DESN40114 Advanced Construction Materials

Lecture - Concrete Durability

Dr. Hynda KLALIB

Room M312
Ext 4873
[email protected]
 DESN40114 Advanced Construction Materials

▪ Introduction • Activity 1

▪ Concrete Strength Classes • Activity 2

▪ Concrete Specification

▪ Concrete Cover And Exposure classes • Activity 3

▪ Cement and Admixtures

▪ Concrete Aggregates
▪ Properties of Fresh Concrete • Activity 4

▪ Concrete Design Mix • Activity 5

▪ Concrete pathologies

▪ Embodied CO2 of Concrete & RC • Activity 6

2
Introduction

3
 Concrete Companies in UK/World

Multinational building materials company, Maidenhead French industrial company, Paris

Largest supplier of ready-mixed concrete Products: cement, construction aggregates, and concrete

Multinational ready-mixed concrete, quarrying

Multinational building materials company, Mexico
and concrete products company, Egham

Precast Products: cladding/wall panels, Constructions solutions: flooring,

floors (Hollowcore, PC beams), Architectural & Structural Precast Products:
cladding, retaining walls, Alfreton ground products, Surrey
concrete blocs, Toomebridge, NI

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http://www.britishprecast.org/Our-Members/Full-Members.aspx
 Intended working life
The design working life is the assumed period for which a structure is to be
used for its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without
major repair being necessary.

▪ 10 years for temporary structures (Structures erected to aid in

the construction of a permanent project, e.g. Sidewalk bridge)

▪ 10–25 years for replaceable structural parts

▪ 15–30 years for agricultural and similar structures

▪ 50 years for building structures and other common

structures

▪ 100 years for monumental buildings, bridges and civil

engineering structures

BS EN 1990 ‘EC0 – Basis of structural design’

5
 Intended working life
The design working life is the assumed period for which a structure is to be
used for its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without
major repair being necessary.

▪ 10 years for temporary structures (Structures erected to aid in

the construction of a permanent project, e.g. Sidewalk bridge)

▪ 10–25 years for replaceable structural parts

▪ 15–30 years for agricultural and similar structures

▪ 50 years for building structures and other common

structures

▪ 100 years for monumental buildings, bridges and civil

engineering structures

BS EN 1990 ‘EC0 – Basis of structural design’

 A major impact on environment

Why does the construction industry cause environmental

problems?

▪ In operation
✓ Consumption of energy, water
✓ CO2 production
✓ Impacts on soil, groundwater, biodiversity

▪ … and very long service life

✓Necessary to maintain/upgrade existing structures
✓Demolition produces wastes

6
 Sustainability & Built Environment

▪ Of the global energy consumption, 75% occurs in cities and 80%

of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions emanate from cities.
Indeed, climate change and urbanization are inseparable. And if
cities are part of the problem, they are therefore inevitably part of
the solution. Mrs. (Anna Tibaijuka, 11/05/2007)

▪ Greenhouse gases such as water vapour, methane and carbon

dioxide stop heat escaping from the Earth into space. An
increased greenhouse effect can lead to global warming and
climate change.
5

ECTP, Vision of the Construction Industry towards 2030 and beyond

ECTP: European Construction Technology Platform/European Seventh Framework Programme
 Sustainable Construction

▪ Sustainable Construction is development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

▪ Sustainable Construction
✓ green construction
✓ sustainable building

▪ Refers to a structure, the construction process and occupancy

processes that are environmentally responsible and resource efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle from location to design,
construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.

9
Sustainable Construction

10
 Contrast Continuous
Concrete Pour

The Guinness World Records title for the “Largest Continuous

Concrete Pour”

has been beaten under cooperation of CONMIX LTD., Safari

Group, OSCAR Bldg.

Supply of 20,246 m³

13 – 16 April 2017 in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, during raft

construction for the new Shopping Centre “Safari Mall”.

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 Progress in Concrete Technology

▪ Lightweight Concrete

▪ High-Strength Concrete

▪ High Workability or Flowing Concrete

▪ Shrinkage Compensating Concrete

▪ Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
▪ Concrete Containing Polymers

▪ Heavyweight Concrete

▪ Mass Concrete
▪ Roller-Compacted
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 Concrete Solutions /innovations
▪High strength/performance concrete
▪High durability concrete

Louis Vuitton Museum,

Paris

▪ An assembly of concrete blocks (icebergs) enveloped by 12 glass facades (sails).

