranquility but villages and settlements not involved
in agriculture bring a constant pressure on the environment. It is mainly due to recreation
activities such as taking dogs for a walk, cycling, riding, driving quad bikes or motorbikes.
A fox is one of many game species and although its number is still high, the case of
Łochów shows that one can have partial control over this predator at least during the
reintroduction. However, it has the negative influence on partridges and it was one of the
reasons for partridges extinction in Łochów in the past. The lack of interest in fox trophies,
difficult hunts and lack of natural mortality factors, such as rabies, caused that fox population
was quickly increasing and threatening local flocks of partridges.
Summing up the issue of reasons for partridge extinction in Łochów, it should be
Page 34
emphasized that they were complex. It was not about one factor, for instance a particular
disease, which caused a drop of population. There were at least several reasons and although

they did not cause drastic losses in population alone, together they bring pressure to each
stage of partridges’ lives. For this reason, this species requires now protective efforts.
3.5.2 The assessment of habitat suitability

A variety of habitat types is necessary for life and growth of partridges, especially
considering reproduction success. If partridges are to survive all seasons, it should be
examined if a habitat is suitable for them. The usefulness of habitat includes:
 The abundance of the biomass of plants (the potential abundance of a food base). Its
size depends on fields’ variety. The smallest abundance will be on large monocultures,
devoid of balks, wastelands and sheds.
 A shelter, necessary to hide from a predator and build a safe nest. High grass tufts,
thickets and bushes are important.
Certainly there are many more factors but these can be examined and measured.
In the Animal Breeding Centre of Kamionna, the assessment of the environment for
partridges is done methodologically, also for research on partridges. Because the methodology
of fieldwork is very easy, possibly it will be used by other circuit’s administrators and tenants
who would like to assess the usefulness of habitats for partridges in their areas. In the Forest
Inspectorate of Łochów, since autumn 2012, the areas on which partridges are introduced
have been examined for the abundance and shelters. From each cultivation, 3 land lots are
randomly chosen and 3 samples (squares) of 1 sqm are taken. Samples are collected on two
research areas, near Kamionna and Marianów.
On a randomly chosen square, all flora is cut down (to the ground) and then the
collected plants are divided into different categories. A sample of 18 sqm from both research
areas is obtained. This is the amount of plant material collected from one type of cultivation:
fallow, winter corn, stubble field, wasteland or meadow, depending on what type is available
in the given season.
Such ‘harvests’ are done during the whole year, when seasons are phenologically
chosen and there are crop rotations adequately chosen. Crop rotation changes during changing
seasons according to the actual agricultural economics were considered (Table 3).
Table 3. The division into phenological seasons and cultivation types in the assessment of the
environment of partridges in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów from which samples were
taken to assess the food and shelter abundance.
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Phenological
L.p. Calendar season Cultivation types
season
meadow, wasteland, winter corn, stubble
I 23.09. – 21.12. Autumn
field, green fallow, black fallow
II 22.12. – 20.03. Winter meadow, wasteland, stubble field
meadow, wasteland, winter corn, spring
III 21.03. – 6.05. Early spring
cereals
meadow, wasteland, winter corn, spring
IV 7.05. – 21.06. Spring
cereals, green fallow
V 22.06. – 7.08. Early summer
field, green fallow
VI 8.08. – 22.09. Summer
field, green fallow
Each sample is analyzed, dividing research material into fractions: cultivated plants
(different types of cereals), herbaceous plants (synanthropic and legume plants, moss etc.),
grasses, harvest remains and seeds.
After being divided, they are dried for 24 hours and weighed with laboratory scales to
100 g or hand scales over 100 g. The average amount of one sample may reach to 1.5 kg and
more.
Because research on the abundance of biomass and measurement of the shelter’s
height is still being done, only the initial results from autumn 2012 can be presented. It is an
important season since in the autumn there are birds introduced, for which obtaining food and
using shelters are the key tasks for quick learning. So what is the size of potential prey and
shelter in the autumn?
The figure 5 shows how the examined areas can differ in terms of the abundance,
despite being located close to each other. Two types of agricultural economics can be seen.
The area of Marianów is farmed more intensively and land lots are bigger. That is why there
is much biomass of cultivated fields and less undeveloped fields. The area of Kamionna is
characterized by smaller land lots and bigger mosaic due to occurring there wastelands, uncut
fields, a belt of spruce and a small orchard. In this area partridge can be also found.
Figure 5. The average abundance of potential vegetable prey for partridges in Marianów
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(green) and Kamionna (yellow) in the autumn, expressed in dry weight per 1 sqm.
Legend:
Biomasa – Biomass

Łąka – Meadow
Nieużytek – Wasteland
Ozimina – Winter corn
Ściernisko – Stubble field
Ugór zielony – Green fallow
Ugór czarny – Black fallow
The measurement of shelter from this period shows that meadows and wastelands
(Figure 6) are most suitable for growth of partridges. According to literature, undeveloped
fields are also valuable to partridges. In the examined areas of Kamionna (yellow), the biggest
heights are seen in wastelands and slightly smaller in Marianów. It is too early to predict
preferences because analyses from each season have not been conducted yet. However, it is
interesting that the shelter’s height at the same time shows the depth of a snow cover which
makes the shelter useless. It can be seen in Figure 7 that snow which is 15 cm deep makes
winter corns, stubble fields and fallows useless for building shelters for partridges. Only
wastelands remain which, beside high and dense fields, are not preferred by partridges during
the vegetation period.
Figure 6. The average height of plants (potential shelter) in the autumn in Marianów (green)
and Kamionna (yellow).
Legend:
Wysokość rośliności – Height of plants
Łąka – Meadow
Nieużytek – Wasteland
Ozimina – Winter corn
Ściernisko – Stubble field
Ugór zielony – Green fallow
Ugór czarny – Black fallow
3.5.3 Release into wild

One of the fundamental rules of species protection or introducing animals to their
Page 37
natural environment should be plasticity and a possibility to adapt maintenance of animals to

the actual conditions. The partridge reintroduction program in the Forest Inspectorate of

Łochów consists of three major parts. The first is traditional introducing practiced for many
decades, for instance in the case of pheasants, taking place in the early autumn (Figure 7). In
this case, birds from hatchings and battery farming are introduced.
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Battery farming Introducing Living in the wild
Figure 7. The scheme for traditional partridge introducing
In the case of the described practice, partridges come from the Forest Inspectorate of
Świebodzin, one of several animal breeding centers of State Forests, where partridges are
battery farmed. In the second half of August, several-months birds are sent to Łochów. It is
important to introduce birds after harvests and fieldworks connected with them. Harvests do
not last long but the area is intensively penetrated during them and there is a risk of scaring
hens away. Moreover, a typical picture of Polish agricultural landscape consists not only of
machinery and working people but also of dogs which penetrate fields. The hunting efficiency
of such ‘domestic predators’ is not impressive but penetrating fields and scaring birds away
may be extremely bothersome and cause unnecessary stress and relocating partridges to
another areas. That is why the traditional re-introducing takes place in Łochów relatively late,
even in the half of September. However, this method may be limitedly effective because of a
big contrast between farm and natural conditions (food, shelter, temperature, lack of
predators). Nevertheless, it is widely used. Since 2012, birds in Łochów have been kept in a
small aviary before they are introduced to the environment. The aim is to calm birds after the
catch and transport, and to minimize the risk of panic and chaotic escape of birds after
introducing them.
The second method of reintroduction consists of keeping a part of partridges in an
acclimatization aviary (called also an adaptation aviary) in the winter (Figure 8). Such aviary
was built in the forest inspectorate’s region close to areas of introducing. Partridges are kept
there the whole winter, in the conditions similar to natural.
Spring Summer Autumn Winter Spring Summer
Living at
Battery farming Acclimatization aviary Introducing
large
Figure 8. The scheme of partridges introducing based on the adaptation in the aviary ‘Perdix’.
The process of re-introducing is much longer and laborious but its main aim is to
minimize a contrast between the farm and the land. Partridges are transported to the Forest
Inspectorate in Łochów from the Forest Inspectorate of Świebodzin in the second half of the
summer. In this case, transport of birds is of smaller importance because partridges do not go
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directly to the open environment. This is the first advantage of reintroduction based on the
adaptation in an aviary. The second advantage is the possibility to keep birds in a small area

for 24 or 48 hours to assess their condition after catches and transport. It should be
remembered that subjects of our work are living untamed animals for which each
manipulation (catches, relocation, giving drugs) is very stressful. A short quarantine assures
whether birds are in a good condition or whether there are additional conditions to be fulfilled
before releasing them. When the quarantine ends, a transitional period starts. It could be
named as adaption to environmental conditions or acclimatization to new and unknown
climatic-environmental conditions. In the aviary, there are conditions similar to farm
conditions as well as strange conditions to which partridges will have to adapt in the future.
So apart from a wide space in the aviary in Łochów, partridges have food transported with
them from Świebodzin, boxes in which food is served and troughs – the only source of water
necessary for birds. Feeding and watering does not last long and the amount of food is
gradually reduced. There are no precise rules or algorithms showing how quickly and to what
extent artificial feed should be reduced. However, it is required to observe birds and their
condition and to intensify the feed. If partridges are not interested in feed in boxes, it should
not be served but kept for the future. Usually birds in the aviary are used to taking feed on
their own in the winter and only in special cases, such as a big snow cover, they should be fed
(the same in the natural conditions). Adaption to natural conditions consists also of adapting
birds’ energy uses to needs and climatic conditions occurring outside a farm. In the aviary,
with limited feed and lack of a shelter in the form of farm infrastructure, birds become frugal
in the energy use and they learn to find shelter protecting them from cold or falls. Catches and
relocating partridges to the open environment occur in the early spring. Precise monitoring of
partridges behavior is necessary. It was mentioned in the part concerning the biology of hens,
that these birds are monogamous and they usually find their partners in the end of the winter,
in the early spring, so almost two months before building a nest. That is why catching
partridges from an aviary cannot disturb the process of pairing because there is a big risk that
after catching and introducing them to the environment, they will not pair again and there will
be no reproduction. On February, there are partridges catches in the aviary ‘Perdix’ in
Łochów. Birds are transported to the natural environment in the early morning and then put
for 24 hours to a small adaptation aviary. Then, again in the early morning, they are
non-invasively released. The process is conducted by raising an aviary net which covered the
construction before. Birds should leave it, by flying away.
The third method of introducing partridges in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów is the
most laborious and the riskiest. It is still in an experimental stage more than put into practice
(Figure 9). In the early spring, when birds are observed due to their introducing, it is possible
to isolate birds which found their partners. The adaptation aviary ‘Perdix’ was constructed in
a way that it can be non-invasively divided into 5 fifteen area sections. In these sections pairs
are isolated and other birds are pushed to extreme sections and then caught. Pairs are left in
separate aviaries hoping that they will reproduce. In this way they create a family flock, the
basis of partridges lives in nature. Parents with young ones are caught and released.
Spring Summer Autumn Winter Spring Summer Autumn Winter

Introducing
Living at
Battery farming Aviary Keeping pairs family
large
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flocks

Figure 9. The scheme of introducing partridges based on the adaption and hatchings in the
aviary ‘Perdix’
Bearing in mind the biology of partridges and keeping distance from the actual, very
skimpy knowledge about social hen behaviors, their inter-individual relations or the hierarchy
in family flocks, the system of introducing based on keeping pairs seems to be the most
appropriate. Partridges are known to live in a family flock almost the whole year. It definitely
occurs during hatchings up to the autumn season and the winter unless birds without pairs of
these which lost their young ones join the family flocks. Then it lasts till their disintegration in
the early spring. Adults and their young ones live together for 8 months. So when nature
proposed such a solution for lasting of this species, keeping family flocks in half natural
conditions and then introducing them to the environment seems to be the most obvious.
Unfortunately, it is easy to formulate such a thesis but difficult to put it into practice. It should
be remembered that beside creating a family flock it is also important how it is created. In
aviaries in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów partridges are not bred on the industrial scale
because it is believed that the more, the better and cheaper. Partridges are not forced to hatch,
for example by isolating hens and cocks or partners exchanges. Pairs should find themselves
on their own, similar to a little known process occurring in nature.
An adaptation-breeding assumption of such method of introducing is easy. If five
spontaneously created pairs have young ones, in the autumn there will be about 40 birds
[10 pairs + (5 x 6 young ones)] introduced to the environment. This number is close to the
number of birds bought at a time by hunting clubs (about 50 birds). The difference is that in
the case of traditional introducing, there are several dozen spontaneously selected specimens
at the same age introduced whereas in the case of adapted and bred partridges there are
5 family stocks introduced and it is undoubtedly closer to a natural method.
Each introducing and reintroducing action poses a high risk of failure. Therefore, in
the case of actions in Łochów, there is an emergency variant in case of unpredicted events. Its
first component is the possibility to use different methods of introducing birds depending on
abilities. The second component is the possibility of adopting young ones by partridges in the
case they lose their hatching. This situation took place after a long, snowy winter and a very
wet spring in 2013 when many parts of an aviary were flooded. Partridges lost their first
hatchings and it was decided to introduce to the aviary young ones coming from battery
farms. When this handbook was being written, aviaries were prepared for introducing.
Actions taken in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów deserve to be described mainly for
their extensive character of adopting and breeding in which aviaries are of the biggest
importance. Two permanent aviaries were located here and a portable aviary was bought for
introducing reasons. It can be easily transported and assembled in almost any field conditions.
The main aviary ‘Perdix’ (Phot. 9)
The aviary, the name of which explained its purpose, was built in Łochów in 2007.
Before starting the program of reintroducing partridges, it was considered to put the aviary in
two locations. The first one seemed more adequate at the beginning and it would be placed
directly on the areas of re-introducing. It was unfeasible in practice because there was no
possibility of supervision (uninhabited area, no possibility of an electrically powered railing).
Page 40
The second location was therefore more suitable –near human settlements. The major
disadvantage of this choice was a risk of excessive accustoming of partridges to human
presence or even adapting to them. On the other hand, partridges living in the wild often

approach human settlements, especially in the winter. So, after detailed consideration, the area
closer to the hunting settlement was chosen. There was a pheasantry of the animal breeding
centre three decades ago.
Pic. 9. The aviary ‘Perdix’ in the Forest Inspectorate of Łochów during the preparations for
introducing partridges (archival photo, Forest Inspectorate of Łochów).
Before construction works started, the area for the future aviary was cleaned of all
plants and leveled. Measurements showed that a place of over 0.6 ha closed in a rectangle
with sides of 130.8 m x 50.3 m could be sectioned on this area. In the case of the described
location, a land type was very beneficial. It is known that partridges do not require very fertile
habitats in the wild living conditions. In the aviaries conditions, habitats should be even
weaker than in the environment, because of the fact that several dozen of birds live in a small
area for several months. Natural fertilization caused by partridges quickly improves the
quality of soil and it can become even an obstacle to a future breeding. In Łochów, the base
was made of forest soil, partially sandy, partially typically infertile. In one part of the future
aviary there was once a water body, filled in because of other work fields done before.
Information about such water devices or the areas of impervious soil is important and it
should be remembered before a place for an aviary is chosen. Such places should be avoided
because it is easier, in half natural conditions of keeping birds, to supply an aviary with water
than to have problems with its excess when the ground is hardly absorptive. Leveled and
cleared soil does not require additional actions connected with for example decontamination
or weeding. Only when soil is highly fertile it is advised to use herbicides before taking any
further actions. Such a situation took place in Łochów after a wet spring in 2012, when the
soil, previously ‘fertilized’ by partridges, was moist and in addition there were good weather
conditions (hot and sunny). The aviary was excessively weeded and chemical weedkillers
were applied.
The aviary ‘Perdix’ was built from resources raised by the Forest Inspectorate of
Łóchów within the scope of own works, the so called operational works. An average forest
inspectorate in Poland has well-qualified staff to take care of fences on a daily basis (for
example in forest cultivations or schools), therefore building a tight fence and covering the
aviary with a net is easy. However, if such infrastructure was to be built by hunting circuits’
tenants, it is worth hiring a professional. In the case of own work as well as professional help,
the future aviary must fulfill one basic condition. Animals kept there must be isolated from
the outside environment and it has to be inaccessible for any intruder threatening partridges
Page 41
from outside to go inside. It seems to be easy, especially where different building materials
are available. However, the most important factor is care of making all aviary’s parts,
including construction connections and covers.

