Chapter 6

(National Radio Astronomy observatory, New Mexico)

Assoc Prof Dr Zeeshan Zahid

Introduction*
Two-element array*
N-element uniform linear array*
N-element linear array: Directivity*
Design procedure*
N-element linear array: 3-D characteristics
Rectangular to polar graphical solution
N-element linear array: Non uniform amplitude*
Super directivity
Planar array
Circular array
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*Topics to cover
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Many radiation characteristics cannot be achieved
with single elements
Long distance communication needs high directivity
One way is to increase the size of single antenna
(impractical)
Another way is to use assembly of radiators (Array)
Mostly array elements are identical (simple, practical)
Fields of array can be calculated by superposition
Fields add constructively in desired directions
Destructive interference produces null

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Five parameters to control radiation pattern are
(1) Geometrical configuration
(2) Displacement between element
(3) Excitation amplitude between elements
(4) Excitation phase between elements
(5) Relative pattern of individual elements
Arrays consists of dipoles, loops, apertures, horns,
micro-strips, reflectors and so on
Mobile base station (sectoral array)

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
 Linear array of two infinitesimal dipoles
Total E-field radiated (assuming no coupling)
kIol  e− j(kr1 −  / 2) e− j(kr2 +  / 2) 
E t = − j  cos(1 ) + cos( 2 )
4  r1 r2 
where β is progressive phase shift
Far zone approx.
θ 1 ≈ θ 2≈ θ
For Phase r1 = r - d/2 cos(θ)
r2 = r +d/2 cos(θ)
For
magnitude r1 = r 2 = r
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Using far zone approx.
kIole − jkr
E t = − j
4 r

cos( ) e j(kdcos( )+  ) / 2 + e − j(kdcos( )+  ) / 2 
kIole − jkr  1 
E t = − j cos( ) 2cos  (kdcos( ) +  ) 
4 r  2 
Pattern multiplication (element factor × array factor)
Array factor is
1 
AF = 2cos  (kdcos( ) +  )
2 
AF is a function of geometry, magnitude, β, d
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Explanation of pattern multiplication rule

β=90,
β=0, dd==λ/4
λ/4
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
 For the array of two dipoles, find the nulls of the total
field when d = λ/4 and
(i) β = 0 (ii) β = +π/2 (iii) β = − π/2

Solution:
(i) β = 0 (elements are in phase)
Etn = cos(θ) cos(π/4cos θ) = 0
cos(θn) = 0 gives θn = 90o
cos(π/4cos(θn)) = 0 when π/4cos(θn) = ±π/2
θn does not exist

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
(ii) β = +π/2
Etn = cos(θ) cos(π/4(cos(θ)+1)) = 0
cos(θn)= 0 gives θn = 90o and cos(π/4(cos(θn)+1)) = 0
π/4(cos(θn )+1) = π/2 gives θn = 0
π/4(cos(θn )+1) = -π/2 θn does not exist
Null

Solve 3rd part and example 6.2

yourself

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Generalized method for N element array
Assume uniform array of isotropic point sources
Uniform array has identical elements with identical
magnitudes and progressive phase delay β
Pattern multiplication will give fields of actual array

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Sum of exponentials can be represented by vector
sum of N phasors
AF = 1 + e j(kdcos( )+  ) + e j2(kdcos( )+  ) + + e j(N−1)(kdcos( )+  )
N
AF =  e j(n−1)(kdcos( )+  )
n =1
N
AF =  e j(n−1) … (1)
n =1
where ψ = kd cos(θ)+β
N
(AF)e j =  e j(n−1) e j … (2)
n =1

(AF)(e j − 1) = ( −1 + e jN ) by (2) – (1)

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Expression of array factor can be simplified as
 sin(N / 2) 
AF =  
 sin( / 2) 
Maximum value of AF is N, normalized expression is
1  sin(N / 2)   sin(N / 2) 
(AF)n =    N / 2 
N  sin( / 2)   for θ={-π, π}
To find the nulls put sin(Nψ/2) = 0; Nψ/2 = ±nπ

  2n 
n = cos 
−1
( −    ) n = 0,1,2,3,…
 2 d N 
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Maximum value occurs when ψ/2 = ±mπ
  
m = cos −1
( −   2m ) m = 0,1,2,3,…
 2 d 
Array has only one maxima that occurs at m = 0
−1   
m = cos  
 2 d 
3 dB point occurs when Nψ/2 = ±1.391
−1   2.782 
h = cos  (−  )
 2 d N 
HPBW will be 2|θm - θh|
Read for secondary maxima (θs) yourself 13
Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
N = 10; lambda = 1;  sin(N / 2) 
AF =  
 Nsin( / 2) 
k = 2*pi / lambda;
d = lambda / 4;
B = pi/2;
theta = [-pi : 0.01 : pi];
si = k.*d.*cos(theta) - B;
AF = 1/N.*sin(N/2*si) ./ sin(si/2);
plot ( theta, abs(AF) ), grid
figure(2)
polar (theta, AF)

Note: Try different values of underlined variables

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
 HPBW

0.22 (-13.46 dB)

θh
θs

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Assoc Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Variation of number of elements (d = λ/4, β = π/2)
Note that directivity increases with N (appendix 2)

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Variation of β, (with N = 5 and d = λ/4)
Principle of scanning arrays
Beam width does not remain the same

(β = π/2) (β = π/4) (β = 0)

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Variation of separation d, (N = 5 and β = π/2)

(d = λ/4) (d = λ/3) (d = λ/2)

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Types of arrays in terms of direction of main beam
Array having field maxima normal to the array axis
If array is along z axis, maxima is at θ = 90o
Array maxima occurs when ψ = kd cos(θ) + β = 0
i.e. β = 0 (all the elements must be at same phase)

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Separation between elements must not be nλ
For d = nλ and β = 0, ψ = 2πn cos(θ) = 2nπ
Substituting ψ in AF gives maxima along θ = 0,180
Multiple maxima of radiation pattern (grating lobes)
are avoided
dmax < λ

(Gating lobe)

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Array having field maxima along the array axis
along θ = 0o, ψ = kd + β β = -kd
along θ = 180o, ψ = -kd + β β = kd
Main beam exists in both directions for d = λ, λ/2
Factors that control array pattern are N, β and d
dmax < λ

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Directivity of end fire array can be increased by using
Hansen and Woodyard conditions (1939)
Conditions are for a closely spaced large array
β = -(kd + 2.92/N) and |ψ| = π/N Max. in θ=0o
β = +(kd + 2.92/N) and |ψ| = π/N Max. in θ=180o
d = (N-1)/N (λ/4) ≈ λ/4 (See derivation in book)
N = 10 & d = λ/4
Do 1.805×Do

HPBW = 74o HPBW = 37o 23

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Main beam can be oriented in any direction using
appropriate phase shift
ψ = kd cos(θ) + β = 0 gives β = -kd cos(θ)
Continuous scanning requires continuous phase shift
Accomplished by ferrites or diodes (PIN, Varactor)
Types are switched line, loaded line & reflection

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
Switched line
Phase shift Δφ = k (l2 - l1)

Loaded line

Reflection type

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
1 x 4 array with delay line phase shifter

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Asst Prof Dr. Zeeshan Zahid, EE 344, MCS
HPBW of end fire array is greater than that of broad
side & phased arrays

(Phased Arrays)

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