▪ Curves and angles of the glass sails give the building a sense of transparency and movement
▪ Reflects the surrounding water and greenery

13
Concrete Solutions /innovations

Museum of European and Mediterranean

Civilisations, Marseille

14
 Ductal Components
Composition

▪ Cement
▪ Sand
▪ Silica quartz
▪ Silica fume
▪ Micro-Fibres - metallic or poly-vinyl acetate (PVA)
▪ Mineral fillers, Nano-fibres
▪ Superplasticizer
▪ Water

15
 Typical Ductal® mix
No Gravel !
w/c = 0.20
Cement

28 - 30% (710 kg/m3) Silica fume

9 – 10% (230 kg/m3)

Crushed
8.5 – 9% (210 kg/m3) Quartz

Sand
42 –43% (1020 kg/m3)
Fibres

Superplasticizer
1.7 – 6.5% (40-160kg/m3)
0.6% (13 kg/m3) Total water
5.5 – 6% (140 kg/m3)
 Ductal Marketing

Concept

Idea
17

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dc1Et2ZW_aE
Concrete Composition

Ingredient Range
__________ __________

Cement

Aggregate

Water

Air

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Concrete Composition

Ingredient Range
__________ __________

Cement

Aggregate

Water

Air

19
 High Performance Concrete

Many types of HPC:

▪ High early strength concrete

▪ High strength/performance concrete

▪ High durability concrete

▪ Self consolidating/compacting concrete

▪ Reactive powder concrete

 HPC Characteristics

▪ High early strength

▪ Resistance to chemical attack

▪ High resistance to frost

▪ Toughness and impact resistance

▪ Volume stability

▪ Good workability

▪ High durability
 HPC Materials
Material Desired Property
Portland cement Strengthening and Durability
Composed/blended cement
Slag, Fly ash, Silica fume High strength and
Calcined clay Metakaolin Durability
Calcined shale
Superplasticisers High workability / Flow-ability
Corrosion inhibitors Steel corrosion control
Water reducers Reduce cement and water content
Shrinkage reducers Reduce shrinkage
ASR inhibitors Alkali-silica activity
 Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC)

▪ Resistance to chemicals, water and temperature

▪ Extreme ductility

▪ Energy absorption

▪ Usually fiber-reinforced: synthetic or steel fibers

▪ Extreme conditions (e.g. earthquake stresses)

▪ Structural and architectural overlays,

and complex facades.

▪ Used when dealing with the slenderness (design)

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 Concrete Specification,
performance, production
and conformity
▪ Classification:
Exposure classes
Consistence classes
Compressive strength classes

▪ Requirements for concrete:

Cement
Aggregates
Admixtures
Requirements related to exposure classes
Requirements for fresh concrete

▪ Specification of concrete
▪ Delivery of fresh concrete
▪ Conformity control
▪ Production control
▪ Evaluation of conformity

24
Specification of concrete
This part of BS 8500
complements BS EN 206-1.

It provides United Kingdom

national provisions where
required or permitted by
BS EN 206-1.

▪ BS 8500-1, Method of
specifying and guidance
for the specifier

▪ BS 8500-2, Specification
for constituent materials
and concrete.

25
 Eurocode 2: relationships

DMRB: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

NBS: National Building Specification 26
Rail: Network Rail Standards
CESWI: Civil Engineering Specification for the Water Industry
Concrete Strength Class

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Material Properties – Concrete
Concrete Strength Class
Concrete strength classes and properties (1MPa = 1N/mm2)

fck characteristic cylinder compressive strength

fck,cube characteristic cube compressive strength
fcm mean concrete cylinder compressive strength
fctm mean axial tensile strength
fctk characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
Ecm mean secant modulus of elasticity of concrete

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 Material Properties – Concrete (3.1)
Concrete Strength Class