As it was mentioned before, a frame of an aviary consists of side walls and inside
pillars, supporting a net covering the top of a construction. This element was extremely
important in the case of ‘Perdix’ because of the closeness to the forest, fear of wild predators
(fox, marten, badger) and the fact that there were settlements close so there was an additional
risk caused by unattended dogs and cats. The aviary’s walls were placed at a concrete base,
20 cm of depth. The base is lifted by 10 to 20 cm above the ground and fence pillars and the
main net forming walls are placed in it. Steel pillars with diameter of 6 cm were used in the
building. The net forming the walls is galvanized and has meshes of 4 cm x 4 cm. Pillars and
the main net form a load-bearing part of wall’s construction. In the next place, there is
a galvanized net with meshes of 1 cm x 1 cm attached, preventing getting into the aviary or
escaping of animals smaller than martens. The net is ‘put’ and attached to the main net outside
the aviary (between pillars and the main net) in a strip between the base and 100 cm above the
ground. Because the project intended to isolate from humans as many partridges as possible,
there is a thick non-woven attached between the main net and the net with small meshes. It
separates partridges from the outside environment. The crucial element of a wall constructed
in such a way is a place where the fine net and the non-woven touch the main net, placed in
the concrete base. This problem was solved in two ways. Firstly, there was a tin flange put
from the outside, fitting tightly to the base and the main net. Secondly, along the fence, on this
particular height, an electric fence was installed. The fence is completed by three voltage
wires fastened 10 cm, 100 cm and 200 cm above the ground (Photos 10, 11).
Pic. 10. The side wall of the aviary ‘Perdix’. Below the main net, the non-woven and the fine
net behind can be seen. All is placed on the concrete base (Photo. P. Nasiadka).
Page 42

Pic. 11. The side wall of the aviary ‘Perdix’ seen from inside. Supports and tools for
tightening wires on which the net roof is attached can be seen (Photo. P. Nasiadka).
The aviary is also secured from the top by a net with meshes of 4 cm x 4 cm size. This
peculiar ceiling is put on wooden supports placed in regular lines distanced 6 m from each
other. These supports are solid pine logs of 10 cm x 10 cm, placed on concrete bases of
40 cm x 40 cm and 15 cm height. In order to keep durability and stability of supports, they are
held by a metal holdfast, the base of which was attached to the concrete base and to the top of
which wooden supports were attached. Because of this solution, wood does not touch concrete
directly and intervals between wood, the metal holdfast and concrete are large enough to
provide efficient ventilation of this connection. Wooden supports are protected from falls
from the top by a tin rectangular hood, on which a net is attached. Two kinds of nets were
tested in the ‘Perdix’ history. The first one has relatively thick meshes (2 cm x 2 cm). The
intention was to eliminate a risk of birds getting entangled which for many reasons could not
rise to flight. The fears occurred to be vain. Partridges had enough place to fly in the aviary
and quickly learned to bypass wooden supports and fly not higher than 3.2 m – the height of
the top net. The problem was the snow. In this place an advantage of locating aviaries near to
their owners’ places of residence should be noted. It happened several times that during heavy
snowfalls, a human intervention was needed. Wet snow stopped at thick net’s meshes and
there was a risk of tearing the net or breaking supports. For this reason, the top net’s meshes
were changed into 4 cm x 4 cm during the aviary’s renovation. Such net may be
recommended to the future constructors of aviaries. The change of aviary’s ‘ceiling’ did not
increase hen mortality (they did not get entangled in the net) and its more openwork
construction did not cause more frequent attacks of winged predators (Phot. 12, 13, 14).
Page 43

Pic. 12. The wooden pillar measuring 10 cm x 10 cm x 320 cm, supporting the net roof of the
aviary ‘Perdix’. The height of aviary disables performing the majority of field works with
a tractor (Photo. P. Nasiadka).
Phot. 13. The part of the concrete base and Phot. 14. The pillar’s protection (the metal
a way of attaching the pillar supporting the holdfast and the non-woven piece)
aviary’s roof (Photo. P. Nasiadka). protecting net’s load-bearing wires, the net
from abrasion and the pillar from falls
(Photo. P. Nasiadka).
Page 44
The net on the top, available in rolls of different width, is arranged in strips at the
aviary. Scaffolding made of wire is very useful then. In the case of ‘Perdix’, this is wire with

diameter of 0.5 cm. The wire roof frame is also useful for isolating pairs of partridges, so de
facto dividing the aviary into breeding sectors. Then the rolled net is used. It is attached to
selected wires and only owing to them it is possible to be done. The mentioned wires are
attached to fence supports, reinforced with inside pillars, with the tools for tightening wires.
The strips of the net are joined with each other lavishly using aluminum clasps or thick
plastic cable ties. In the aviary ‘Perdix’, the electric cover was not used on the top, so it was
important to solidly join the strips of the net.
One of the stages of partridges breeding requires putting pairs into isolation. It is
obvious because they are territorial birds and fiercely fight for their territories. Leaving
unseparated pairs may cause such bad anxiety that hens will not reproduce. The solution was
found in Łochów, by dividing the aviary on designing stage into five 15 area sectors for pairs.
Determining the sector’s surface, because of a prototype character of the program, did not
result from previous experiences or published results of analogical experiments. It is
connected with a compromise between providing animals with enough space to reproduce,
build a nest and lead out the young ones on one side, and on the other obtaining as many
family flocks as possible. It should be emphasized that the program of partridges
reintroduction in Łochów, apart from practical expectations, is experimental to a large extent
and it will be modified. Nevertheless, 5 sectors were designed, which were built at
a short period of pairing and catching other partridges, introduced to the environment in the
spring. Previously suspended nets are being lowered, carefully sunk and additionally
protected with poles. In order to create an optical barrier, a non-woven (the same which is
used at the side fence) is being attached to them (Phot. 15).
Photo 15 A pen, 15 ares in size, created inside the Perdix aviary for the breeding period and
the delivery of offspring by the pairs left in the aviary. The fences surrounding the area are
covered with nonwoven fabric to prevent the partridges staying in neighbouring pens from
making eye contact (photo by P. Nasiadka)
From this moment, any human work or interference is limited to an absolute

Page 45
minimum. Naturally, it does not apply to controlling the outer part of the aviary, electric fence
system, etc.

Apart from the main aviary, an additional smaller one called “Perdix-bis” was built
nearby. In terms of construction and materials, it does not differ considerably from the main
aviary. The only difference lies within the usage of planks which serve as a visual barrier
instead of nonwoven fabric as is the case with “Perdix”. Firmly attached to fence posts, the
planks can be successfully used in building the main aviaries as well. The additional aviary
functions as an emergency or quarantine aviary. “Perdix-bis” in Łochów measures 25m x 9m
which allows for a significant number of birds to be kept (photo 16).
Photo 16 Perdix-bis, a small quarantine and breeding pen, remains at the disposal of the
Programme at all times. Instead of the nonwoven fabric, the impregnated planks have been
used in the construction of this aviary (photo by P. Nasiadka)
The third type of aviaries used in the partridges reintroduction programme in Łochów
Forest Inspectorate is a portable panel aviary used to release the birds into open-space
environment. The aviary consists of metal fence panels commonly used in construction as
well as aviary net which covers the pen from the top. The panels are joint using standard joint
connectors and concrete footings (30 kilos each) which ensure the stability of the whole
construction. Depending on the needs, the footings might either be dug in the ground for the
lower edges of the panels to touch the ground, or be left on the surface. The panel
construction allows to shape the aviary in such a way so as to fit the environmental
conditions. There is no need for an aviary to be round or rectangular at all times but it is
important to include plants which will protect the partridges in its interior. On the premises of
Kamionna centre of animal breeding in Łochów Forest Inspectorate the partridges are
released into field and meadow environments crossed by ditches and shrubs. A portable
aviary is most frequently placed around shrubs and short trees. These plants both provide
partridges with a shelter as well as create a peculiar structural element upon which the aviary
Page 46
net lies. The construction time for a portable aviary, provided that all its elements are
transported into designated areas without much trouble, should not exceed 2 hours. Setting up
the aviary net and securing it to the ground is the most labour-intensive part of construction

work requiring particular attention. The size of the aviary net has to be a lot bigger than the
size of the aviary itself. There has to be enough of it so that after having covered the aviary
(both the top and the side panels) one is left with a considerable reserve which is then rolled
and secured with metal stakes. Places around the concrete footings require particular diligence
regardless of whether they were dug into the ground or placed directly on its surface. The
aviary net has to prevent the birds from leaving before the designated time as well as, which is
even more important, prevent the predators from getting inside (photo 17).
Photo 17 The stages of constructing a portable aviary built in bird resettlement locations. The
area nearby Marianów in Kamionna centre of animal breeding, Łochów Forest Inspectorate
(photo A. Gocalińska).
Page 47
The construction of portable aviary and the partridges kept inside are monitored
throughout the whole process. In the case of Łochów Forest Inspectorate, several hours long

on-calls are fixed for the workers of forest service and forest guard which means that there is
someone keeping an eye on the aviary 24 hours a day.
The infrastructure for partridges can be found in every aviary described above. It is
quite modest, though, and it does not resemble the devices available on farms. This results
from the aim of the programme and the function of the aviary, namely minimal human
interference and the need for the birds to use the natural resources available inside the
aviaries. The infrastructure mentioned above consists of nesting boxes - 2 boxes for every 15
ares in “Perdix” and 3 boxes in “Perdix-bis” - as well as drinkers which are placed in the
aviary only at the beginning when the weather is warm and dry. As far as boxes are
concerned, these are simple constructions covered with reeds or planks which are placed both
inside the aviary as well as around the area where partridges are released. Every time a
portable aviary is built, a nesting box is set at the very beginning and remains in place after
the partridges are released and the aviary is taken apart. Another element of aviary
infrastructure are so-called sandpits. These are patches of sand, 6m x 6m in size, which are
used by the birds to clean their feathers or acquire gastroliths. The sand is placed on agro
textiles which enables the water to flow but at the same time slows down the process of
vegetation on the pit. Yet despite such a solution, the sandpit has to be weeded in both
aviaries for a couple of months (photo 18).
Pic. 18 A sandpit for partridges in one of the five pens inside the Perdix aviary for pairs kept
for the breeding period (photo by P. Nasiadka)
Cultivation inside the aviaries is a separate matter. Because these devices are meant to
enable the birds to adapt to natural conditions, the plants which are sown inside the aviary
have to correspond to the plants partridges will come into contact with when freed. There are
two cultivation systems used inside the “Perdix” aviary. The first one includes crops which
can be planted if we have an empty aviary at our disposal for a longer period of time. In such
a case, after the soil has been ploughed, we can grow lupine, oats, millet, buckwheat, potatoes
Page 48
and cole crops for the aviary to present a great diversity of plant species. It should be stressed
that there is no obligatory set of plants applicable to all aviaries. This issue has to be
considered individually by everyone wishing to start an analogical programme basing their

decision on what crops can be found in particular resettlement locations and the type of soil
covering the ground on which the aviary will stand. The last necessary steps, e.g. weeding the
potatoes, are done directly before putting the partridges inside the aviary. From this moment
on, no field work should be done inside “Perdix” before the partridges are released from their
coveys in August of the following year. Then the second cultivation system, in short referred
to as “quick”, is used. The problem is that there are only two months at one’s disposal. Hence,
the soil preparations and the sowing are done very quickly hoping that the vegetation will
manage to create food resources and shelter before the aviary is inhabited again in September.
The quick crops include mainly the mixture of grain, millet or brachina, which are sown in
stripes between the unmowed, green, bushy area and the mowed grass at the front of the
aviary (photo 19).
Pic. 19 “Crops” inside an aviary prepared for the keeping of partridges during autumn and
winter season. In the upper right corner one can see a rolled net which will be used to build a
wall of one of the breeding pens (photo by P. Nasiadka)
From past experiences in Łochów Forest Inspectorate we can conclude that in

favourable conditions, autumn sowing is effective (if not considered strictly from agricultural
point of view) and provide sufficient shelter and food. After the winter season, when the
pressure of partridges on the aviary decreases (in the spring the birds are harvested and only
pairs for reproduction are left), the vegetation develops marvellously and even requires
mowing.
When starting analogical practices in other locations, the systems of sowing and sets
of plant species described above can be modified in any way. However, it is important to
respect several basic principles.
Page 49
1. The crops inside the aviary cannot be too dense or too high and should include at
least 4 different species (excluding the shrubs and turf). The species cannot reach

similar height in full vegetative phase but should create a diverse spatial structure
inside the aviary.
2. The way and the deadline of planting crops cannot coincide with the forming of
pairs and the breeding period.
3. Using chemicals for plant growth or combating weeds is not allowed when the
birds are in the aviary. When designing the environment inside the aviary, don’t
focus on collecting abundant crops but on providing shelter and food resources for
the partridges.
4. If it is absolutely necessary to mow a part of the aviary, do it only by hand (with
pruning shears or scythe). Particular attention should be paid if the mowing takes
place during the nesting time, in which case you should mow the plants in the
sunniest parts of the aviary (drainage of the soil) or those located in the immediate
vicinity of the sandpits (with caution!!!).
5. After the hatching period (in July at the earliest), the mowing is also possible only
with scythe and with utmost caution. You should not mow everything, leave a few
dense stripes constituting to about 50% of vegetation. The mowed plants should be
removed from the aviary in order for them not to impede the drainage of topsoil.
Short periods of time during which the aviaries are empty should be devoted to
ploughing of the entire area, potential liming to decontaminate the soil and planting of new
crops. And even though it might seem like there is not a lot to do, keeping five pairs for
breeding means that all of these activities have to be completed within just one month. Hence,
every three years no partridges are kept for breeding in “Perdix” and all of the birds are set
free in the spring. The only longer break which lasts about 6 months is used to make major
repairs, do deep ploughing, replace the old nesting boxes, prepare new sandpits, etc.
The partridge reintroduction programme in Łochów Forest Inspectorate starts with the
introduction of birds brought from the Świebodzin Forest Inspectorate into “Perdix” aviary.
The aviary is inhabited by 100 partridges between the ages of 3-4 months. Hence, the birds
are big (about 300-400g) and pose no problems when placed in quarantine and then in the
aviary to prepare for winter. The partridges are transported at night. Prior to that, a section of
grassy area inside “Perdix” is separated from the rest with a net. In some way it functions as a
foyer to the aviary and the birds are kept there for the first 24 hours
(photo 20). This procedure is necessary and worth recommending to anyone who wishes to
attempt resettlement on their own land. Harvesting and transportation are both stressful
procedures and can cause birds to die even with a little delay. Therefore, before partridges are
placed on the land, half a hectare in size and covered with vegetation, we need to make sure
that they are in good shape and learn how many of them might die after the journey.
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Pic. 20 Before being put inside the Perdix aviary, partridges are kept in a separate section
within the aviary for the first 24 hours. Then starts the foyer to freedom.
(photo by P. Nasiadka)
Before the quarantine all partridges are given anthelmintics, 1m3 for every bird. The
drug is administered by a veterinarian working with the forest inspectorate who also examines
partridges’ general condition. After 24 hours, one of the walls of the temporary construction is
lifted and the birds spread throughout the whole aviary. During this time and the winter
season, the partridges have at their disposal the entire aviary which is not yet divided into
pens. At first, the birds are fed with the feed brought from Świebodzin. With time the amount
of feed is narrowed down and is maintained until the feeding is no longer necessary. In mid-
January the aviary keeper (Forest Inspectorate worker) begins to monitor the partridges in
terms of making pairs. First pairs keeping to themselves, signs of aggression, chasing and
making grating sounds signal the need to start the second phase of the programme. With the
help of a cooperating Forestry Services Team hired by the forest inspectorate, the process of
separating the pairs, setting up transverse bulkheads and harvesting the partridges is
completed within one day. At the same time a movable aviary is built on a previously
designated area within the forest inspectorate. Hence, it is a short period of incredibly intense
work of a dozen or so people which has to be taken into consideration when attempting the
resettlement in a manner described above. In “Perdix” harvesting is done in the afternoon and
the birds are put in a transportation cage for the night. It is a risky moment due to the threat of
causing panic among the birds and them trampling one another in a tight space. Past
experiences show, however, that after harvesting the birds stay calm. There was not a single
incident of partridges dying at this point in the history of resettling in Łochów. In the early
morning, partridges are transported in the field and released inside a movable quarantine
aviary. Hence, it is the last phase of setting them free. After staying inside the quarantine
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aviary for 24 hours (there is always a possibility of keeping an eye on the aviary for 48 hours
in case of a weather breakdown), in a sunny and dry weather, the aviary net is lifted and the
partridges begin the next phase of the resettlement into natural conditions programme.

3.5.4 Monitoring the effects
Since 2008 the centre of animal breeding in Łochów Forest Inspectorate has been one
of those hunting areas in Poland on which the frequency and the form of inventory of
partridges go far beyond the scope of work required by hunting laws. Due to the partridges
reintroduction programme, both partridges as well as foxes and recently birds of prey are
being monitored. There is also a plan to include corvidae birds in the nearest future.
The monitoring of the effects begins in the early spring when the counting of
vocalizing pairs starts. For this purpose, transects have been designated in the perimeter of
13.1 km for the valuator to get about in a manner described in a previous chapter. The
transects have been somewhat upgraded with monitoring points around the resettlement area
for the partridges from “Perdix”. At the moment the transect network and monitoring points
cover virtually the entire hunting area possible for the partridges to be introduced into (fig.
10). And this is how, from the methodological point of view, spring monitoring pattern should
look like in every location meant for the reintroduction of partridges.
Pic. 10 The arrangement of transects and monitoring points for the spring inventory of
vocalizing partridges in Kamionna centre of animal breeding, Łochów Forest Inspectorate
The vegetation period is a time of relative peace in Łochów centre of animal breeding
during which mainly predators are being monitored. As regards the foxes, the burrows are
monitored to check whether they are inhabited or not. This is done using camera traps which
have become a very practical and available tool in recent years. The price of a single trap is
moderate and should be affordable for most hunting associations. Using camera traps for fox
inventory is troublesome solely because the equipment might be stolen or destroyed, thus one
should take all the necessary measures to hide the trap from the intruders as effectively as
possible.
There are also plans to start periodic monitoring of accipitriformes and corvidae birds
in the nearest future. For this purpose permanent monitoring points will be used. They will
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register the birds in view throughout all four seasons in series of three days.
Following the harvest, in mid-September, the preparations for examining the density
of partridges on designated strips of land begin. This traditional method of hares and

partridges inventory has not yet produced any flocks or downs. However, the result is not
surprising given the low density of animals and should not discourage the hunting
associations which also wish to start the monitoring of partridges using the same method. The
first year of examining the density of partridges on designated strips of land is crucial. May it
be the first out of many more to follow.
In the winter season, the forest service of Forest Inspectorate and people responsible
for the implementation of the programme are obliged to observe and report on the coveys seen
at the roadsides and nearby the residential areas. Though seemingly not very reliable, this
method provides a lot of valuable pieces of information. First and foremost, these concern the
size of the population, hence indirectly its growth and distribution in the area. In Łochów
centre of animal breeding these observations are performed methodologically using the road
network. When the snow is deep, the persons responsible go around the designated parts of
the perimeter by car and report on their observations.
As was mentioned at the beginning, the partridge restoration programme in Łochów
Forest Inspectorate also includes a research component whose task is to monitor the birds
being resettled using telemetry. This method is very expensive and labour-intensive but the
initial results allow for the adjustments to be introduces right away, thereby improving the
programme.
When in 2009 this project was initiated, the first examinations, spring monitoring and
winter convey searches gave the same and pessimistic results. There were virtually no
partridges in Kamionna centre of animal breeding. Spring monitoring of partridges performed
in 2012 and 2013 have shown that on resettlement locations only “fields make a tune”. On an
area of several hundred hectares there is only 5-7 vocalizing pairs. One can only hope that
there will be more of them with every passing year.
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PART II. - HARE
Roman Dziedzic
1. Biology of hares – an outline
1. 1 Classification, distribution, species description

Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Genus: Lepus
Species: Lepus europeus
Brown hare in other languages: lievre (French), Feldhase (German), zajic polni
(Czech), zajc rusak (Russian)
The members of Lagomorpha order inhabit every continent (except for Antarctica) and are
divided into two families: Ochotonidae and Leporidae. In the Ochotonidae family there is 14–
16 species categorized under one genus which occur on Asian and American continents, while
in the Leporidae family there is 52 species and 6-9 genera, the most numerous of which is
Lepus genus with 22-26 species. In Europe, including Poland, there are three representatives
of Leporidae family: brown hare (zając szarak), mountain hare (zając bielak), and rabbit
(królik). The area occupied by brown hare in the east used to extend to the Ob River but as a
result of resettlements it now extends to the area of Lake Baikal. In Europe, it is not present
on the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, Sicily and the northern part of Scandinavian Peninsula.
Originally, it was also not present in Ireland, however due to the introduction programme, a
few habitats were created there. In southern Asia, the range reaches Caucasus but is not yet
defined in the eastern part of the continent. As a result of resettlements, brown hare is also
present in South America and Australia. In Poland, it can be found all around the country but
in varying density.
Within all these areas, brown hares are built in a similar way. The characteristic features
include flexible spine, well-developed and muscled hind legs (twice as long as forelegs), short
forelegs and elongated ears.
Large side-set eyes enable 360-degrees coverage of the area, thus allowing the hare to
notice every movement. The assessment of distance, however, is not precise. The fur changes
in the autumn (September-November) and spring (April-June) season and the hair type and
density ensure proper thermal insulation.
Hare’s body length ranges from 65 to 76 cm with a tail length of 8 to 10 cm and chest
circumference of 33 to 39 cm. Bodyweight depends on its age and location. Adult hares in the
west of Poland weigh on average 3-4 kg, in the central part - 3.9 kg, and in the east and the
north-east - 4.4 kg. The bodyweight of a male and a female is more or less the same, some
studies show that females weigh 0.1 kg more than males. In Lubelskie region at the beginning
of 1960s the highest body weight of a hare amounted to around 8 kg (word of mouth), in mid-
1970s - 6.3 kg and at the end of 1990s - 5.5 kg. Sexual dimorphism is minimal and the surest
way of determining the sex of an animal is to examine the external reproductive organs. To
make the penis or clitoris visible, one has to hold the hare head down and using two fingers
press the area around the organs. In the case of older animals which have already mated, the
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differences are noticeable, in the case of younger animals - much less so. The distinguishing
features one should pay attention to include an oval urine hole in the penis in the case of
males and an oblong fold on the clitoris in the case of females (photo 21).

Pic 21. The reproductive organs of a female (photo by R. Dziedzic)
Hare’s age can be determined in a couple of ways but the most certain and simplified
in vivo method using two age groups, i.e. hares aged 8 months or less and older, is the
evaluation based upon the potential Stroh’s mark. The mark is a thickening (growth plate) on
the outer elbow bone above the wrist joint (fig. 12). It occurs in young hares aged 7-8 months
and then it disappears. To determine the age, one has to bent the wrist of one of the forelegs
and find a thickening on the outer part, about 1 cm above the joint. The size of a thickening
depends on the age and is more noticeable in younger hares. More accurate results can be
achieved through the evaluation of ocular lens mass but this can be conducted solely in
laboratory conditions. Up until 12 months lens’s mass reaches 280 mg, 24 months - 340 mg,
and 36 months - 380 mg. Physiological lifespan of a hare is 12 years, although in natural
conditions it is rather rare.
Traces left by a hare are mainly trails and faeces. Due to their anatomy, hares do not walk or
trot but move only by jumping (galloping). Hares can run at a speed of 70-80 km per hour and
special emphasis should be put on their excellent manoeuvrability which is particularly useful
when running from predators. In the case of fast running, the distance between trails left by a
chased hare is 3 meters. Strongly muscled hind legs make the animals capable of jumping up
to 2-meters height. Due to their length, forelegs function as support during running which is
why hares prefer to run uphill rather than downhill. Running downhill might result in loosing
balance
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Fig. 11. Determining animal’s sex on the basis of the external reproductive organs
a) - adult male, b) - adult female, c) - young male, d) - young female
(according to Pielowski 1979
Fig. 12. Determining animal’s age on the basis of Stroh’s mark -

a) the arrow points to a thickening of the elbow bone - young hare aged 8
months or less
b) elbow bone without a thickening - hare older than 8 months
c) thickening pointed by an arrow on an elbow bone after splitting the skin of a
young hare’s foreleg (according to Pielowski 1979)
or tripping over. Biometric measurements of hares in Lubelskie region have shown that the
forelegs of hares inhabiting highland areas (Roztocze) are longer (estimated for every
kilogram of bodyweight) than the forelegs of hares inhabiting lowland areas (Podlasie).
Longer forelegs of hares from the highlands make it easier for the animals to run downhill.
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Hare’s dentition [2033/1032] is characteristic of rootless teeth which grow throughout

its whole life. Incisor teeth covered with a layer of enamel become abraded and create sharp

edges which make themselves visible in the marks left on bitten plants or sprouts. Sideways
bites are always cut evenly and the angle to the axis of the plant ranges from 40 to 60 o (photo
22 and 23). The bark of trees and bushes is bitten off transversely to their axis leaving
characteristic stripes in the furrows created by incisor teeth. In natural conditions, it is
necessary for hares to bite on hard plants for teeth abrasion, and on enclosed farms they have
to be given woody plants (branches of tress, bushes).
Pic. 22. Oats bitten by hares (photo by R. Pic. 23. Sun root tubers bitten by hares (photo
Dziedzic) by R. Dziedzic)
Total length of gastrointestinal tract amounts to 600 cm: small intestine - 360 cm,
cecum - 60 cm, and large intestine - 155 cm. The volume of the stomach ranges from 120 to
150 cm3, and of the cecum from 360 to 450 cm3. As regards the internal organs, the heart is
worth noting as, in comparison to other species, its mass is much greater and makes up around
1% of total bodyweight.
Hare is a typical herbivore which is demonstrated by its dentition and gastrointestinal tract.
The type of diet depends on its location and the season. In Mazury region and on Wrocław
Plain the number of species eaten by hares ranged between 29 and 31 but the number of
species significant in terms of share did not exceed 15 and nearly 90% of digestive tract
content comprised of crops. In the winter season in Lubelskie region the share of monocots
amounted to 67%. Hares feed mainly at night-time. In the summer season, when nights are
short, one can observe feeding hares in the early morning and late evening hours. They feed
during daytime hours as well but over a much shorter period of time during which they try to
avoid coming into contact with humans as well as predators. The amount of food intake
depends on animal’s bodyweight, from birth to 10th day of life hares feed exclusively on their
mother’s milk, later they start eating herbaceous food. Daily demand of an adult hare is about
0.8 kg of green forage. In in-cage breeding conditions hares weighing 500 g ate around 200 g
of forage, 1.5 kg - 350 g of forage and 60 g of oats. The specificity of digestive physiology of
hares and other representatives of this family include coprophagia (caecotrophy), the essence
of which are two cycles. After the plants are eaten, they are moved to the stomach and then to
small intestine and to cecum. In a semi-liquid form (soft faeces) the contents are moved
through the large intestine and then are eaten once more. Having passed through the
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gastrointestinal tract again, they are excreted in the form of well-known pellets. The water
content in pellets amounts to around 45%, whilst in the case of soft faeces, the percentage
reaches nearly 74%. The protein content in pellets amounts to around 4%, in soft faeces -

around 10%. Moreover, the protein in soft faeces contains all the necessary (n - 10)
exogenous amino acids which are not synthesized by animals as well as endogenous amino
acids which are. The content of exogenous amino acids in soft faeces is generally higher than
in plant tissues. In particular, it applies to lysine which is considered to be limiting. Studies
point to a high feeding value of soft faeces which is probably a result of the presence of
symbiotic microorganisms (bacteria and protozoa) inhabiting the cecum. The importance of
cecum is also reflected by its volume which is three times as big as the volume of the
stomach. Presence of hares on the areas lacking water courses or reservoirs was the basis
upon which a statement was made that hares do not consider them significant as the water
content in food is sufficient for them. To a certain extent the statement is true given their
economical water management (coprophagia), however in the case of in-cage breeding, when
the animals are fed with dry roughage, daily water intake of two hares reaches 1 l. Water
availability is particularly important in the case of lactating females.
Sex structure shows that females are in majority and their share in the population
ranges from 51 to 65% which corresponds to 1 : 1.04 - 1 : 1.86 (the number of females for
every male).
1.2. Spatial functioning and dynamics of population

Living areas are usually small and do not exceed 40 hectares, however in unfavourable
conditions these areas can be larger than 100 hectares, parts of which sometimes overlap.
Hares forced to run usually turn back after 200-400 meters and try to return to the original
place. Young hares are considered to be more settled, the older ones move at a distance of up
to 9 km.
The size and density of hare population 60 years ago is not really known as the
hunting statistics were rarely compiled. However, basing on the number of harvested animals,
we can estimate the probable density and size of the population. During a single collective
hunting between 1871-1884 the hunters of Towarzystwo Lisowieckie harvested on average
3.3 hares, 0.4 in a single litter. Therefore, there are grounds to believe that the density did not
exceed 5 hares for every 100 hectares. On selected hunting areas in Wielkopolska region in
1908 the hunters harvested on average (based on 7 huntings) 43.2 hares from 100 hectares,
varying from 11 to 74. Therefore, there are grounds to believe that the density within the best
hunting areas exceeded 100 hares for every 100 hectares.
During the interwar period, the size of the population was usually not provided as the
species was considered basic and common, the number of which was difficult to estimate. The
accounts of a few huntings show that in some hunting areas the density was high. Between
1921-1939, seventeen hunting areas in Wielkopolska region provided the information on the
number of hares harvested from 100 ha of useable hunting areas. The disparities between the
locations and years were significant as in 1921 in Baszkowo 12 hares were harvested and in
1936 in Siedlce the number reached 125 (from every 100 hectares). According to
Dzięgielewski, during early after-war years, the state of hares did not differ from the one
before the war, however over the course of time it worsened and at the beginning of 1950s the
size of the population decreased by 80%.
Between 1962-1964 the number of hares in Poland was estimated at 3.2 - 3.4 million
and remained more or less the same until 1977. In 1978 the number began to drop and in 1989
the size of the population was estimated at 1.1 million. Another drop occurred in 1997 when
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the number was estimated at 620,000. In recent years, the population was stabilized and
amounted to 534,000 in 1999, 513,000 in 2000 and 571,000 in 2012.

The number of harvested hares in the season of 1975/76 amounted to 683,100. It dropped to
248,500 in 1978/79 and further decreased in the following season to 205,100. The decrease
continued in the following years and in the season of 2011/2012 only 10,000 hares were
harvested. Current harvesting in certain regions (table 4) show that in four regions with the
lowest density, the hunting for hares has stopped altogether. As regards the size of the
population, the largest exploitation occurs in regions where density is the highest. On average,
the percentage of hares harvested in Poland amounted to 1.7% of the whole population and in
high density regions to 5%. When assessing the influence of exploitation on the dynamics of
the population, one has to refer the percentage to previous economic recommendations which
specified the level of exploitation as 20-30% of the population. Keeping in mind the size of
other losses (e.g. diseases, predators), the number of which can amount to even 100% of birth
rate, last season’s hare hunting did not influence the population growth rate.
When assessing growth rate, apart from reported data, one should rely on data collected
through scientific research due to the thoroughness and credibility of its results. The works of
fundamental importance for population studies examined the issues of growth rate dynamics
and the development of the method which examines the density of hares on designated strips
of land. The density of hares at that time amounted to 30/100ha with variations ranging from
18 to 42 animals. The birth rate amounted to 81.4n/100ha and the actual population growth -
20.9n/100ha.
During the next International Symposium dealing with the subject of hares which also
took place in Czempiń in 1992, the decrease in the size of hare population was discussed by
the representatives
of other countries. In Great Britain, the number of harvested hares dropped from 10-
12n/100ha in 1960s to 2-4 hares/100ha. In Denmark, the number of both young and harvested
hares was decreased by 1/3 in comparison to 1950s.
Table 4. Population, density and harvesting of hares in Poland in 2012
. Region Utilised Population Density Harvesting

agricultural n/100 ha in % of the
area in ha general population
1 Lower Silesian 951500 18,823 2.0 0 0.0
2 Kuyavian- 1056300 44,812 4.2 197 0.4
Pomeranian
3 Lubelskie 1452500 57,354 3.9 807 1.4
4 Lubusz 491900 9,981 2.0 0 0
5 Łódzkie 997900 81,306 8.1 1922 2.3
6 Lesser Poland 683100 36,913 5.4 1335 3.1
7 Masovian 2071000 99,221 4.8 2323 2.3
8 Opolskie 536200 7,194 1.3 0 0
9 Subcarpathian 689900 16,905 2.5 24 0.1
10 Podlaskie 1063200 32,410 3.0 165 0.5
11 Pomeranian 746000 19,668 2.6 111 0.6
12 Silesian 446300 17,922 4.0 618 3.4
13 Świętokrzyskie 534800 32,135 6.0 1624 5.1
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14 Warmian-Masurian 1052300 33,473 3.2 49 0.1

15 Greater Poland 1790100 48,368 2.7 528 1.1

16 West Pomeranian 879400 14,931 1.7 1 0.0
POLAND 15442400 571,416 3.7 9704 1.7
1.3. Habitat preferences, behaviour, density

Hare is a species which adapted to the conditions of every terrestrial ecosystem but in varying
density. In Carpathian Mountains it could be found at an altitude of 1500 m above sea level
and in the lowlands on peat bogs, marshes, around urban areas and large parks. Forests are
also inhabited by hares which can be most frequently found in small complexes. A typical
habitat includes agrocenosis, the specificity of which is reflected by the Czech and German
names, i.e. field hare. Utilised agricultural areas are not homogenous and hares prefer to live
on areas with fertile permeable soil, large variety of crops and mosaicity of small fields.
Moreover, the favourable factors include low levels of rainfall (up to 600 mm) and the
altitude up to 300 m above sea level. As regards the crops, hares avoid high plants (corn,
wheat) as they prevent them from seeing the surroundings and noticing potential danger. In
the field, they often hide in the shrubs which shelter them from predators and unfavourable
weather conditions - wind, rain.
Hares are considered to be animals living independently in their natural habitat, however,
when observing the nature in late winter, even during the day one can spot groups consisting
of several hares. They are a polygamous species and during mating season the female is
courted by one or more males who sometimes fight. Another reason for grouping is the
appealing feed usually given by a human during winter season. Nevertheless, hares spend
most of their time alone keeping visual and auditory contact with their neighbours.
The state of the population can be well-measured by its density. According to Allee effect, in
every population within the right density range all processes of functioning are optimal. Auto
regulation of the population which aims at achieving the proper density is possible to a certain
extent. If one wants to raise the level of density but the number is not going up, one can
reduce the space occupied by hares in order to achieve higher density on a smaller area.
Unfortunately, the continuing trend of reducing the living areas leads to territorial isolation,
lack of possibility of exchanging genetic material and, in consequence, to the increase of
relatedness among hares, commonly described as inbreeding. The first symptoms of
inbreeding include diminished resistance to pathogens and reproduction disorders. The
decrease of genetic diversity ultimately leads to the disappearance of the population.
In the sixties and seventies of the last century, Poland was a pioneer in research on the
hare population. The estimates of the number of individuals indicated that in the
Wielkopolska Region the density reached 50 individuals per 100 ha of agricultural land, and
in the west of Europe in an extremely favorable conditions up to 100 individuals. The current
specificity is the large variation in densities of hares on relatively small areas.
In years 1997 - 1999 in OHZ Wierzchowiska, at medium densities approximately 24,
on route No. 1, the hare density was 11.1 and on the route No. 3 it was 48.6. With the
continuous occurrence, differences in the densities are a reflection of environmental
conditions. Deepening of differences on a large range is dangerous because it can lead to a
loss of continuity of the occurrence and further negative effects of territorial and genetic
isolation.
In 2012, the average density of hares in Poland was 3.7/100 with a relatively small
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variation between provinces (Tab. 4). From 5 to 8 individuals per 100 ha of agricultural land
were found in the provinces of central and southern Poland (Łódzkie, Świętokrzyskie and

Lesser Poland Provinces). Less than 3 individuals per 100 were found in Pomeranian, West-
Pomeranian, Lubuskie, Wielkopolskie, Dolnośląskie, Opolskie and Podkarpackie Provinces.
That situation should be assessed as catastrophic, because the density of less than 4
individuals are a threat to the normal functioning of the population.
1.4 Reproduction, mortality