C25/30

fck = N/mm2 Characteristic compressive strength

fcm= N/mm2 Mean compressive strength

fctm = N/mm2 Mean tensile strength

fctk= N/mm2 Characteristic tensile strength

Ecm = GPa Mean modulus of elasticity

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 Material Properties – Concrete (3.1)
Concrete Strength Class
Table 3.1 Concrete strength classes and properties (1MPa = 1N/mm2)

fck characteristic cylinder compressive strength

fck,cube characteristic cube compressive strength
fcm mean concrete cylinder compressive strength (fcm= fck +8)
fctm mean axial tensile strength (fctm= 0.3 fck2/3)
fctk characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete (fctK= 0.7 fctm)
Ecm mean secant modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ectm= 21.5 (fcm /10)1/3 )

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Empirical formulas derived from Lab tests/data
Material Properties – Concrete (3.1)
Concrete Strength Class

C25/30

fck = 25N/mm2 Characteristic compressive strength

fcm= fck +8 = 25+8 = 33N/mm2 Mean compressive strength

fctm = 0.3 fck2/3 = 0.3*252/3 = 2.6N/mm2 Mean tensile strength

fctk= 0.7 fctm = 0.7*2.6 = 1.8N/mm2 Characteristic tensile strength

Ecm = 21.5 (fcm /10)1/3 = 21.5*(33/10)1/3

= 31GPa Mean modulus of elasticity of concrete

31
Concrete Factors (2.3.5, Table 2.3)
Ultimate Limit State (ULS): c = 1.5
Serviceability Limit State (SLS): c = 1.0

cc = coefficient to take into account the long-term effects on the

compressive and tensile strengths and the unfavourable effects resulting
from the way the load is applied.

•Flexure cc = 0.85

•Axial cc = 0.85
•Shear cc = 1.0

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Design compressive Strength (fcd)

Design strength = characteristic strength/material factor

fcd = ccfck/c
fck = characteristic concrete strength

C25/30 Resistance class

fck = 25N/mm2
ULS design strength
•Flexure/axial
fcd = ccfck/c = (0.85 x 25)/1.50

fcd = 14.16N/mm2

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Concrete Specification

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 Prompt Research

1. What is a Designated concrete ?

2. What is a Designed concrete ?

3. What is a Prescribed concrete ?

4. What is a Standardised prescribed concrete?

5. What is a Proprietary concrete ?

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Concrete specification and specifier

According to BS EN 206-1, the specifier is the person or body

responsible for the final compilation of technical requirements, called
specification, which is passes to the concrete producer. In practise,
the specification continues to be a compilation of technical
requirements drafted by a number of persons or bodies. However,
the name specifier is reserved for the person or body in the chain
who passes the specification to the producer.

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 Designated concrete

▪ To ensure the correct concrete is used for the correct

application, the British Standards Institution has
simplified the process by the use of designated
concretes.

▪ They are essentially identified by their application

and by definition are fit for purpose.

▪ A range of designated concrete mixes to cover most

normal applications is specified in BS8500-2.
BS 8500-1 gives guidance on their use.

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 Designated concrete
Designated mixes are:

▪ GEN0, GEN1, GEN2 and GEN3 for non-structural and

unreinforced concrete.

▪ RC20/25, RC25/30, RC28/35, RC30/37, RC32/40, RC35/45,

RC40/50 and RC40/50XF for reinforced concrete.

▪ PAV1 and PAV2 for external hardstandings and concrete

subjected to freezing when wet.

▪ FND2, FND2Z, FND3, FND3Z, FND4, FND4Z and FND4M for

foundation concrete subject to attack by chemicals including
sulphates.

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Designated Concrete Applications

Designated mixes

Typical applications
for designated mixes

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 Designated concrete

BS 8500-1: 2006 (Table A.3)

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Designated concrete

41
 Designated concrete

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BS 8500-1: 2006 (Table A.3)
Designed Concrete

Instead of standard designated concrete mixes,

designed concrete may be used.

A designed concrete mix is specified by its strength

class (e.g. C25/30) plus any other specific design
requirements such as:

minimum cement content,

maximum water/cement ratio, etc..
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 Designed Concrete

Suitable for most applications and should always be used instead of

designated concrete when:

▪ Strength greater than C40/50 is required

▪ Allowable cement types: special cements /combinations are required
▪ Water/cement ratios are adaptable
▪ Lightweight or heavy weight concrete is required
▪ Concrete is to be exposed to chlorides or sea water

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 Designed Concrete
Basic specification requirements
Important parameters that should be specified are:

▪ Strenght class
▪ Max. W/C ratio
▪ Cement type
▪ Max. aggregate size
▪ Consistence class
▪ Chloride class
▪ Density class

Concrete for which the required properties and additional characteristics are
specified to the producer who is responsible for providing a concrete conforming to
the required properties and additional characteristics.