Hares achieve sexual maturity at the age of 7 months and females become able to
reproduction. During the estrus, the blood secretion from the genitals in females can be
observed, which is most easily seen in the snow. A characteristic phenomenon in this period is
chasing hares, as well as pieces of sedge. The gestation length is determined for 40 - 44 days.
In Poland, there is a 3-4 fold repetition of estrus, in France 5-fold, and in Russia 2-3-fold. In
Poland, the first births occur most commonly in March, and therefore they are defined as
"marczaki" and further births generally occur on a two-months basis. A significant novelty in
our conditions is the appearance of the first litter in late January and early February. The first
information about this event (newborn hare killed on the road) was provided by W.
Ciechoński (near Toruń) in early February in 1998. In the superintendence Swiebodzin in
quartered breeding (years 2009 -2011) the first births were also observed in late January and
early February. The number of cubs in litter dependents on the age of the female, shape,
season and it may amount from 1 to 6. In the first and the last litter, the number of newborns
most often amounts to 1 -2, in the intermediate litters (2 and 3) 2 - 4. During the season in
Poland one female gives birth to approximately 8 young. Before birth the female prepares the
hollow with sedge where the birth occurs. After the birth weight of newborns is on average
107 g (from 65 to 155 g), and the female feeds it for approximately one month once night
with milk 23%. fat The feeding time takes several minutes. This behavior is not a
manifestation of poor maternal care but concern about the safety of offspring. Young hares do
not emit odor and are practically impalpable for four-legged predators. After approximately 2
weeks, female separates the offspring, which will enhance their safety, because the predator
can possibly kill one individual rather than all litter at once.
Superfetation is rare in mammals and rarely occurs in hares. The essence of this
phenomenon is the possibility of simultaneous development in different ages of the fetus in
the uterus. For such a situation to take place, ovulation and fertilization of eggs must occur
during pregnancy, but hormonal superfetation mechanism has not been fully explained.
Superfetation phenomenon was first observed in France in the cage breeding at the end of the
sixties of the last century, and in Poland it was observed in the quartered breeding in
Swiebodzin.
The realized rate that indicates the size of bred offspring compared to adult
individuals, or the number of females is given for autumn and winter period. Participation of
young hares that is greater than 40% should be considered as sufficient, while less than 30% -
as low.
Mortality of organisms is a natural phenomenon specific for species or populations
and to ensure the sustainability of existence reproduction must compensate for mortality. It
can be argued that the reproduction is stimulated by mortality and natural reaction to an
increase in mortality is the increase in fertility. The causes of mortality are very diverse, and
generally similar to other species; the highest mortality occurs during the post-natal period.
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The mortality in organism is the lowest during the culmination of the growth and increases
during aging. In mammals, the high mortality in the initial period of life is caused by not fully
formed thermoregulatory system, not full covering (hair) and lack of fully formed own

immune system. These factors make the young organisms sensitive to any inconvenient
climatic conditions (temperature, precipitation) and they can be easily attacked by different
patobionts.
Small mobility makes them an easy target for different predators. Young hares lay on the
ground to defend themselves and thus during the collection of greens on the mowed area in
the spring almost all young hares are killed.
1.5 Significance of the species

Each animal species has its place in nature as a consumer and as a prey. This role is dependent
on the specific environment and characteristics of the population - mainly the compaction.
Hare, as a typical herbivore agrocenoz, is hardly onerous for herbaceous vegetation. In
contrast, the loop need to eat food may pose a threat to some species of plants and woody
shrubs. In agrocenosis fruit trees are particularly at risk, especially apples. Due to the high
risk orchards must be enclosed. Within forest habitats the hare is most common in coastal
areas and its occurrence is rare in the depths of the forest. In the event of the occurrence of a
rich undergrowth and ground cover its presence is often unnoticed, but it can cause damage
by bite shoots in nurseries or in crops. In biological terms hare is a frequent prey for the
predators. In our fauna due to the opportunistic nature of the predators it is a prey for several
dozen of species.
The hare is also important for humans in a cultural and economic sense. It appeared in
the literature a few hundred years ago, and is identified with such features as timidity, fear;
for example expressed by a term "hare’s heart." The economic importance of the hare, among
others, is reflected in the number of recipes and the attractiveness of certain dishes, for
example: pâtè, comber in cream, etc. In culinary terms, the most valuable is the comber with a
mass of approximately 0.8 kg and thigh with a mass of approximately 0.9 kg. The hare meat
is characterized by a high protein content (19 - 20%) and low fat content (approx. 1.5%), and
its taste it is still attractive in European cuisine. For years, the hare was the main species to
hunt. At the end of the seventies of the last century in the part of Wyżyna Lubelska, the
amount of hare meat comprised 80% of the total amount of acquired game.
2. A description of threats and methods of protection

2.1Threats:
2.1.1 Climate factors
The hare is a native species and it is well adjusted to the average conditions of our climate
zone, but some deviations from average conditions in all seasons are unfavorable to it. In
winter the low temperatures are not dangerous but the high snow cover are dangerous
primarily because of restricted access to food. The hare is a species that does not accumulate
large energy reserves in the form of fat and therefore permanent access to food and its quality
are important to it. Low temperatures and snow cover can cause high mortality among
newborn hare at the end of March. In spring, the most threatening climate factor is rain which
is usually accompanied by a decrease of temperature. Cooling the body temperature of
newborn hares (usually in the second half of May) is associated with increased mortality. The
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autumn period and intensity of rainfall, is the time in which there is an increased threat from
coccidian and nematodes.

2.1.2 Habitat factors (agriculture, crops structure, tree plantation,
firehouse, elimination of balk)
This group of factors is wide and synergistic actions occur between some of them. Of
essential importance are the areas of agricultural land due to their surface - approximately
63% on the country scale and they are on the main place in terms of the occurrence of hares.
Agricultural economy in the last quarter of the century underwent major quantitative and
qualitative changes. The expansion of the average area of the farm and the accompanying
process of merging fields surface are the factors representing quantitative nature of the
changes. A further phenomenon is the intensification of agricultural production and the
dominance of grain and industrial crops. Currently, the share of these species amounts to 90%
of the agricultural land. The process of merging fields causes simultaneous disappearance of
balk. Each balk was characterized by adjacent furrow and was covered with natural vegetation
for a given habitat. Although the width of balk did not exceed 0.5 m, they created micro-
ecotones that enabled the existence as a protective and reproduction places (making of hare
hollows). Another phenomenon accompanying the modern agriculture is the removal from the
surface of areas of all shrubs, and tree plantings. For growing crops it is directly favorable, but
in the long term it may be detrimental to crop production, reducing the diversity of vegetation
cover but also animal species will be ultimately detrimental to the crops. It is necessary to
prompt the authorities to keep shrubs in an agricultural environment as the factor that will
bring the most benefit to agriculture alone and the additional effect will be the creation of
more favorable habitats for hares.
Nowadays, a wide range of chemicals are used in agriculture. The use of these chemicals is
essential, because it prevents the loss of yield, reduces manufacturing costs, reduces time and
effort, as well as it increases the harvest. However, they contain a number of harmful and
toxic substances.
Mechanization of field work poses a threat to many species of animals in the agricultural
landscape, especially for hares. The highest risk to hares life occurs in grassland crops. Over
60% of all losses take place in crops of alfalfa, clover and on meadows. It was claimed that
almost all young hares die at the age of about one month.
2.1.3 Anthropogenic factors (fragmentation of the landscape, hunting and
poaching, circular motion)
Anthropogenic activity has a wide range and includes agriculture as one of its fields, but
typically they are presented separately. One of the more important anthropogenic impacts
which is also associated with agriculture is fragmentation of landscape. Loss of landscape
diversity in agriculture concerns primarily large areas of fields, with no zones of shrubs and
trees and isolation of forest areas. Another threat in the agricultural landscape poses scattered
buildings and lasting pressure to settle in rural areas by urban population. This is especially
typical of places surrounding large cities and areas attractive in terms of nature. Expanding
the building zones also disturbs spatial functioning of animal populations. Communication
routes are also a very important factor in isolation of populations. Highways are separated
from adjacent areas by fences to protect travelers and animals from the effects of a collision.
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The effect of this is the lack of movement of animals through the highways. To counteract this
problem animal crossings were created, but they are not always located in the right place and
they do not always have the appropriate structure which results in smaller usage than

expected. Equally difficult situation exists on other roads due to the increasing severity of
road transport. The circular movement is also a cause of other adverse effects. It was claimed
that within a few hundred meters from roads, hares occur in low densities. The roads are a
source of noise and exhaust odors, so the animals try to avoid them and stay at a safe distance.
Hunting is also a factor reducing the size of the population, but to prevent over-exploitation,
the relevant rules for the management of particular species are in place. Currently hunting has
a symbolic character, in several provinces hares are not hunted for, and in others the scale of
hunting is minimal and in comparison to the size of population it does not exceed 2%.
Comparing the loss with the size of reproductive potential and other losses, hunting has no
effect on the dynamics of abundance.
Poaching is punished in all countries as it can cause a lot of damage to animal world. It may
be dictated by the desire to obtain meat, but it can also be a sort of "moral attraction" when
the goal is to catch the animal in snares, traps or kill it with a firearm. In recent years, this
method has become more common in some regions. Animals are killed with a firearm at night
and left in the place of killing, which means that the aim is just to kill the animal. An equally
peculiar form of poaching (for the hare) is the use of greyhounds. According to the report
prepared in the season of 2012/2013 hunters gathered 923 thousand pieces of snares, 710
pieces of traps and 1 534 pieces of other hunting devices. In these devices the following
amounts of dead animals (or their remains) were found: 24 elks, 337 deer, 80 fallow deer, 860
wild boars, 3 781 roe deer, 9 mouflons, 2 984 hares, 1 378 foxes, 101 badgers, 83 muskrats, 3
367 pheasants, 1 026 partridges and 246 unidentified animals.
2.1.4 Biotic factors (natural and synanthropic predators - dogs and cats)
For hares in wild habitat there are basically no competing species in terms of the food and
protective places. However, predators have a significant influence. The list of potential
predators of hare is long, for some of them it is a standard prey (e.g. fox, raccoon dog, hawk)
while for others it is an occasional prey (e.g. raven, white-tailed eagle, otter, weasel). In an
adaptive croft in Forest Inspectorate Krzystkowice, white-tailed eagle appeared regularly from
spring to mid-summer and some hares were its prey. In the same croft, E. Skowronski - a
forester responsible for hunting saw a weasel killing a hare. In Poleski National Park the otter
was seen carrying the dead hare. Ravens attacks on hares were observed more frequently and
they were collaborative activities – caused by 2 ravens. A wolf or lynx may also be an
occasional predator. In contrast, the size of the impact of predators on the populations of hares
is a complex issue. The research on participation of preys in the diet of predators are the basis
for inference about its impact. Finding remains of hair, bones in the stool or inside the
stomach is essential to recognizing the presence of the prey in the diet, but evaluation of the
role of the prey in the diet is more complex. Assessing the importance of predation, the prey
abundance, density of predators and participation of preys in the diets of predators should be
considered. The research carried out recently on the exerting pressure by foxes on hares in
Wielkopolska conditions indicates that the share of hares in the diet is smaller than a few
decades ago, but the lower density of hares with a higher density of foxes, makes the loss of
hare population due to predation by foxes greater than a few decades ago.
The problem of synanthropic predators is difficult because for legislators the rank of these
animals in the natural habitat is higher than those living in the wild. Information about wild
animals killed mainly by dogs is rarely published. Elaboration of physical inventory of dogs
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and cats in the area of several villages of Podlasie indicated that in the statistical farm there
are 1.8 of cat and 1.5 of dog and approximately 70% of dogs have the possibility of going at
night outside the farm. Within 1000 hectares of usable space (areas of farmland and forested

areas) there are 360 cats and 202 dogs. Of course, not all of them penetrate agricultural areas,
forests and poach, but the density of predators in combination with the density of natural
predators is appalling. At present, the density of foxes - the most stigmatized predator-
amounts to 10 - 20 individuals per 1000 ha.
2.1.5 Diseases
Coccidiosis
It is the most common disease of hares, caused by protozoa (Eimeria sp.). It is a disease of
young hares that affects almost all individuals. This epizootic causes particularly large losses
during the wet and cool summer which is followed by a warm and long autumn. Symptoms of
the disease depend on the degree of invasion, and they include apathy, loss of appetite and
mucous diarrhea, and during the autopsy the intestinal inflammation with the perforation of
mucous membranes and intestinal willi atrophy can be seen. Coccidiosis favors bacterial and
viral infections.
Gastrointestinal Helminthiasis
This is a parasitic disease caused by nematode (Nematoda). They reside in the small and large
intestine, where they hollow out the mucous membrane of and suck the blood causing
inflammation and anemia. The disease can lead to high losses among hares when their density
is high or where there is a shortage of food in the winter. The most vulnerable are less
resistant individuals, especially young or very old ones, in case of which the disease often
manifests itself in falls.
Pasteurella
It is caused by bacteria (Pasteurella multocida), which massively infect blood and internal
organs. It is a disease that occurs quite commonly in Europe. The infection occurs through
inhalation or ingestion. It is a common disease of hares. The symptoms include lethargy,
coughing, shortness of breath, diarrhea, emaciation and pus from the nostrils. The autopsy
symptoms are catarrhal-haemorrhagic upper respiratory tract infection, pneumonia and
pleurisy. Within organs such as the brain, liver, lungs and in the subcutaneous tissue
purulent inflammation often appears. When joined by unfavorable living conditions, the
disease can cause significant population losses.
Pseudo-tuberculosis
It is a bacterial disease that belongs to one of the most dangerous diseases. It can be acute or
chronic. In the acute form there is blood infection by bacteria, which causes death of the
animal in a few days. In the chronic form there are inflammations of the lungs, liver, spleen,
kidney and intestinal walls. The animal dies as a result of the complete emaciation and
exhaustion.
Staphylokokoza
It is a disease caused by a bacterium resulting in abscess on the skin, lungs, and injured tissue.
It rarely occurs alone, it appears after mutilations, inflammation and lung helminthiasis.
Brucellosis
The disease is caused by bacteria (Brucella suis, rarely B. abortus, B. melitensis). Sick
animals become less timid and can be easily caught. The symptoms of this disease include
gradually occurring emaciation and swelling of the spleen with nodules with a diameter of
0,5-1,0 cm. Males suffer from testicle and epididymis inflammation and thickening of the vas
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deferens. Females suffer from purulent inflammation of the uterus and necrotic foci in the
fetal membranes and ovaries. Infection occurs by ingestion.
Haemorrhagic disease of rabbits (EBHS)

It is a viral disease that attacks the young hares at the age of 5-8 weeks. After about 2 weeks
of incubation, symptoms from nervous system appear - tremors, muscle spasms, loss of
timidity, moving in a circle. The course of the disease is the most acute, and the mortality rate
reaches 70-100%. Infection usually occurs by either inhalation or ingestion. The virus causes
cracking of small blood vessels leading to the formation of numerous blood clots and necrotic
lesions in the kidneys, lungs, pancreas, lymph nodes and spleen.
2.2 Methods of protection:

Protection of endangered species can be passive and active. Passive form of protection is
undertaken in situations when the degree of environmental pressure on the species is large,
versatile and the population is not expected to be rebuild in general. Therefore, it is necessary
to take comprehensive and rational actions that would allow to achieve this goal. To
determine a reasonable program it is necessary to complete the relevant information, compile
it, identify the main causes of degradation and develop optimal implementation programmes.
2.2.1 Current situation of hares’ assessment
a) Population assessment (retrospection the number of individuals dynamics,

density, genetic, reproductive rates, population losses)
The assessment of the population includes mainly abundance, density and the trend of the
changes in the time is referred to as the dynamics of abundance. To assess hunted species the
dynamics of hunting and acquiring individuals from outside should be taken into account.
Hunting and trapping animals in an excessive way may affect the dynamics of abundance.
Evaluation of the population should include such indicators as gender structure, age structure,
the indicators in the field of fertility and mortality. Unfortunately, in the case of wild animals
including hares, the survival estimate of the gender or age structure is not real. This
information can be obtained on the basis of practical random tests taken from the population,
and the results will be reliable if the sample size is appropriate and has been taken in a
random way. Also, fertility and mortality research done by observation will give an estimate
results. For the evaluation of the condition of the population the analysis of genetic diversity
is extremely important. For this purpose, the most desirable samples are in the form of stool.
This method of obtaining the material for test is the best - being non-invasive, it does not
require the animal to be caught and then removed, and the sample of blood or hair doesn’t
need to be taken. The drawback of this method is more difficult isolation of the genetic
material of a hare.
To assess the dynamics of abundance, the rate of population balance can be used. To
calculate it, it is necessary to have information about the size of the population at the end of
the year of farming between the compared periods, the number of animals that has been
acquired in the period between the compared periods and the number of animals that has been
transferred between compared years. The rate of the population balance per year or longer
period can be calculated. In a situation where the comparative period includes e.g. 12 years,
then in order to get the average annual rate of population balance, the global rate should be
divided into 12.
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(Xa + A) - (Xb +B)

r.b.p. = ----------------------------- x 100

(Xb +B)
where:
r.b.p - rate of population balance
Xa - the number of animals in the final year of farming
A - the number of acquired (shot + hunted) animals between the initial year Xb, and the
final year Xa
Xb - number of animals in the initial year of farming
B - the number of transferred animals between period Xa and Xb
Example 1
Year 2013 (Xa) - number of hares – 340

Year (Xb) - number of hares – 350
Between 2012 and 2013 hares were not transferred or acquired
340 – 350 - 10
r.b.p = --------------- x 100 = --------- x 100 = - 2,9 %
350 350
Value of the index become negative -2,9%
Example 2
Year 2013 (Xa) - number of hares 340
Year 2012 (Xb) - number of hares - 350
The number of hunted hares between 2012 and 2013 – (A) - 25

(340 + 25) - 350 15
r.b.p. = ----------------------- x 100 = ------------ x 100 = 4,3 %
350 350
Value of the index of population balance was positive + 4,3 %
b) Assessment of habitat and threats: anthropogenic, biotic and morbid.

First of all the quality of the habitat in terms of requirements, preferences of hare should be
assessed, then we should take into account the number of predators, climate indicators that
may affect the dynamics of the number of individuals and possibly of occurrence of other
indicators specified for the given area e.g. the intensity of tourism because of the presence of
lakes and forests.
Valorization of habitat is difficult, it can be done in various ways, but for compatibility with
other studies, the Schrődl method is recommended that reflects the diversity of habitat. The
description of this method is in the third part of the study.
The next step is to combine the information obtained in the tabular and graphical form. A
good step is to make the calculation of linear correlation factors between each collected
indicator.
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A drawback of this approach is a different kind of relationship between the individual

indicators. Synergistic effects occur between some may that is the effect of intensifying a
certain impact, for example. loamy soil, autumn rainfall and temperature. A large amount of

rainfall at low (positive) temperature and not permeable ground fosters the development of
parasites (coccidia, nematodes) and increases the risk of diseases and mortality. There can
also occur the weakening effects e.g. at podsolic (permable) soils and similar rainfall, the
health risk to health will be lower. It is essential to perform statistical analysis using
appropriate programs, e.g. the analysis of variance by method of the smallest squares. The
advantage of this method is the fact that it allows to determine the relationship of the
independent variable (density of hares) from the indexed environmental indicators (e.g.
habitat, climate, anthropogenic, biotic) and to prioritize these indicators, the impact of which
is the greatest. During the research in the years 1977 - 1999 the density of hares was
calculated. Calculated equation indicates that the relationship between densities and specified
environmental indicators was higher than 0.9 and the most interactive index was the
boundaries length of tree coverage (X1), then the length of the meadows boundaries (X2), the
length of the forest boundaries (X3) and the density of foxes (X4) . In this analysis, the first
place was taken by the ecotone zone (length of borders), and the fourth place in terms of
significance of interaction was taken by the density of foxes.
To broaden the conclusion of this statistical calculation there a similar analysis was
performed, except that the independent variable was the acquisition of hares. Unfortunately,
the dimension of acquiring does not reflect the population size because it is not always
proportional to the population number. The factors that were most closely connected with the
acquisition of hares are: the rate of bonitation of the quality and relevance of agriculture, then
November rain, the size of acquiring foxes, the amount of grain and root crops. A list of these
factors is different, which also indicates no relationship between the population number and
the size of acquisition. Nontheless a list of the most influential factors is completely logical.
A further step should be taken into account for those indicators which we are able to modify
and plan the scope of activities of the time. In this process, it is necessary to take into
consideration the feasibility study, which is the real possibility of fulfillment of planned
activities.
2.2.2 Restitution actions

a) Monitoring of the population size (estimation methods of population number,
losses, the balance of the population, territorial structure in place of restitution
and the surrounding area, telemetry)
Monitoring of the population is a priority action that must be performed in a continuous

manner, because the effect of undertaken actions will be evaluated on the basis of the results.
The basic information is the population number and related indicators: fertility, mortality,
population losses and the balance of the population. On the basis of field observations, the
evaluation of breeding, mortality and other losses of population is very difficult, but the
results in this field should be collected, as in the long-term, they will be more useful for a
comprehensive assessment of restitution. When meeting in subordinate hare habitat (or
residues) general data should also be noted, as far as possible assessment of the condition,
sex, and- if it is a carcass-derived from recently dead hare (without the decomposition
process) it must be submitted to the veterinary clinic to determine the causes of the collapse.
Assessing the population number must be performed via methods used in counting hares: belt
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appraisal and counting at night in the spotlight. The description of these methods is presented
in the third part of the study. Definitely the annual observations and tracking methods need to
be excluded.

Evaluation of the spatial structure can be performed on the basis of the record of the meetings
of hares during penetration of the fishery. In contrast, the best method of monitoring is based
on telemetry. Telemetry studies are certainly very valuable, but require considerable financial
investment. They are higher with GPS transmitters and lower with traditional radio receivers.
In addition, the use of radio transmitters requires time to locate the individuals with
transmitters. When selecting animals for telemetry monitoring the gender, age and number of
animals should be taken into account that the results will be representative. Depending on the
financial and organizational capabilities the possibility of repetition of the studies should be
considered.
b) Assessing the genetic status of the population
Genetic condition assessment should be made at the current assessment of the

population and it is necessary when planning reintegration of hares from other places or
farms. In this situation it is necessary to conduct genetic testing on hares from the places of
their origin (at resettlement) or from the farm. There is no doubt that the reintegration of
animal of a different genotype is advantageous, it increases the genetic diversity and improves
the functioning of the population (the state of health, reproduction). This is confirmed by
recent research done in the area of Belfast.
c) Improving the habitat conditions (firehouses, plots, breeding areas, winter

feeding)
The most common cause of animals regression is adverse changes in their habitats and
therefore, an action plan in this regard must be well structured and precise. Based on the
assessment of habitat done in the context of "Evaluation of habitat" - paragraph 1b it is
essential to determine the extent of the necessary types of actions. This may be the need to
create feeding and protective plot, creating additional protective and breeding areas, watering
places (especially important for hares) and feeding sites. If the types and quantities of needs
are determined, the next step is their location in the field. This step is very important, on the
one hand, it must be placed in those parts of the habitat where it is needed, and the animals
will use it, on the other hand, there must be a real chance of its implementation. For example,
when creating a feeding and protective plot, it is important to locate it in a non-waterlogged
place which is remote from buildings, roads and, of course, has a parcel of sufficient size and
shape. In the current situation it is the safest to buy dozens of acres of agricultural land on
which it can be realized. The area of shrubs - very useful for hares also must be located in a
place where the animals will have a sense of security and planted shrubbery vegetation will be
able to grow well. An equally beneficial action for the existence of hares (and partridges) can
be the expansion of the balk to the width between 1 - 2 m (after consultation with the owner
of the land and the possible financial compensation). Large areas of farmland – e.g. a few
dozen hectares and more, can be divided into the strips of 3 - 5 m width on which low
vegetation will grow, where hares and partridges could find cover and food. This type of
action in a wider range is used in Germany. When setting up the watering place the attention
should be paid above all to the location that the animals could use it without stress.
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However, feeding hares can have a moderate character in average winters, but with a large
size of snow cover feeding must be increased. Location of the places of feeding (animal

safety) and devices are important. Of course, the fodder used in feeding must be of good
quality to be accepted by the animals and it must not cause eating disorders.
d) Reduction of anthropogenic and biotic threats (including reduction of predators)

Anthropogenic factors are varied in nature and some of them, e.g. the course of roads,
buildings, manufacturing plants or fenced areas of orchard business are virtually impossible to
modify. In this area, it is good to solicit a reasonable and proper use of chemicals in crop
production, pasture mowing, taking into account the risks to the hare and partridge. In
addition, people should be made aware that the freely moving dogs and cats in the wild are
very high risk for the animals living there. Poaching should be absolutely prevented. In this
regard, it is necessary to closely cooperate with the hunting and forestry guards and the police.
Very good results are obtained thanks to the interaction with teenagers. Engaging them into
various activities for environmental protection, raising awareness about the dangers to the
world of animals and plants can be very effective in the present time and it can bear fruit in
the future.
The opportunities to reduce the number of predators are possible only for the hunting
species, and in justified situations, possibly the special permit is required to reduce or startle
the protected species. When reducing the predator, their density should be taken into account
– e.g. the density of foxes according to the recommendations from 30 years ago should not
exceed 2 individuals per 1000 ha. Furthermore, the reduction in a small area (several thousand
ha - hunting circuit) is generally not very effective, because a gap is filled with individuals
from the neighborhood. It is rational to carry out the reduction in areas at least on a scale of
forest district.
e) Re-introduction of animals (adaptive aviaries, holding, procedures during

holding, release)
The re-introduction of animals is justified if the area covered by restitution meets the
following requirements:
- reliable biotic and environmental valorization of land was made and the cause of regression
was established,
- activities in the field of biotic environmental factors will be effective and improve the
conditions so that the species included in the regression will have a chance to function
properly,
- current density is low and does not guarantee the possibility of self-reconstruction.
With these assumptions, reintegration is justified, but it requires a complex preparation of
animals and habitat. Preparation of habitat is primarily targeted at improving the living
conditions which is included in section 2.c. Comprehensive preparation of animals consists of
several tasks:
- statement on the basis of genetic test whether animals chosen to be reintegrated do not have
the features belonging to other subspecies,
- preparing adaptive accommodation species meeting the requirements of species in terms of
area, security, vegetation, breeding devices,
- examining the health of animals before admitting to quarters and necessary giving
preventive medicines. Sick animals may not be admitted to the quarters, there is a risk of
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spreading the disease. The sick animal must return to the contractor, or it must be placed in a
rehabilitation center until recovery,

- during the stay of animals in the adaptive croft, even if there are no deaths, stool checkups
should be done to determine the risk of the most common threats – endo parasites. If the death
occurs it is essential to determine its cause (veterinary clinic).
- the holding period may not last less than three months. Very good results are achieved after
approximately an annual breeding of animals,
- before the planned release the animals should be caught in order to assess their gender or
age. With an annual holding in the quarters there occurs breeding and rearing of young
individuals; the important matter is the size of the birthrate while being held in the quarters
and losses,
- release of animals should be in the adaptive quarters. Animals should also be given drugs to
prevent them from parasites or other pathobionts,
- while keeping the animals in the quarters, the animals should be monitored, protected from
the intrusion of predators and, if necessary, provided with good fodder.
2.2.3 Promoting the need to protect animals in the mass media and
education
The awareness of the problems of nature is generally low in the society. Most often it occurs
occasionally and is particularly publicized by environmental organizations, although not
always accurately. Therefore, the promotion of knowledge in the field of nature protection by
people who primarily have extensive knowledge and experience is very valuable. The hunters
are most often seen as this group that contributes to the degradation of nature. Showing a
hunter as a person to whom the good of nature is most important is extremely rare today.
Teenagers, especially from rural areas have greater knowledge about the surrounding nature
than children and teenagers from large cities. Therefore, learning and promoting nature
protection with the participation of people who are actively involved in this will be very
useful now and in the future.
3. Best practices -description

Active protection programs of hares are conducted in several Breeding Animals Centres
of National Forests and they are mostly based on the increased reduction of predators and
reintegration of hares from the farm conducted by Swiebodzin Forest Inspectorate. The
position of this inspectorate in the process of hares and partridges restitution in Poland is
unique because both species are bred and reared animals are located in Breeding Animals
Centres of National Forests. The reintegration of animals from this farm was carried out in 17
OHZ LP, and because of the smaller number of reared hares and partridges, they were moved
to areas of Animals Breeding Centres in six forest divisions: Krzystkowice, Garwolin,
Przedborów, Miedzyzdroje, Lubartów and Rudnik. Achievements in the field of restitution of
species were also appreciated in the competitions "Leader of Polish Ecology" where
Swiebodzin Inspectorate was awarded once with honorable mention and the second time with
the title of "Leader of Polish Ecology". The nature of breeding hares in the inspectorate is
unique because it takes place in enclosed quarters with a total area of approximately 70 ha.
The specificity of this breeding led the authorities of the National Forests to verify the
usefulness of these hares in the research program under the title "Efficiency of settlements of
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hares in The Krzystkowice Inspectorate based on quartered breeding in Swiebodzin

Inspectorate" which was carried out in the years 2005 - 2008. As the interest in the breeding
technology is also present in other Inspectorates a short characterization is required.
3.1 Hare ranching in Świebodzin Forest Inspectorate

The first attempts at breeding hares on the fenced areas were made by Hartung in the
seventies of XVIII century in Germany, where he founded approximately 200 hare gardens
(parks). Although complete protection of food availability, after a few years large losses of
animal caused by diseases occur. The argument for breeding is mainly large naturalism which
manifests itself through:
- staying in conditions very close to natural. Animals must react to predators (mainly winged),
look for protective zones, they are exposed to all the influences of the weather. They may
choose plants to eat. During the heat the rules of polygamy are respected, which means that
there is competition between males, births take place in hollows and doe-hare maintain
minimal direct contact with its offspring. In the case of stress factor, hare, as in natural
conditions, has the opportunity to respond with their escape. Since the average running
distance of hare generally does not exceed 600 m, one of the dimensions of the quarters
should be larger.
- Those arguments cause that hares reared in such conditions should adopt very well to the
natural habitat.
a) Quarters and infrastructure
The concept of organizing quarters was established in 2002. This area, in the shape of
compact quadrangle with permeable soils of medium and low quality, meets the requirements
of the animal farms locations. The essence of this type of farming is the division into quarters
with an area of approximately 20 ha in the shape of a rectangle and with the length of one side
of not less than 600 m. Keeping hares in one quarters may last for 3-4 years, then breeding in
this quarters should be stopped for 2 years (the period of natural decontamination). The fence
of quarters must effectively protect against the entry of predators (mammals) and hares going
outside the quarters (Fig. 24). The quarters walls should be made of metal mesh (galvanized
or plastic-protected) with an aperture of 5 x 5 cm and a height of 2 m. In addition, from the
ground to the height of approximately 0.5 m there should be an extra net also galvanized,
plastic-protected with apertures of 2 x 2 cm to prevent leaving of newborn hares outside the
fence. External walls should have a foundation or be embedded to a depth of 70 cm mesh to
prevent intrusion of canine predators. From the outer side of the farm there should be a strip
of land with a width of 4-5 m with herbaceous vegetation that there is no cover for predators
and to ensure the easy passage of cars or tractors. Furthermore, on top of the external meshes
(at each column) there must be slants directed outwards with a length of 35 cm and at an
angle of 135o. Along with these slants 3 barbed wires must be dragged. This protection is
necessary to prevent the raccoon dogs and foxes from entering. Furthermore, it is advisable to
place two energizers (called electrical shepherd) on the outer side of the mesh, one at a height
of approximately 40 cm above the ground, the other at the end of the mesh. Internal walls do
not need to have these protections (see Practical Recommendation).
Page 72

Pic. 24. Table at breeding quarters in the Swiebodzin Inspectorate (photo by. R. Dziedzic)
An important element in the functioning of the farm is their infrastructure. In order to

create optimal conditions for hares, strips of vegetation must be created that provide food and
cover throughout the year. In the quarters there should be areas with bushes (including plants
and fruit trees - mainly apples) and they may be in the shape of an elongated rectangle ( 3 - 20
m), or even a circle. On the area of 20 ha there should be 4 - 5 such covers. A zone with
natural local vegetation should be present (fallow zone): 2 zones and one constant zone where
the soil would be all the time "in the acute chunk". Winter and spring observations indicated
that most hares preferred to stay there during the day because of the convenient shelter –
numerous dimpled (as hollows), and a similar color of the earth and sedge. The remaining
area of quarters should be used for the cultivation of plants, which will provide a fundamental
base of prey for hares. 10-15 zones should be established with a width of 20 m and a length of
30 m, where this vegetation will be grown. It is important that a greater number of zones
provides a greater variety of food and it will facilitate the use of crop rotation. When released
into the natural habitat, hares will face arable land with a similar structure to which they
should be adapted. In total, there would be several areas in one quarters where a few would be
planted with fruit trees and shrub vegetation, and the rest would be used by 1 season with the
exception of some perennial crops. Vegetation should be adapted to the nutrition preferences
taking into account the number of hares and season. Selection of plants on the strips is
dictated by habitat conditions, the attractiveness of food and usefulness for hares. (Fig. 25, 26,
27). The exemplary management of strips should look as follows:
Strip no. I (br. 10 m) – fallow,
Strip no. II (br. 20 m) – currently winter plowing, sow a mixture of oats with vetch. Number
of grains: oats 50 kg and vetch 100 kg.
Strip no. III (br. 20 m) - currently winter plowing, sow a mixture of: yellow lupine with
serradella. Number of grains: 80 kg lupine, 30 kg serradella. On this strip on approximately
Page 73
50 m from the western border there should be a plot created of topinambour and the second

plot of topinambour approximately 30 m from the eastern border and of the length of
approximately 30.
Strip IV - fallow
Strip V –Nowadays winter sow; the forecrop: field peas with oats, the amount of grain: field
peas - 50 kg oats - 80 kg. Use until September and sow mix of winter rye and winter vetch
(leave for the winter); amount of grain: rye - 80 kg vetch - 30 kg.
Strip VI. – currently winter plowing. Sow chickling vetch with white mustard. The number of
grains: chickling vetch – 90 kg, white mustard - 15 kg
Strip VII – fallow
Strip VIII - currently winter rye. To plow in the fall and seed in the spring with sunflower
and corn. Number of grains: corn - 40 kg, sunflower - 15 kg.
Strip IX –currently winter plowing. Sow tansy phacelia, the amount of grains - 12 kg.
Important: sow 1 - 2 cm deep, 2 times harrow, the seeds do not germinate in the light.
Strip X – ugór
Strip XI - now the rye. In autumn leave in the winter plowing.
Strip XII - currently plowing; sow spring vetch with chickling vetch and Westerwolski rye-
grass; number of grains: spring vetch - 40 kg chickling vetch - 40 kg, Westerwolski rye-grass
- 15 kg.
Strip XIII – fallow
Pic. 25. Quarters with z vegetation strips in Świebodziń Inspectorate (photo by. R. Dziedzic)
Page 74

Pic. 26. Quarters with z vegetation strips in Świebodziń Inspectorate (photo by R. Dziedzic)
Pic. 27. Protected area in the quarters in Świebodzin Inspectorate (photo. R. Dziedzic)
The number of sowing seeds is calculated per 1 ha. It is necessary to use organic or
organic-mineral fertilization due to the soil quality and nutritional value of plants. When
blended with butterfly fertilization on 1 ha the following amounts of pure component are
applied: nitrogen-30-40 kg, phosphorus 40-60 kg and potassium 70 - 100 kg. If there is no
butterfly nitrogen fertilization should be increased to 80 kilograms. Using lower standards of
fertilization is recommended. In the quarters in the fallow strips there should be:
- clumps of bushes (n - 10 - 15) as a place of shelter from winged predators and other
stressors,
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- clumps of apple seedlings (n - 10 - 15) as the source of the loop prey which is willingly
eaten by hares,