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 Designed Concrete
Additional specification options

▪ Aggregate type, including use of recycled aggregate

▪ Additive: Fibres (eventually)
▪ Admixture: Air entrainment
▪ Temperature of the fresh concrete
▪ Heat development during hydration
▪ Resistance to water penetration
▪ Tensile strength and Resistance to abrasion

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 Prescribed Concrete

▪ The specifier to prescribe the exact composition and constituents

of the concrete.

▪ Specifier takes full design responsibility + testing

▪ It is a mix for which the purchaser prescribes the exact

composition and constituents of the concrete. He is responsible
for ensuring that these proportions produce a concrete with the
required performance.

▪ Effectively the purchaser selects the materials and mix

proportions to satisfy the required strength and durability needs.

▪ A good example is the traditional:

4 parts gravel : 2 parts sand : 1 part cement.

47
 Standardised Prescribed Concrete

▪ Small construction sites, with small scale

batching.

▪ Strength is not of critical importance

▪ This type was previously known as ‘standard

mixes’ in BS 5328 (known by codes ST1 to
ST5).

▪ Concretes are similar to the lower strength

designated concretes and are intended for
site batching on small construction sites.

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 Proprietary Concrete

▪ Developed by concrete producer as a proprietary/exclusive product

▪ Composition not disclosed

▪ Specified performance requirements confirmed

▪ Low ECO2 concrete

▪ Mainly used for pre-cast concrete specifications

▪ Self-compacting concrete is often supplied as proprietary product.

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Exposure classes

And

Concrete Cover

50
Durability and cover

• A durable concrete element will perform satisfactorily for the

intended working life of the structure

• 50 years (normal structures)

• 100 years (special structures)

• Durability depends on design and construction

• Factors influencing durability
• Exposure conditions
• Design and detailing of the structure
• Concrete cover of embedded steel
• Type of cement and aggregate
• Water/cement ratio
• Type and dosage of admixture
• Workmanship (specified cover, full compaction and efficient cover)
• Joints and connections

51
Exposure classification

Aggressiveness of the environment led to specify exposure classes

which are defined in BS EN206-1.

XO: no risk of corrosion or attack

XC: risk of corrosion induced by carbonation

XD: risk of corrosion induced by chlorides (other than sea water)

XS: risk of corrosion induced by chlorides from sea

XF: risk of freeze-thaw attack

XA (or AC): risk of chemical attack

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 Exposure classification

XC1: Dry or permanently wet

XC2: Wet, rarely dry
XC: risk of corrosion induced by carbonation
XC3: Moderate humidity
XC4: Cyclic wet and dry

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Exposure classification

XD1: Moderate humidity

XD: risk of corrosion induced by chlorides XD2: Wet, rarely dry

XD3: Cyclic wet and dry

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 Exposure classification

XS1: Exposed to airborne salt

XS: risk of corrosion induced by chlorides from sea XS2: Permanently submerged
XS3: Tidal, splash and spray zones

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 Exposure classification

XF1: Moderate water saturation (no de-icing agent)

XF2: Moderate water saturation (de-icing agent)
XF: risk of freeze-thaw attack
XF3: High water saturation (no de-icing agent)
XF4:High water saturation (de-icing agent)

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Exposure classification

Deteriorated concrete in water treatment plant

XA1: Slightly aggressive chemical environment

XA: risk of chemical attack XA2: Moderately aggressive chemical environment

XA3: Highly aggressive chemical environment

57
 Concrete Characteristic
Strengths

And Durability cover

Estimated values

BS EN 1992-1-1
BS EN 206 – 1
BS 8500
58
Concrete composition
and concrete cover

Cmin , concrete strength

and W/C ratio for durability
in different environmental
conditions (BS 8500)

59
Concrete composition
and concrete cover

Cmin , concrete strength

and W/C ratio for durability
in different environmental
conditions (BS 8500)

60
 Concrete composition
and concrete cover

Cmin and Concrete strength

and W/C ratio for durability
in different environmental
conditions (BS 8500)

61
Minimum Cover for Durability, cmin,dur

62
Designated concrete

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 Designated concrete

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BS 8500-1: 2006 (Table A.3)
 Concrete Cover to Reinforcement
• Distance from outer surface of reinforcement to nearest concrete surface
• Nominal cover (depth) to all reinforcement
cnom = cmin + ∆cdev
▪ cmin: minimum cover required to:
bond, against corrosion and fire
cmin,b
cmin = max cmin,dur
10 mm
cmin,b ≥ Φ Bar diameter (Φ) < 32mm
cmin,b ≥ Φ + 5mm Bar diameter (Φ) ≥ 32mm

▪ ∆cdev: design fixing tolerance = 10mm

Cover for durability (cmin,dur) depends on:

• Exposure class
• Concrete strength
• Concrete mix: Water/cement ratio, cement type
• Aggregate size: cmin,dur ≥ maximum aggregate size

65
Concrete cover of RC beam

• Resistance class C25/30 and Exposure class XC2

• Max aggregate size: dg = 20 mm
• Design working life of the structure: 50 years

Reinforcement:
• Longitudinal bars: H25
• Links or stirrups : H10

cnom = cmin + ∆cdev

cmin,b = mm (cmin,b = Φ Bar diameter (Φ) < 32mm )

cmin = max cmin,dur = mm from table
10 mm

cmin = mm

and ∆cdev= mm

cnom = = mm Nominal cover to main bar

cnom = = mm Nominal cover to link

66
 Concrete cover of RC beam
• Resistance class C25/30 and Exposure class XC2
• Max aggregate size: dg = 20 mm
• Design working life of the structure: 50 years

Reinforcement:
• Longitudinal bars: H25
• Links or stirrups : H10

cnom = cmin + ∆cdev

cmin,b = 25mm (cmin,b = Φ Bar diameter (Φ) < 32mm )

cmin = max cmin,dur =25mm from table
10 mm
cmin = 25mm

and ∆cdev= 10mm

cnom = 25 + 10= 35mm Nominal cover to main bar

cnom = 35 - 10 = 25mm Nominal cover to link

• Assume links are H8, nominal cover to link cnom = 35 - 8 = 27mm

Note: In practice, Spacers in multiples of 5mm are fixed to links, cnom to links will be either 30mm

67
Cement and Admixtures

68
 Cement and its properties

▪ Cement manufacturing progress

▪ Cement strength classes

▪ Cement and combination types

▪ Cement hydration (briefly)

▪ Cement testing

▪ Cementitious materials

▪ Chemical admixtures
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Cement Key figures

Reference: CEMBUREAU

70
 Cement makers in UK

MPA Cement represents the five major UK

manufacturers, namely:

CEMEX UK Operations, Hanson Cement, Hope

Cement (A Breedon Group company), Tarmac
Cement and Lime Ltd and Lafarge Cement.

71
Cement nomenclature

72
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
quarry
▪ Grinding the raw materials
(80% limestone and 20% clay)
dumper
loader

Quarry face

1. BLASTING 2. TRANSPORT

storage at
crushing
the plant
conveyor

3. CRUSHING & TRANSPORTATION

1. BLASTING : The raw materials that are used to manufacture cement (mainly limestone and clay) are blasted
from the quarry.
2. TRANSPORT : The raw materials are loaded into a dumper.
3. CRUSHING AND TRANSPORTATION : The raw materials, after crushing, are
transported to the plant by conveyor. The plant stores the materials before they are Next
homogenized.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tv71N_NztAw
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Raw grinding and burning

storage at Raw mill

the plant
conveyor Raw mix

1. RAW GRINDING
preheating

kiln

cooling

clinker

2. BURNING

▪ Burning in a kiln 1. RAW GRINDING : The raw materials are very finely ground in order to produce the raw mix.
at 1500oC 2. BURNING : The raw mix is preheated before it goes into the kiln, which is heated by a flame that can
be as hot as 2000 °C. The raw mix burns at 1500 °C producing clinker which, when it leaves the kiln, is
rapidly cooled with air fans. So, the raw mix is burnt to produce clinker : the basic material needed to
make cement.
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 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Grinding, storage, packing, dispatch ▪ Addition of 3 to 5%
▪ Clinker is formed and of gypsum
made into powder Gypsum and the secondary additives are added
to the clinker.
clinker
storage Finish grinding

1. GRINDING
silos

dispatch

bags

2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH

1.GRINDING : The clinker and the gypsum are very finely ground giving a “pure cement”. Other secondary
additives and cementitious materials can also be added to make a blended cement.