- 4 to 6 regular feeding areas during the off vegetation period. The surface should have
approx. 15 m2 and there should be pasture to give fodder (grain) a place to put root crops, hay,
salt and water trough. Every place to give fodder should be in a fixed location, to effectively
disinfect it periodically.
The infrastructure includes the outbuilding (storage for devices, fodder, etc.) and social
building (for employees). It is necessary to supply water and electricity (pic. 28).
Pic. 28. Infrastructure in the quarter breeding in the Forest Inspectorate of Świebodzin
(pic. R. Dziedzic)
b) Breeding
In a quarter with the surface of 20 ha, a livestock should be composed of 60 hares, 40 females
and 20 males therein (it corresponds to the sex structure in natural conditions), and density in
the area of 100 ha should be 300 hares. In natural conditions, an adult female bears around 8
hare cubs in four litters. In conditions of a quarter, it should be assumed that fertility indicator
shall be estimated at around 90 %, and prolificacy element shall be lower. In the captive
breeding, a female bears 1,5 - 4 cubs (in France and Czech Republic), and in natural
conditions realized growth is very differential, and on average it may be assumed to be around
15 % of the livestock. In the quartered breeding higher fertility but also greater losses are to
be expected in comparison with the captive breeding. It should be assumed that higher fertility
will level the losses, and as a result a female is expected to bear 3 cubs that is, within 100 hare
cubs from one quarter are expected. For hares’ functioning density will be crucial. In the
autumn period it will be 800 – 100 specimens per 100 ha, and earlier after 3 and 4 litter it will
be yet greater. By this density negative behavioural reactions are not observed.
First hares were let into the quarter on January 23th of 2004 and they came from the catching
in the regions of Toruń in the number of 60 specimens, 38 females and 22 males therein.
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During the catching in the beginning of November 2004, 196 hares were caught of which sex
and age were recognized, two caught hares’ sex was not recognized (age of about 2 months,

undeveloped reproductive organs) and 4 hares died during the catching. Total number of the
hares caught in the quarter was 202 specimens (tab.5).
It follows from the configuration that size of losses by females was more than twice bigger
than by males. Because of the impossibility to determine the term of hares’ losses, the average
state for the whole period (arithmetic average of the initial and final state) was accepted. By
dividing the hare cubs (167) by the average number of females (28,5), the amount of 5,9 was
obtained which is the number of hare cubs borne from a female.
Whereas by accepting (according to literature) the average quantity of 8,2 of cubs from one
female, the hare cubs’ growth should be 234 specimens, and if in the beginning of November
167 (6 died therein) hare cubs were caught, it would mean that the probable death rate of cubs
was 28,6 %. According to the accepted standards, sex structure by birth is 1 : 1 so there
should be 117 females and 117 males among the newborns, whereas 101 females, 60 males
and 6 unidentified specimens have been caught. It would mean that death rate of male cubs
was 49 % and of female cubs 14 %. This situation is contradictory to one that occurred by
adult animals.
Tab. 5. Results of hares’ catching in 2004

specification reintroduction catching
adults 38 19
Female cubs 101
in total 120
adults 22 17
Male cubs 60
in total 76
Sex adults 1 : 1,7 1 : 1,1
structure cubs 1 : 1,7
Losses females 50,0
(%) males 22,7
In 2006, 151 hares, 91 females and 60 males therein were let into three quarters, and in the
beginning of November 2006 47 adult females and 36 males were caught. Losses among adult
hares were 48 % by females and 40 % by males. In comparison to 2004, the size of losses by
females was congenial, whereas the percentage of losses by males increased nearly twice.
From three quarters 176 hare cubs in total were caught, and sex structure was 1 : 1,9 in favour
of females.
c) Decline in hares’ population in quarter breeding in the Forest Inspectorate of
Świebodzin
In every kind of breeding there are losses of animals caused by various factors. In the quarter
breeding on the surfaces very similar to the natural ones in the summer-autumn period,
densities of hares are nearly 20 times higher than the ones encountered in natural conditions,
and due to this aspect there is a heavy pressure from diverse pathogens and predators. The
additional factor projecting on the greater pressure from some predators is a substantial
density of rodents in the quarters’ area, and this, in turn, makes some predators hunt rodents,
but if there is an opportunity to hunt a hare, then this kind of pray is certainly more
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„profitable”. In 2006, causes of hares’ losses were registered and the results were presented in
tab. 6. The results indicate that predation is twice more often the cause of hares’ mortality
than disease. It cannot be excluded that a part of predators’ attacks was directed at ill animals.

This is meaningless for the whole picture of losses but may be relevant for the cognitive
purposes.
During last two years attacks of foxes, raccoon dogs and raccoons have been observed.
Whereas in the areas of the quarters weasels occur, and in the adaptive farm in the Forest
Inspectorate of Krzystkowice an efficient attack on a hare has been observed. From winged
predators above the areas of the quarters there may be observed buzzards, hawks, ravens, owls
and even the white-tailed eagle. There have been seen attacks of winged predators but the area
of 3-4 quarters (depending on the year) and of the surface of 50-70 ha is too large to deter
predators efficiently.
Tab. 6. Hares’ losses (n and %) in the quarter breeding of The Forest Inspectorate of
Świebodzin in 2006
Kinds
of Quarters (n) In total
losses I II III n %
Diseases 16 27 18 61 32
Predation 40 52 36 128 68
In total 56 79 54 189 100
3.1 Restituting hares in the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice

Restoration of hares’ population in the area of the Game Breeding Centre basing on animals
coming from the quarter breeding has been established as a prior goal in this program.
Concomitant subjects are as follows:
- efficiency of the adaptive farm in restitution,
- survival rate of hares after release,
- dispersion of hares after release.
a) Research area
Research has been conducted in two hunting circuits: experimental – A, and control – B. Both
circuits have been characterized by similar conditions of habitat. There occur small hills of
average or low soil moisture. The average rainfall in this region stands at level of 550-600
mm; the average annual temperature is 8 ºC. The shortest distance between these circuits has
been around 12 km, and it is a too large distance for hares to move between these circuits.
Experimental circuit (A) is the Game Breeding Centre (GBC) of the State Forests (no. Of
the hunting circuit 195) of a total surface of 15206 ha and forest cover of 48,6 %. There are 6
forest complexes of the surface above 100 ha each and 9 smaller complexes. In tree stands
dominates pine (88%). Other species are oak (6%), birch (3%), alder (2%) and other (1%). In
the entire area occur around 200 trees and bushes of a nature of small clusters with tree
vegetation and bushes, and about 25 clusters of the surface of over a dozen hectares which are
of field barns nature.
In the areas of farmlands soils of IV (50%) and V class (30%) decisively predominate. Here
and there occur stretches of soils of III class (10%), and also weak soils of VI class (10%).
Among the cultivated plants predominate grains (rye, barley, wheat, oat) which cover 70% of
farmlands’ surface. On 20% of the surface rape is cultivated. Roots – mostly potatoes and
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beetroots – are cultivated on the surface of merely 5%. Maize plantations cover the same
surface. In the survey area fallow lands do not practically occur.

There is a shortage of larger water reservoirs (lakes, ponds). A small river, Brzeźnica flows
across the centre of the survey area. On the edge of the circuit flows Bóbr river. The area is
traversed by a network of drainage ditches which periodically carry water.
On the survey surface around 60 km of paved roads occur, provincial road Nowogród
Bobrzański – Żagań therein. The other roads are district roads and communal roads – the least
are mostly dirt roads. The survey area is inhabited by around 7 000 people. Compact – rural
settlement predominates along main paved roads.
Control circuit B is rented by a hunting club, with total surface of 8722 ha, whereof 67,5%
constitute forests – mainly state forests in 4 complexes – two larger per about 2 000 ha, and
two smaller per about 1000 ha. In the composition of tree stands pine mainly occurs (95%),
and in small amounts oak (2%) and birch (2%) occurs. In the whole area, scattered forest
covers occur which may be of nature of solitary planting or cluster planting. In total, in the
survey area occur around 50 smaller (of couple of acres) or larger (of above a dozen of acres)
clusters among which 15 clusters are of field barns nature.
In the areas of farmlands predominate soils of V (45%), IV (30%), VI (20%) and III (5%)
class. There are cultivated mainly grains (rye, barley, wheat, oat). Total part of grain farming
in total surface of farming is 79%. Other cultivations are rape (10%) and roots (potatoes and
beetroots – 10%). Occasionally maize (1%) is cultivated. Around 20% of comparative area is
covered by fallow lands. In the comparative area lakes, ponds, etc. do not occur. By the area’s
edge flows Bóbr river. The area is traversed by a poorly developed network of drainage
ditches which periodically carry water.
The paved roads network is about 45 km long. These are 4 district roads. Moreover,
there occur rarely attended communal dirt roads. The area is inhabited by around 3400
dwellers in a compact – rural settlement situated longways paved roads.
A detailed valorisation of habitat of the two circuits has been conducted by the use of
Schrodl’s method. The idea of this method is assessment of diversity of habitat with taking
into account over a dozen indicators. In the group of landscape factors’ features characterized
on the basis of Schrodl’s method there have been distinguished:
 width in every direction and average width in km,
 size of absolute surface in km2 and relative surface in %,
 average size of surface,
 number of particular surfaces number of borders,
 absolute (in km) and relative (in km/km2) length of borders,
 average distance between elements of landscape in km.
Detailed valorisation of experimental area (A) and control area (B) has been essential because
of hares’ existence conditions and resettlements executed. Valorisation in each area has been
performed in the autumn and spring period on the same surfaces because of occurring plants’
cultivations resulting from vegetation period. Results of autumn valorisations have been
presented herein.
Valorisation in the experimental area (A) has been conducted on the surface (16km2) by
designating intersects in a latitudinal and longitudinal system in the distance of 4 km from
each other – total length of transects has been 32 km. Distances which occur for located there
elements of habitat has been noted in every transect. These elements are e.g. roads, balks,
buildings, bush covers, forest, meadows, pastures and cultivations of particular plants (maize,
Page 79
oat, rape, etc.). After compiling of the results, it has been stated that the largest surface
(11,07km2) constitute fields covering 69,2% of the total surface. Winter corns (3,74km2) and

soil (3,02km2) have had a substantial part in this area, which constitutes more than 44% in
total. Besides, a substantial percentage – 8,8 of the area have been covered by farmlands –
meadows. A favourable for game element is a compact rural settlement which has been
encountered on routes only 4 times in total. Much numerous are roads which have occurred
43 times, but predominantly these have been dirt tracks. Water reservoirs have occurred only
twice and water courses are mainly in the form of drainage ditches. The area is characterized
by large-scale economy, the average size of fields is 8,3 ha, wherein the largest in the scope of
area are maize cultivation’s feoffs which are on average 19,9 ha large. Coppices and forest
covers deserve the attention as their part has been 2,1% and the average surface – 1,3 ha.
Orchards have not occurred in this area at all. Number of intersections of borders with
network reflects landscape’s enrichment. It is not high in the analysed area, which is a
derivative of the large-scale economy. Total number of fields’ borders encountered in the
route networks is 266. However, the part of borders with elements such as coppices (50),
forest (48) or meadows (58) is beneficial. Length of contour lines parallels largely to length of
balks which is perceived as a beneficial factor for little game. In the survey area, 13,05 km of
balks goes for every km2. Borders with fallow lands’ areas are also of a substantial length –
2,55 km/km2. In general, a substantial length of borders with roads is unfavourable but in this
area a substantial quantity are dirt tracks, usually surrounded by trees and bushes which in the
last case favourably influences on little game’s existence. Average distance between elements
of landscape designates the distance which the game has to do until the next landscape’s
element. In search of another winter corn field the game has to do the shortest distance which
is 316 meters on average. Whereas the longest distance the game has to do in search of
charlock – more than 13 km. Distances between forest surfaces, similarly as between
coppices, are small as usually there is a forest surface every 0.5 km. A favourable element of
landscape’s structure is the substantial distance between built-up areas – over 3.3 km.
In the control area (B), the network of valorisation routes in the region of Dzietrzychowice
and Pożarowa has encompassed mostly farmlands.
In the survey area of a total surface also of 16 km2, fields encompassing 78.0 % of the total
surface have had the biggest acreage (12,47 km2). Forests (2.07km2) have had a relatively
large, as for a field surface, part which constitutes 13.0%. The part of other landscape’s
elements has been substantially smaller as the area has been covered by meadows in 3.3% and
by coppices in 2.1%. Buildings have been constituted by residential buildings and farmhouses
of Dzietrzychowice village stretching in the middle of the area in the direction east-west.
Because of this, these buildings have been encountered on the route 8 times, but the building
existing here is favourable to the existence of the game as it is compact. Roads are numerous
– they have occurred even 70 times but these have been largely dirt tracks in the number of 4
circle traffic is not intensive.
Permanent water reservoirs have not been found, whereas watercourses have been
encountered 17 times. This area is characterized by the large-scale economy as the average
size of fields is 7.2 ha. In the cultivations structure winter corn – 5.42 km2 (ca. 40%) and rape
3.27 km2 (over 20%) predominate. A relatively large number of fallow lands have been found
which have encompassed almost 13% of the area. The number of intersections of borders with
the network designates the landscape’s enrichment. This number in the survey area is not
high, which is a derivative of the large-scale economy. The total number of fields’ borders in
the area of 16km2 is 348, which is a slightly bigger magnitude than in the case of area A. The
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part of borders with elements such as coppices (38), forest (30) or meadows (22) is regarded
as favourable. The length of contour lines parallels largely to the length of balks, which is
perceived as a favourable factor for the little game. In the survey area, more than 31 km of

balks goes for every km2. Usually, large length of borders with roads is regarded as
unfavourable, however, it should be interpreted by taking into account the roads’ specification
and the traffic intensity and in the survey area dirt tracks are of the substantial amount – 6.87
km of roads goes per every km2. In the analysed area, in search of another winter corn field
the game has to do the shortest distance which is 186 meters on average. Moderate distances
are between fallow lands, soil and rape. Whereas corn fields (ca. 7 km) are relatively distant.
Distances between small forest surfaces and coppices are moderate (respectively 928 m and
733 m). A favourable to the game element is a rural compact building which may be
designated in the survey area as moderately compact for it is scattered averagely every
1.7 km.
Detailed analysis of conditions of habitat in both areas has allowed stating that both areas
satisfy well hares’ needs of habitat, which are more favourable in the control rather than
survey area in view of higher diversity of elements of habitat. It has been stated that
conditions of habitat have not been the cause of hares’ number degradation in the area of the
Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice. In view of this, modifications aiming at improving
conditions of habitat have not been executed during the experiment.
In both areas (A and B) an intensive reduction of predators has been conducted. A ranger for
hunting – E. Skowroński has been doing this in the experimental circle, and in the
control area – hunters from a hunting club.
b) Adaptation quarters and upkeep of hares

In accordance with propositions in the area of OHZ Krzystkowice an adaptive quarter of the
surface of ca. 10 ha (pic.29.) has been founded. The farm has been located on the grounds of
state forests, and on the surface of ca. 3 ha a tree stand is located and the other part is
constituted by an arable land (ca. 6 ha), a grassland (ca. 1 ha – along the watercourse). The
farm has been constituted by a metal net of the height of ca. 2 m fastened to two wooden
poles, and an energiser of a lower and upper part of the net. Batteries have been the power
source. Arable lands have been partly cultivated and partly left in fallow (pic. 30). In 2005,
2006 and 2007 oat was the basic sowed species, and in 2006 on the part of the land artichoke
was sowed. Moreover, in two locations feeding points with a volumetric juicy fodder have
been established, and in one location a water container has been located. In the time beyond
the vegetation period, hares have often gone to winter corn and very zestfully gnawed the
artichoke. Judging from the gnawing marks it may be assumed that bulbs have been eaten
more often than grains. The height of the artichoke may be a relevant factor in this matter.
During preying on winter corns or low grains, hares have been visible and more vulnerable to
predators’ attacks. Page 81

Pic. 29. Facade of the adaptive farm in the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice
(photo by. R. Dziedzic)
Pic. 30. Vegetation in the adaptive quarter in the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice
(pic. R. Dziedzic)
Hares from the quarter breeding in Świebodzin have been transported in traditional
wooden boxes, and there have been 3 specimens in one box. Due to the fact that hares in
Świebodzin have been given medicines, tattooed and their sex and age have been designated
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on-site, in the following years boxes have been placed in the area of the farm, the lids have
been lifted and hares have come out on their own.