2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH :The cement is stored in silos before being dispatched either in
bulk or in bags to its final destination.
Back Home page
 Modern Dry Process
▪ Grinding the
raw materials
(80% limestone
and 20% clay)

▪ Burning in a
kiln at 1450oC

▪ Clinker are
formed and
made into
powder

▪ In addition
with 3 to 5%
of gypsum.

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 Composition
Mix Burning, Chemical Reactions = Clinker

Heating/Burning
H2O

Kiln
Preheating Calcination Transition Cuisson Trempe
CO2 °C
1400
Mass Repartition

1200
CaO 1000
Calcium Alite
Carbonate
CaCO3 800
C3S
Quartz Bélite SiO2 600
Clay
C2S
Si, Al, K, Na, Ox 400
C3A
Iron Oxide
Aluminates Liquide
Fe2O3 C4AF 200

1 5 10 15 20 25 30 min
Time 77

(Holcim, C. Charron, Ecole thématique ATHIL 2011)

 Composition
Mix Burning, Chemical Reactions = Clinker

Heating/Burning
H2O

Preheating Calcination Transition Cuisson Trempe

CO2 °C
1400
Mass Repartition

1200
CaO
CaO 1000
Alite
Calcium 800
C3S
SilicateBélite 600
C2S
Calcium 400
C3A
Aluminates
Aluminates Liquide
C4AF 200

Quartz 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 min
Clay
Time 78
Fe2O3

(Holcim, C. Charron, Ecole thématique ATHIL 2011)

 Composition
Mix Burning, Chemical Reactions = Clinker

Heating/Burning
H2O

FOUR VOIE SECHE

Preheating Calcination Transition Cuisson Trempe
CO2 °C
Calcaire
1400
Mass Repartition

1200
CaO 1000
Alite
800
C3S
Belite 600
C2S
400
C3A
Aluminates Liquide 200
C4AF

Quartz 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 min
Clay
Time 79
Fe2O3

(Holcim, C. Charron, Ecole thématique ATHIL 2011)

 Composition
Mix Burning, Chemical Reactions = Clinker

Heating/Burning
H2O

Preheating Calcination Transition Burning Cooling

CO2 °C
Calcaire
1400
Mass Repartition

1200
CaO 1000
Alite
800
C3S
Belite 600
C2S
400
C3A
Aluminates Liquide 200
C4AF

Quartz 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 min
Clay
Time 80
Fe2O3

(Holcim, C. Charron, Ecole thématique ATHIL 2011)

 Composition
Portland cement clinker

SiO2 : 21 %
CaO : 64 %
Al2O3 : 5%
Fe2O3 : 3%

MgO : 2%
SO3 : <1 %
CaO libre : <1 %
Na2O, K2O : <1 %
TiO2 : <1 %
Mineurs

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 Composition
Portland Cement Clinker

{
2 CaO + SiO2 = C2S (15 – 25%)
Silicates 80 %
3 CaO + SiO2 = C3S (55 – 65%)

{
3 CaO + Al2O3 = C3A
Aluminates 20 %
4 CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3= C4AF

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 Composition
Portland Cement Clinker

- Model: Polyphase clinkers.

Optical microscope

belites
C3A bélite
Interstitial phase C4AF
(crystallising from the
melt) alitealite

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 Micro/macro-structure
Concrete mix design: aggregate, cement and water
Hydration heat: cement + water = Exothermic chemical reaction
Result: concrete temperature rises = Formation of CSH

Cement
Cement hydration
hydration

Calcium Silicate Hydrate: reaction of silicate phases of Portland cement +water

C-S-H

2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O → 3 CaO· 2 SiO 2 · 4 H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6 kJ

84
 Cement Hydration

C3S: Tricalcium silicate (alite)

C2S: Dicalcium silicate (belite)

C3A: Tricalcium aluminate

C4AF: Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (ferrite)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GHLFXO7M44
Building a Representative 3-D Microstructure
SEM/BSE Image…

Ca
Si
Al
K

… X-ray Element
Maps …

… are used to segment

image into phases
 Cement Hydration

C3S:Tricalcium silicate (alite)

Hydrates & hardens rapidly, Responsible for
initial set and early strength

C2S:Dicalcium silicate (belite)

Hydrates & hardens slowly, Contributes to
later age strength (beyond 7 days)

C3A:Tricalcium aluminate
Liberates a large amount of heat during first
few days, Contributes slightly to early
strength development , Cements with low
%-ages are more resistant to sulfates

C4AF:Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (ferrite)

Reduces clinkering temperature Hydrates
rapidly but contributes little to strength
,Colour of hydrated cement (gray) due to
ferrite hydrates

87

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 Cement strength classes
Compressive strength at 2, 7 and 28 days are specified in BS EN 196-1.
Ordinary, early strength (N) and high, early strength (R) classes:

88
Cement and combination (BS 8500)

89
Cement and combination types

90
Which low carbon, bulk cements do MPA
Cement’s Member Companies market?

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 Aether cement: CO2 emissions and manufacturing

Aether clinkers can be produced:

▪ Use kilns designed for Portland cement clinker production

▪ Using similar process parameters and fuels
▪ With conventional raw materials
▪ At lower temperatures (between1225 -1300°C) than for Portland cement
clinker (1400 -1500°C)
▪ With significantly lower energy than Portland cement clinker
▪ Aether cement grinding energy is lower than for OPC

The manufacturing of Aether

generates 20 to 30% less CO2
per tonne of cement than pure
Portland cement (CEM I type)

92

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 Fineness/Air Permeability Testing
BS EN 196-6: 2010, Methods of testing cement. Determination of fineness

Called the Blaine Method

93

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 Fineness/Blaine Testing
BS EN 196-6

▪ The fineness of cement is a property that must be

carefully controlled during the manufacturing
process.

▪ The total specific surface of the cement represents

the surface area available for hydration. Various
methods are in use to measure the specific surface
of cements.

▪ This method has been adopted in Europe as the

definitive means of determining the fineness of
cement and other powder materials.

▪ Specific surface is expressed as the total

surface area in square metres of all the
cement particles in one kilogram of cement.
The higher the specific surface is, the finer
cement will be.

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 Vicat needle Testing

▪ Determination of Setting
Time, it is determined by
observing the penetration of
needle into cement paste of
standard consistence until it
reaches a specified value

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 Vicat needle Testing
▪ Determination of setting time and soundness of cement
requires the use of a neat cement paste of standard
consistence.

▪ The Vicat method is usually specified as the test used to

determine the water content which will produce the
desired consistence.

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 Resistance Testing
BS EN 196-1:2016

▪ Compressive and flexural strength

determinates on prismatic test
specimens 40 mm x 40 mm x 160
mm in size.

▪ Specimens are cast from a batch of

plastic mortar containing one part
by mass of cement and three parts
by mass of standard sand with a
water-cement ratio of 0,50.

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 flexural strength Resistance Testing Compressive strength

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 Cementitious materials
▪ Fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace
slag, silica fume, and natural pozzolans,
such as calcined shale, calcined clay or
metakaolin, are materials that, when used
in combination with Portland cement.

▪ Contribute to the properties of the hardened concrete through

hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.

▪ Categorized as supplementary cementing materials (SCM's) or mineral

admixtures.

▪ Cementing materials are added to concrete as part of the total

cementing system.

▪ They may be used in addition to or as a partial replacement of Portland

cement or blended cement in concrete, depending on the properties of
the materials and the desired effect on concrete.

99
 Pozzolan

▪ A material that, when used in conjunction

with portland cement, contributes to the
properties of the hardened concrete through
hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, or both.

▪ Natural (Volcanic ash, volcanic

tuff, pumicite)

▪ Artificial (fly ash, silica-fume,

granulated blast furnace slag)
 Pozzolan

POZZOLANIC REACTIONS

▪ Calcium Hydroxide+Silica+Water → “Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate”

(C-S-H)

▪ C-S-H provides the hydraulic binding property of the material.

▪ Pozzolanic Activity: Capacity of pozzolan to form alumino-

silicates with lime to form cementitious products.