In table 7 results of hares keeping in the adaptive farm in the period of 3 years have been
presented.
Tab. 7. Results of hares keeping in the adaptive quarter

Reproduction
Hares reintroduced - caught Hares raised Growth
Activities of 1
year of 1
and terms In reintroduced
males females In total males females female
total hare
IV 2005 -
reintroducti 4 5 9
on
XI 2005 -
2005 3 5 8 11 13 24 4,8 3,7
catching
Losses -% 25 0 11
XI 2005 –
reintroducti 17 18 35
on
XII 2006 -
2006 8 5 13 19 27 46 4,0 1,7
catching
losses -% 53 72 63
XII -2006
reintroducti 11 15 26
on
XI – 2007
2007 1 7 8 14 22 36 4,5 1,7
catching
losses -% 91 53 69
Assessment of hares keeping in the farm needs to be viewed in several aspects, and the
most important is rearing and losses. Due to the fact that vegetation and hares’ behaviour do
not allow tracking of the number per year on the area of the farm, in order to calculate the
growth indicator an average annual condition of females has been accepted by calculating the
mean of the number of animals reintroduced and caught. This mean may be burdened with an
error as the losses’ structure does not have to be regular in time; however, in this time it is the
only possible way of calculating. In the 1st year from a statistical female 4.8 raised hare cubs
have been received, in the following year – 4.0, and in the last year – 4.5.
By analysing the growth an additional indicator has been counted out – indicator
designating the number of all hares received in proportion to one reintroduced specimen. This
indicator is more objective enough that it reflects the net income after taking losses into
account. In 2005, in proportion to 1 reintroduced hare 3.7 (32 : 9) hares have been caught, and
in the following two years - 1.7 (59 : 35 and 44 : 26) per year. It may be assumed that the
reproduction and losses’ efficiency has been the most favourable in the 1 st year, whereas in
the following two years it has been on a steady level.
Assessment of hares losses among reintroduced into the farm specimens in the
following years has been trouble-free as during the catching they can be calculated on the
basis of a tattoo’s occurrence. What is interesting is that in the 1st year (from April to
November) only one male has died. In the 2nd year, the average losses for males and females
Page 83
have been 63% (22 specimens) and in the 3rd year – 69% (18 hares). For the whole period of
the experiment average hares losses have been 59%. The upward tendency of hare losses and
also the death rate of males and females should be stressed. Among the reintroduced into the

farm specimens in the analysed period 32 males and 38 females have been reintroduced,
whereas 12 males and 12 females have been caught. The average death rate of males has been
62.5% and of females – 68.4%. Among the raised youth there have been 44 males and 52
females in total which means that the sex structure has been 1:1.4 in favour of females.
Within the scope of the program, the raised in the quarter hares have been released in
the direct quarter’s distance. By every cycle all hares from the quarter have been caught, their
sex and age have been designated, their tattoos have been read, and on this basis growth and
losses have been calculated. A veterinarian has been assessing their health condition and
giving medication against endoparasites and a bio specimen against RHD to them. Then hares
have been being released by the quarter. A part of the hares released have wanted to enter
back the quarter.
C) Telemetric studies
For implementation of the studies a set has been used which has included Australis 26K
collector, Yaga-type aerial and 20 transmitters (Ectone Company). The transmitters have been
implanted under the skin in the area of the animal’s blade-bone. Implanting of the transmitters
after anesthetizing of the animals has been conducted by a veterinarian. The transmitters have
been operating on the frequency of from 150010 to 150890 MHz and the coverage, according
to the manufacturer, has been to be from 4 km by the ground localization and to 40 km by the
aerial localization. Battery life in the transmitters has been to be from 12 to 24 months.
Research has been conducted in two cycles: in November 2005 the transmitters have been
implanted to 10 hares, and in November 2006 research has been done again by implanting the
transmitters also to 10 specimens. The transmitters have been implanted to 6 females and 4
males each year.
d)Survival rate of the monitored hares
In the 1st stage of the research signals of all the transmitters implanted to 10 specimens have
been registered until the end of March 2006 (fig. 13). During locating performed in April a
transmitter emitting death signal implanted to specimen No. 3 (male cub) has been localized.
The outlook of the transmitter, the damage of its cover and teeth marks on it has indicated the
hare’s death by a predator’s attack. In the same month, for the last time the signals have been
registered which have been emitted by the transmitters implanted to the specimens of
numbers: 6 (female cub), 7 (female cub), 0 (female cub) and a specimen No. 8 (adult male)
has not been localized. In the following periods of tracking, till June 2006, specimens of
numbers: 1 (female cub), 2 (female cub), 4 (male cub) have been tracked and this has been the
last date of their localization, and specimens of numbers: 5 (adult female) and 9 (adult male)
which have been being tracked till November 2006.
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miesiąc
0 gru 1 sty 2 lut 3 mar 4 kwi 5 maj 6 cze7 lip 8 się 9 wrz10 paź
11 lis12
4
nr zająca
Fig. 13. Periods of observation of hares released in 2005

Legend:
Hare’s number-numer zająca
Miesiąc-month
Dec/Jan/Feb/Mar/Apr/May/June/July/Aug/Sept/Nov
In the 2nd stage of research a transmitter’s signal of the hare No. 5 (male cub) has not been
tracked since the first observation’s period (fig. 14). During the following controls including
miesiąc
0 gru 1 sty 2 lut 3 mar 4 kwi 5 maj 6 cze7 lip 8 się 9 wrz10 paź
11 lis12
4
nr zająca
Fig. 14. Periods of observation of hares released in 2006.

Legend:
Hare’s number-numer zająca
Miesiąc-month
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Dec/Jan/Feb/Mar/Apr/May/June/July/Aug/Sept/Nov
February transmitters’ signals of the other hares have been registered. During the tracking
conducted in March hares of numbers: 2(female cub), 3 (female cub), 8 (male cub) and 0

(male cub) have not been localized. During this tracking hares of numbers: 1 (female cub), 4
(female cub) and 7 (female cub) have been localized for the last time.
Two transmitters of hares No. 6 (male cub) and 9 (female cub) have been localized and found.
These transmitters have emitted the death signal and like the transmitter found during the first
stage of research, they have had predator’s teeth marks on them. During the following periods
of tracking, despite intensive attempts to localize the hares, none of the transmitters’ signals
have been tracked.
In the 1st cycle of research after 5 months since implanting signals from the transmitters have
been registered from the distance of 50 m, and in the 2nd cycle after 3 months, the furthest
distance of registration has been ca. 50 m. The results received have been far from the
manufacturer’s assurance. Lack of information about hares after 5 or 3 months since the
release results most of all from the transmitters’ poor quality.
E) Dispersion of hares in radiotelemetry studies

In the 1st round of the research it has been stated that the longest distance noted during the
telemetry observations has been 1.05 km from the place of the release in the south-eastern
direction and 1.29 km in the north-western direction. The surface on which presence of hares
with transmitters has been noted in the whole period convex polygon’ method established has
been 1.8 km2. By analysing the dispersion of hares released in the 1st round it can be said that
they have been staying near the adaptive farm for a long time. Hares have not migrated into
the woods and beyond its boundaries. Only a part of hares have migrated in the eastern
direction beyond the narrow stretches of coppices, and there they have occurred in sedges
near the watercourse, mid-field barns or low farm cultivations. This relatively small distance
of dispersion may be caused not only by the terrain layout but also its familiarity to the
specimens released. Observation of hares’ returns to the areas near the farm may be a
confirming fact.
During telemetry observations conducted in the 2nd round, acreage on which presence
of hares has been noted, has been smaller. The surface convex polygon’s method has been
0.95 km2. The smaller acreage and the distance of scattering may result from objective causes
that is, shorter time of tracking which has been caused by fading of signals from the
transmitters.
F) Habitat preferences
Assessment of the preference of habitat has been done by designating places of hares’ stay in
the areas of high vegetation (forest, bush cover), middle-high vegetation (grains, fallows,
sedges), low vegetation (winter corns, meadows) and areas without vegetation (ploughed
fields).
In the areas of high vegetation a large preference of this vegetation group has been visible.
The part in landscape of this vegetation has been 19.2 %, and the frequency of hares’
localization has been exceeding 50 %. For females and males in both cycles of the
experiment, a relevant (P≤0.01) selectivity of places covered with high vegetation has been
observed (fig. 15).
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90
80
70
60
preferencje (w%)
50
40
xx xx xx xx xx xx
30
20
10
0
samica samiec samica samiec I cykl II cykl
I cykl II cykl średnia
te rminy kontroli
Fig. 15. Percentage of hares localization (in %) in the areas covered with ligneous species
(part in landscape – 19.2 %)
Legend:
Preferences (in %)-preferencje (w%)
female-samica
Male-samiec
1st cyce-pierwszy cykl
2nd cycle-drugi cykl
Średnia-mean
control’s periods-okresy kontrolne
In the areas of middle-high vegetation (fig. 16) in the 1st cycle of the experiment, hares
occurrence in ca. 34 % of all localizations has been observed, and the disparity between males
and females has been ca. 6 %. With respect to this vegetation’s group part in the landscape
(26.8 %) frequency of hares’ occurrence has not significantly differed statistically (P≤0.05).
In the 2nd cycle of the experiment, the hares’ stay in this vegetation type has been observed in
ca. 10 % of all the localizations noted. For females and for males as well, such frequency of
occurrence in proportion to its part in the landscape has turned out to be statistically relevant
(P≤0.01). Large disproportions between the 1st and the 2nd cycle of the experiment need to be
considered in terms of the transmitters. In the 2nd cycle of the experiment, signals from hares
at the end of March, when winter corns, sedges and fallows have yet occurred, have stopped
being received. Whereas in the 1st cycle, a part of hares with transmitters have been being
localized yet till the end of November. In the 2nd cycle of the experiment, hares’ stay in this
vegetation type has been observed in ca. 10 % of all the localizations noted. For females and
for males as well, such frequency of occurrence in proportion to its part in the landscape has
turned out to be statistically relevant (P≤0.01). Large disproportions between the 1st and the
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40
35
30
preferencje (w%)
25
20
15
10
5 xx xx xx
0
te rminy kontroli
Fig. 16. Percentage of hares localization (in %) in the areas covered with herbaceous
vegetation of medium height (part in landscape – 26.8 %)
Legend:
Preferences (in %)/female/male/1st cycle/2nd cycle/mean/control’s periods
female-samica
Male-samiec
Średnia-mean
control’s periods-okresy kontrolne
2nd cycle of the experiment needs to be considered in terms of transmitters’ efficiency. In the
2nd cycle of the experiment, signals from hares in the end of March, when winter corns,
sedges and fallows have yet occurred, have stopped being received. Whereas in the 1st cycle, a
part of hares with transmitters have been being localized yet till the end of November.
In the areas of low-height vegetation (winter corns, meadows), hares’ localization’s

part in the 1st cycle has been 4.2 %, and in the 2nd cycle – 7.5% (fig. 17). In the 1st cycle,
males’ occurrence in these areas has not been observed at all, in the 2nd cycle the percentage
of females and males’ occurrence has not exceeded 11 %, and with respect to this vegetation
group’s part in the landscape – 36.3 % - a significant (P≤0,01) avoidance of this vegetation
formation has been observed.
The preference of habitat studies have turned out to be important and surprising. Hares,
conceived as typical agrocenosis representatives, have preferred high-height vegetation –
ligneous and shrubby, whereas in a typical field habitat they have occurred rarely – mainly
during the prey. It may be assumed that this kind of preference has been acquired during the
stay in the adaptive quarter where there has been a forest covered surface in which they have
been less jeopardized to predators’ attacks.
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40
35
30
preferencje (w%)
25
20
15
xx
10
5
x x xx
xx
0
terminy kontroli
Fig. 17. Percentage of hares localization (in %) in the areas covered with herbaceous
vegetation of low height (part in landscape – 36 %).
Legend:
Preferencje-preferences
female-samica
Male-samiec
Średnia-mean
control’s periods-terminy kontrolne
G) Density
The surface observed during belt appraisal in the experimental area has been ca. 260
ha, and in the control area – ca. 240 ha. Taking into account the circles’ surfaces, forest cover
and spatial structure, the surfaces on which numbers have been estimated satisfy methodical
assumptions (min. 5 %) for this method. Assessment of the number done in autumn 2004 (tab.
8) has shown that in the area of OHZ (experimental area) density till spring 2006 has been on
a similar level (3.8 – 4.6 hares per 100 ha), and after this period it has been increasing till
autumn 2007 – 12.7 specimens per 100 ha.
In the same time in the control area densities since spring 2005 till spring 2007 have
also been stable (3.6 – 4.0), but in autumn 2007, there has been a substantial decrease – up to
1.3 specimens per 100 ha. By assessing the impact of reintroductions in the experimental area
it may be said that the impact of first reintroductions in autumn 2005 has been insignificant as
densities’ increase in spring 2006 has been 0.5 specimens, but in autumn 2006 it has been 2.0
specimens, and in spring 2007 there has been a further increase by 4.3 specimens. Such huge
density growth (by ca. 60 %) has probably resulted from underestimation of the number in
autumn, or overestimation in spring 2007. A large growth of the number in the experimental
are has been confirmed in autumn 2007 when density has been 12.7 specimens per 100 ha
(increase by 16 %). The number of estimation’s results has been influenced to some extent by
hares’ behaviour and slighter activity in unfavourable weather conditions.
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Tab. 8. Hares’ density (per 100 ha of farmlands) in the experimental and control areas of the
experiment.
Density Experimental area Control area
assessment’s period
Autumn2004 4,0
Spring 2005 3,8 4,0
Autumn2005 4,1
Spring 2006 4,6 3,6
Autumn 2006 6,6
Spring 2007 10,9 3,6
Autumn 2007 12,7 1,3
Autumn 2009 10.5 0,6
The juxtaposition of densities in the experimental and control areas clearly indicates the
hares’ reintroduction’s positive impact. By similar densities before the beginning of the
reintroductions, in the final period of the research in the control area hares’ reintroduction has
been 1.3 specimens that is, it has been almost 10 times lower.
After two years since the end of the research, hares have been counted in the same
areas again in order to calculate the durability of reintroductions. The density in the
experimental area has decreased to 10.5 specimens, whereas in the control area to 0.6
specimens. These results indicate the maintenance of the reintroductions’ effect in the OHZ
area and threat to hares’ existence in the control area.
H) Genetic research
Faeces samples for the examination have been collected in the area of the Forest Inspectorate
of Krzystkowice (as a place of restitution) but before the releases, then they have been taken
from hares bred in the quarter breeding in the Forest Inspectorate of Świebodzin and the ones
from Płaskowyż Jędrzejowski and Pojezierze Dobrzyńskie as the ones which have been
reintroduced in the area of the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice. Moreover, faces samples
have been collected in the region of central-western (the Forest Inspectorate of Międzyrzecz)
and north-western Poland (Pojezierze Drawskie –the Forest Inspectorate of Połczyn) as places
of low hares’ density.
The measure of diversity is allei polymorphism and Shannon index. The lowest diversity has
been observed by hares from Pojezierze Dobrzyńskie – 0.4, and the highest by hares from
Pojezierze Dobrzyńskie – 1.2. The Shannon index’s feature is taking into account the number
of allei and their occurrence frequency that is, it reflects the actual variability more accurately.
The results indicate that the genetic distance between the hares from Krzystkowice and the
ones from other regions of Poland is similar and sets between 0.43 and 0.52 (tab. 9).
Tab. 9. Genetic similarities and distances. Genetic distances are above the table’s diagonal
and genetic distances are below the table’s diagonal
Krzystkowice Drawskie Międzyrzecz Dobrzyńskie Jędrzejowki
Krzystkowice ***** 0,6150 0,5944 0,6089 0,6489

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Drawskie 0,4862 ***** 0,6514 0,7851 0,8149

Międzyrzecz 0,5201 0,4286 ***** 0,6321 0,6398
Dobrzyńskie 0,4961 0,2419 0,4587 ***** 0,9634
Jędrzejowski 0,4325 0,2047 0,4466 0,03772 *****
Whereas the smallest distance (0.03772) and at the same time the biggest similarity (0.9634)
are between hares from Płaskowyż Jędrzejowski and the ones from Pojezierze Dobrzyńskie.
Reading of the genetic research’s results is difficult if the distances between particular regions
of origin and hares’ density in those places are to be taken into account.The most surprising
information is the large genetic diversity and small genetic similarity by hares occurring in
western Poland’s belt: Forest Inspectorates of Krzystkowice, Międzyrzecz and Połczyn
(Pojezierze Dobrzyńskie). One shared feature of these regions are very low hares’ densities in
natural habitats/ It may be also supposed that the maintaining since a long time slight hares’
density in western Poland has caused genetic isolation and the current genetic image is the
result of this. Whereas the distance between Płaskowyż Jędrzejowski and Pojezierze
Dobrzańskie is ca. 400 km, and the genetic similarity is the biggest, and the genetic diversity
is the smallest. The feature of both the regions is a good hares’ density and they have been the
place of catching for the quarter breeding in the Forest Inspectorate of Świebodzin.
By summarizing this section it needs to be stated that the genetic studies’ results have been
obtained in accordance with the latest methods with the usage of 6 microsatellites and they are
for sure significant in the present moment and will be in the future. Researches of such
methodology are pioneer in Poland, and the non-invasive way of obtaining the material for
genetic isolation (faeces samples) deserves to be stressed. The juxtaposition of the hares’
density, which reflects population’s condition and the genetic indicators, seems to be
particularly interesting. In the future, in the area of the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice as
a place of hares’ reintroduction of a separate genotype there will be a very interesting hares’
genetic image. The answer to the question: will allele structure of the hares living there alter
under the influence of admission of specimens of a new genetic characteristic and will this
translate into the population’s density, will be possible to obtain.
3.3 Recommendations and practical advice

A) Hares inventory
Belt appraisal
A proven method serving to calculate the little game’s density in the field landscape is
belt appraisal. This method allows for reliable calculating of hares’ density and number, and
also the density of partridges (especially by the higher quantities of this species). Appraisals
are conducted twice a year (economic), in the late autumn (to designate the quantities of hares
in the initial stage of the hunting season and after the end of hunting partridges) and in the
early spring (first half of March) to calculate the densities of these species after the winter
period. The stocktaking with this method is conducted every year in the same routes, wherein
they should be designated in a way allowing for stocktaking of species in all types of
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environments which are in the area of the hunting circle. They should entail areas of diverse
fertility, areas agriculturally administrated with taking into account various kinds of

cultivations and fallows, mid-field forest and bush covers, and lands administrated more
poorly. Belt appraisal’s routes should encompass at least 5 % of the circle’s field area (5 km
of appraisal belts per every 1000 ha of the circle) by assumption that every pas is 100 m wide.
The length of every one of them should not be too big and should allow for travelling such
route once (10-15 km optimally) therefore, in the circle of the area of several thousand
hectares, a couple of stretches of different mileage should be designated. The stocktaking
routes system is applied on the hunting circle’s map and there is a necessity of their precise
position reference on the map. 7 persons spaced out ca. every 17 meters on every stretch take
part in stocktaking. These persons move at an even pace going through the whole length of
the route. A person that leads the appraisal should be in the middle of the spaced out persons
which makes it easier to take notes on the stocktaking. In the partridge stocktaking a stretch
200 m wide should be utilized. If we want to stock take both species subsequently, it may be
done by additionally setting two persons on the flanks in the distance of 50 m each from the
stretch’s edge designated for hares’ stocktaking (these additional persons count then only the
partridges attempting to fly). During the stocktaking, only these hares and partridges are noted
which try to avoid the line formation of stock takers in the reach of the same stretch therefore,
persons staying on the flanks play a key role in this method (their task is to observe whether
the specimens attempted to fly or run in the reach of the stretch or beside it). Specimens seen
beside the stretch are not included in notes. In the case when the mid-field forest covers are on
the stocktaking route, they should be neatly penetrated and even driven out to make sure that
all the specimens have been counted. In the notes taken by the leader of the stocktaking there
should be included a possibly the largest amount of information about the stocktaking
progress (the time of the beginning and ending of the stocktaking, the number of the
specimens startled, the time on which hares or partridges have been registered, the cultivation
or place type from which animals have attempted to fly or run, and the distance from the line
formation of the persons participating in the stocktaking). Additionally, places on the circle’s
map with the mileage of particular routes applied may be marked in which hares or partridges
have been located, which gives valuable information about specimens’ spacing out on the
area. After finishing counting, a protocol of the stocktaking needs to be drawn up by adding
the number of hares and partridges noted on every stocktaking’s route. Then, data obtained on
all the routes are added and the density of specimens is calculated (number of specimens per
100ha) by the usage of the formula:
D = N/(RLx0,1)
where: Z – density
N – number of hares or partridges noted
DT – route’s length in km
When the direct result is over 30 hares, other formulae need to be used which allow for
errors’ correction:
- hares’ density in autumn (HDA):
HDA = 0,57 x Z + 11,9

where: Z – direct result of appraisal
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- hares’ density in spring (HDS):
HDS = 0,81 x Z

In the case of partridges of densities over 10 specimens per 100 ha that is, ca. 1 flock
per 10 km of the route
- partridges’ density in autumn (PDA):
PDA = 0,71 x Z + 8,1

- pairs of partridges’ density in spring (pPDS)
pPDS = 0,73 x Zp + 5,1
where: Zp – pairs density obtained directly from appraisal
(according to Research Station Recommendations PZŁ in Czempino)
Protocol model of the conducted stocktaking of hares and partridges:

………………………
(hunting club’s seal)
INVENTORY PROTOCOL OF
Hares/partridges conducted on ………….. by belt appraisal method in the area of the hunting
circle no. …………., rented by the Hunting Club no. ………………………………………….
in …………………………………..………
The commission composed of:
1……………………………….
2……………………………….
3………………………………(the Forest Inspectorate representative………………………).
declares on the basis of the source data that in the result of the conducted stocktaking of
hares/partridges by belt appraisal method on the area of the hunting circle no. ………….
it has been established that:
-the hares’ density is ……………… specimens/100ha
-the number of hares in the whole circle is………….…… specimens
-the partridges’ density is………….………specimens/100ha
-the number of partridges in the whole circle is………….……specimens
The above quantities, as compatible with the actual condition, are accepted into the Annual
Hunting Breeding Plan for 20…../20….. economic year, as a condition on 15th March 20…….
………………………, on………………………
Commission’s members’ signatures:
1…………………………..
2…………………………..
3…………………………. (the Forest Inspectorate representative ……………………).
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Night counting of hares in the light of a searchlight.

It is a method more and more commonly used in the hares stocktaking, and it is also
useful during foxes’ counting. It is the most efficient in the case of field catchings of small
forest cover. It may be used in the period from the end of harvest till around the half of May
when the vegetation does not restrict the vision. During using this method, the earlier planned
and marked on the hunting circle’s map transects are traversed with a cross country vehicle
and illuminating the area with a searchlight. In the stocktaking conducted by this method 3
persons (the one who drives, the one who illuminates the area and an observer taking notes)
should take part in it. Before doing the proper calculation, a range of visibility in the spotlight
needs to be determined which is a significant value by the further density calculation. A
searchlight should not be permanently fastened to the vehicle, and the illumination should be
handled by one of the observers (thanks to this it is possible to react to the vehicle’s
movements and the area’s illumination on both sides of the transect). The stocktaking should
be conducted in the optimal weather conditions (no clouds, full moon), and its precision may
be significantly increased by using binoculars or a night-vision aid during the observation.
The hares’ density is calculated on the basis of the estimated surface which has been subjected
to the stocktaking (the transects’ length multiplied by the range of the searchlight used) and
the quantity of the specimens noted.
B) Supplemental feeding
The field catchings, in which the little game’s species such as hares or partridges stay,
are characterized by a usually high productivity therefore, feeding base resources in the
vegetation period occur in here in a sufficient amount. The problem is little diversity of the
food available caused most of all by cultivations’ standardization in the large acreages and
also by large-field economy. These changes of an anthropogenic origin negatively influence
the quarry base resources and they lead to the protective conditions’ deterioration. A
particularly difficult period for the little game is the one following the harvest when quarry
conditions drastically deteriorate, and the vegetation which stays in the area beside the
farmlands constitutes a very poor feeding base. The hares’ feeding period in our country’s
conditions should last from November to the turn of February and March. By the calculation
per one specimen, there should be minimum 1 kg of hay (of clover, birdsfoot, lucerne), 5 kg
of oat in bundles (bundle) and 4 kg of roots (fodder kale, curly kale, maize, beetroots)
prepared in the circle per season. Feeding devices should be set up in the area of the hunting
circle regularly in the distance of 1 km from each other, preferably in balks near the small
mid-field forest or bush covers on such a way as to eliminate a direct threat from winged
predators. The dry fodder in the form of bundles of oat is set on the custom-built stands in a
shape of the letter “T”, and the bundles are fastened horizontally to its arms. A good and
economical way of feeding is setting the fodder around the driven into the ground pile of the
height of 120 cm. Firstly, an insulating layer of twigs should be place around the pile then, the
dry volume fodder (e.g. bundle) in the form of a widening upwards cylinder should be fixed
to the pile. The cylinder should narrow at the height of ca. 75 cm, and the food set should be
covered on the top with an upturned hay bundle solidly fixed to the pile. It allows for putting a
large amount of this type of food in a single time while securing it against natural
precipitation. The hay of legume plants, birdfoot, clover and lucerne may be also put in small
pasture boxes of a special design, with permanent roofing. It is essential that the roof covers
only half of the hay laid out which provides an easy access to the laid out fodder. The juicy
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volume fodder (fodder kale, curly kale) may be laid out in troughs situated near the pasture
boxes, or various types of roofing may be used by its laying out. Other kinds of juicy fodder
(swede, beetroots, maize) usually should not be used during the frost periods because it

freezes quickly becoming a useless additive, and sometimes it may even cause digesting
system dysfunctions. An important element of feeding is giving salt in the form of teethers to
the hares. They are planed piles of soft wood (aspen, poplar, willow, apple tree) of the height
of 40-60 cm and the diameter of ca. 5-10 cm. In the upper part of the pile a concavity is
drilled and a stake is drilled through to ca. 2/3 length. From the central hole to the stake’s
surface channels angled 45o are drilled. Such pile should be driven into the ground and then
salt needs to be poured into the concavity in its upper part, where it melts and flows through
the drilled holes onto the teether’s surface. Another way is putting so called salted brooms.
They are salinated in 16% solution of salt bunches of “liściatka”, which are driven into the
soil or snow, or hanged on the stands.
C) Feeding-protective plots
The improvement of stay conditions for these species of the game should be based on
enlarging and varying of the natural quarry base available. This task may be realized through
establishing feeding-protective plots which function is, beside improving of the good quality
quarry’s resources, resolute improving of the cover conditions.
A good solution for hunting clubs is a buyout of parts of crops cultivated in the area of
the catching land from farmers and leaving them as a quarry on a tree trunk for the autumn-
winter season. When such possibilities are not available, renting of parts of fields of even
small surfaces and their proper development may be thought through. By the usage of a
proper rotation of crops, such plots may constitute a great diversion of the quarry and cover
conditions as well as play the role of production plots (gathering of fodder for a feeding
season). Additionally, such localized between large-field cultivations surfaces may constitute
oases of peace during the period of mammals’ clutches and birds’ hutches with an assumption
that we will cultivate there plants of other period of harvest than the ones localized in the
neighbouring fields.
Total surface of plots should be dependent on environmental conditions in particular catching
lands (mainly it is about the part of natural mid-field forest and bush covers, and cultivations
types) and it should be from 0.1 to 0.5 ha per 100ha of the field surface. Particular plots
should not be too big, their surface should be from 0.1 to 0.3 ha. Too big plots (similarly as
too big in surface mid-field forest covers) are less willingly used by the little game and may
constitute places in which species of predators will permanently stay. The shape of plots
should be close to a rectangular. The selection of cultivated on these surfaces species is
important. Species of a quarry meaning (wheat, barley, millet, rape, tatarka, oat) in the form
of blends of these plants and also plants such as maize or artichoke should dominate here
which also provide the improvement of cover conditions.
D) Mid-field barns
One of the basic economic operations which serve to the improvement of stay
conditions of the little game in the field catching lands is establishing of stretches of forest
and bush covers called mid-field barns. Their role is to create the cover base for the little
game against unfavourable weather conditions as well as against predators (the winged ones
especially), to enrich the natural quarry base in the form of fruits and seeds of plants building
these zones, and they also constitute the accommodation base, e.g. for pheasants.
Creating the barns usually does not deplete the production surface of fields as for its
Page 95
establishment wind breaking stretches, banks of drainage ditches, and various types of places
not used for farming (scarps and depressions) may be utilized. A classically shaped barn
should have an elongate, similar to a rectangular or ellipse of not too big width (ca. 20m)

shape, and its surface should be from 0.5 to 1 ha (it is more beneficial to establish more
smaller barns than one barn of a bigger surface). The arrangement of barns on the surface of
the hunting circle is also important. They should be located quite regularly, in the distance of
ca. 800-1000 m from each other thanks to which the little game is able to find shelter in the
whole hunting circle. A barn should consist of several zones. The most external one consists
of a layer of bushes and is formed of low and resistant bushes (briar, currant) playing a role of
an anti -predators, -humans, -wind or -blizzards zone. Inside of the barn there should be an
open space covered with grass or a farmland providing the game with nutrition and playing a
role of cock and hareings’ breeding places. It should encompass from ¼ to 1/3 of the whole
surface. During mowing and cultivation a part of this surface should stay untouched and be
left for nesting and insects’ wintering. In the middle part of a barn blooming deciduous trees
(apple-tree, mountain ash, oak, and black cherry) may grow, as well as clusters of protective
and bacciferous bushes (briar, black thorn, hawthorn, viburnum, raspberry, blackberry,
spirea), and clusters of coniferous bushes (spruce) giving shelter especially in winter.
Coniferous trees should be planted in a wide box, e.g. 2x2 m and regularly topped. It is not
recommended to introduce to the barn high, single trees with rare crowns located in the
neighbourhood of breeding surfaces because they may constitute places of ambushing birds of
prey. The presence of a watercourse or a pond in the area of the barn is desirable. In such
case, herbaceous vegetation should dominate on its banks in order to prevent its surface from
being covered with leaves in the autumn season, and to provide an optimal access of the light
and wind to the water table.
In the situation when mid-field barns already occur in the catching land’s area, it is worthy to
manage it in a right way by removing some of the trees and bushes in order to let the light to
the herbaceous vegetation’s layer, and also by additional planting of low bushes or fruit trees.
If there is no possibility to establish permanent barns in the space of a catching land, or if they
occur in an insufficient amount, seasonal shelters may be established, most often yearly ones.
Their roles are usually played by left on a trunk, not mowed stretches of maize or lupine, or
small, from 0.2 ha to 0.5 ha plots of artichoke, millet, birdsfoot and other plants providing the
game with shelter and nutrition.
e) Adaptive farms
The key element to realization of the program of the little game’s restitution is
reintroduction. Hares from breeding farms, before they are let into the catching lands, should
stay in adaptive farms and aviaries for at least 3 months. As it has been showed in an
experiment in the Forest Inspectorate of Krzystkowice, the period of keeping for 12 months is
the most efficient. Location of such type of farms is of a primary value. They should be built
in places of a subsequent animals’ reintroduction. However, the location must also allow for
frequent visiting of the aviaries directed to supervising it, and it should be also available for
plugging in an energiser as one of the main security systems.
The surface of farms for hares should encompass at least 2 ha, wherein because of
costs, it should be endeavoured to form it in the shape of a square (the length of the net used).
The area intended for farms should be cultivated (a stretch system of cultivating is
recommended) with vegetation of a quarry as well as protective designation. In farms
intended for hares feeders for feeding should be located (6-7 per 1 ha of a farm) (pic. 31).
Page 96
Because of zoo-hygienic reasons they should be set on nets of very dense eyelets or on
wooden pallets. In the case of a lack of natural covers, a couple or over a dozen artificial
shelters should be prepared which should be made of spruce twigs (pic.32). The farm’s fence

should be of the height of at least 2m. Its base is constituted by driven into the ground wooden
poles constituting spans ca. 2-2.5 m long. It is constructed of a metal net of 5cm diameter
eyelets (pic.33). The net should be driven into the ground angled 45 o (the diagonal bar
directed to the outside of the fence) (fig. 19).It is a good protection from predators’ under
digging. In the construction of the fence diagonal bars ca. 50 cm long on the top of the fence
should also be taken into account. They are done with the use of a flat bar or an angle bracket
and are fixed to the fences’ poles, and then 3-4 barbed wire wraps are installed in the holes on
them (additionally, an energiser’s string wrap may be used on the upper edge of diagonal bars.
It is a protection from predators jumping over the fence).
Pic. 31. Feeders for hares on an adaptation farm (photo by R. Dziedzic)
Pic. 32. Artificial shelters inside the adaptation farm (photo by.R. Dziedzic)
Page 97

Pic 33. Fencing of adaptation farm (photo by R. Dziedzic).
When planning the construction of the fence the entrance ought to be designed in an
appropriate way. It ought to be wide enough for any sorts of works inside the farm to be
possible. It also should be closed with the use of padlock and secured with energiser. For this
reason a spring fragment of energiser’s over-wrap can be applied, attached on metal handles
in order to close the circuit or, more frequently, the over-wrap of energiser’s wire is attached
to insulators which surround the entrance (Fig. 18 and 19).
Page 98

Fig. 18. Draft of a construction of the fencing span in the adaptation farm.
Legend:
Siatka wkopana pod katem 45stopni- Net dag under the angle of 45 degrees.
Linka elektryzatora-Energiser’s wire
Poziom gruntu-Land level
Drut kolczasty na odkosach-Barbed wire on diagonal bars
Energiser is the key element of the system of farm security. An ideal solution is to
apply two kinds of it in order to secure each enclosure. The first one is the energiser powered
by the network, while the second one is battery powered, which is switched on in case of
power supply downtime. The energiser’s line is mounted to insulators screwed into the
wooden piles of the fencing. Two over-wraps of enclosure are most frequently used-one at the
height of 50cm from the ground, while the second one at the distance of about 100 cm from
the first one (Fig. 18). Throughout the entire time of enclosure functioning its proper
operation must be ensured. For this reason, the area around the enclosure ought to be deprived
of plants which might touch the wire, and in the winter period, snowploughing should be
performed around the fence. The construction of the enclosure ought to encompass future re-
introduction of the animals kept. For this reason, the bays of the fence ought to be construed
so that they allow for a fast and easy disassembly of the net.
Fig. 19 Protection on the entrance of the enclosure with the use of energiser
Legend:
Oplot wejścia linka elektryzatora-over-wrap of energiser’s wire
Zabezpieczenie wejścia od zagrody z uzyciem sprężyn-Protection of entrance to the enclosure
with the use of springs
Sprężnowy odcinek elektryzatora zakończony hakami-Spring fragment of energiser which
ends with hooks
Page 99
Linka elektryzatora-Energiser’s wire

In the vicinity of the enclosure (4-5m from the fence) a pulpit should be located which
will enable observations of the kept animals.
Once the animals released from the quarters the area ought to be limed in order to remove any
forms of persisting bacteria, parasites. If during the upkeep of animals infections and diseases
occurred the quarters ought to be additionally decontaminated with a pharmacological
preparation.
Conclusions
Activities targeted at re-introduction of partridges and hares in Poland are in many
aspects pioneer in their character. It is not entirely clear whether the current state of
knowledge will allow for preservation and perhaps even re-introduction of numerous in the
past populations. It is surely the fact though that whether partridges and hares will again
populate our fields to a large extent will depend not only on the efforts of the foresters and
hunters, but also on the efforts made by the entire society which, through its behaviour will
often indirectly but significantly support the protection of the discussed species.
Therefore, we wish to recommend the hereby publication not only to those persons and
entities who are responsible for protection and management of nature in our country, but also
to all who care about improving and maintaining the possible richest environment for future
generations.
The authors
Page 100


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Paweł Nasiadka

THE HANDBOOK OF BEST

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Part I – PARTRIDGE (P. Nasiadka)

Part II – HARE (R. Dziedzic)

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

1. Biology of partridge– an outline

Partridge (Kuropatwa) (Perdix perdix) is a representative of the pheasant family

generally less intensive in case of females.

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

1.2. Population dynamics of partridges in Poland.

Partridges are gregarious animals, living in groups consisting of several to dozen or so

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Year 1995 2000 2005 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Figure 1. Partridge population decline in Mazovian voivodeship in years 1981 – 2008.

Compared to the whole country, partridges’ situation in Mazovia, although not

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Figure 2. Partridge population in individual voivodeships in Poland in 2011/2012 (according

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

1.3. Habitat preferences and behaviour

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

1.4. Reproduction and mortality rate

one quite fast, although it will be significantly smaller (photo 2).

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Due to many complex factors, which include: predation, unfavourable weather,

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

1.5. Ecologic and social importance of partridges

Pic 3. A group of partridges in agricultural landscape (photograph by P. Nasiadka)

little game in Poland.

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

Table 2. Populations and conservations status of galliforms in Poland (according to GUS,

2. Threats and conservation

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

2.1.2. Habitat factors

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

2.1.3. Anthropogenic factors

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

2.1.4. Biotic factors

In the observation and research regarding partridges population, the influence of

2.1.5 Diseases and parasites

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

 Heterakidosis – caused by nematodes – Heterakis sp., which place themselves in

2.2 Conservation methods

from diverse sources.

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

2.2.1 Population assessment

Methods of taking an inventory of partridges are, from methodical and technical

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

The count of vocalizing partridges

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

2.2.2 Release of partridges into the wild

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

an acclimation device or an acclimation-breeding device if the option of getting to mate and

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl

No. Spring Summer Fall Winter Spring Summer Fall REMARKS

2.3 Improving habitat conditions