▪ Effective material
 Fly Ash
▪ By-product from electricity generation sourced from
coal fired power stations mainly used in block manufacture

▪ Increased workability and ease of pumping

▪ Greater strength: Fly ash increases in strength over time, continuing to

combine with free lime.

▪ Decreased permeability. Increased density and long-term pozzolanic action

of fly ash, which ties up free lime and decreases permeability.

▪ Increased durability. The lower permeability of concrete make it resistant to

attack by sulfate, mild acid.

▪ Reduced alkali silica reactivity. Fly ash combines with alkalis from cement
that might otherwise combine with silica from aggregate, preventing
expansion.

▪ Reduced heat of hydration. The pozzolanic reaction between fly ash and
lime generates less heat, resulting in reduced thermal cracking when fly ash is
used to replace a percentage of Portland Cement.

102
BS EN 450-1:2012
 Silica Fume
▪ By product of silicon manufacture
▪ Extremely fine powder, high fineness (< 1 micron
▪ Generally limited to high strength concretes or in very
aggressive environmental conditions

clinker Silica Fume

103
104
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, GGBS

BS EN 15167-1:2006

▪ Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)

▪ GGBS is a by-product slag material from the iron and steel industry

▪ Enhanced workability of concrete

▪ A fine powder by-product that can replace a proportion of cement within

concrete mixes.

▪ GGSB also lowers early-age temperature rise, reducing the risk of thermal
cracking in large pours.

▪ Enhanced chemical resistance

▪ In addition to the environmental advantage, concretes incorporating slag

have greatly enhanced chemical resistance particularly to chlorides and
sulfates and are especially advantageous in a marine environment,
resistance to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) is also enhanced.

105
 Storage of Cement

▪ Cement is moisture-sensitive
material; if kept dry it will retain
its quality indefinitely.

▪ When exposed to moisture,

cement will set more slowly and
will have less strength compared
to cement that kept dry.

▪ At the time of use cement should

be free-flowing and free of lumps.
 Chemical Admixtures in Concrete

▪ Ingredients other than

Cement
Water
Aggregates

▪ Added before or during concrete mixing

▪ To modify properties of fresh & hardened concrete
▪ To ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting,
placing & curing

▪ To overcome certain unexpected emergencies during

concrete operations (ie, set retarders)

BS EN 480-13:2009+A1:2011
 Types of Admixtures & Effectiveness

▪ Air entraining: Used for all concretes exposed to freeze/thaw

cycles

▪ Water-reducing: allows for reduction of water/cement ratio

while maintaining workability (increased strength)

▪ Retarders: used to counteract hot weather conditions that

cause increased rate of hardening (it slows curing rate)

▪ Accelerators: increase curing rate for achievement of high

early strength

▪ Plasticisers (superplasticisers): makes mix highly fluid and can

be placed with little or no vibration or compaction

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Concrete Aggregates

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 Concrete Aggregate

▪ How Aggregate are extracted?

▪ Aggregate Industry

▪ Recycled Aggregate and sustainability

▪ Classification of Aggregate

▪ Aggregates Standards

▪ Aggregate testing

▪ Aggregates’ Impurities

110
 Aggregates

▪ Aggregates provide the

backbone of our world

▪ Take away aggregates and our

built environment would quite
literally fall apart!

▪ Aggregates occupy at least 3/4 of

volume of concrete.

▪ Cheaper than the cement

▪ Higher volume stability

▪ Better durability than the cement

paste

111
 Aggregate Companies in UK

AIM-listed British construction materials company headquartered Member of Lafarge-Holcim, is a company based in the
at Breedon on the Hill. United Kingdom with headquarters at Bardon Hill.
Products: Aggregates, asphalt, ready-mixed concrete, surfacing Products: Aggregate, road surfacing, Asphalt.
and contracting, cement.

Multinational building materials company, Maidenhead French industrial company, Paris

Produce aggregates (crushed rock, sand and gravel), ready- Products: cement, construction aggregates, and concrete
mixed concrete, asphalt, cement and cement related materials.

British building materials company headquartered in Solihull Multinational building materials company, Mexico
Products: Aggregates & Asphalt Products: Aggregates & ready mix concrete

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AIM (formerly the Alternative Investment Market) is a sub-market of the London Stock Exchange that was launched on 19 June 1995

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 Aggregate/quarry and Sustainability

▪ The extraction of raw

materials from the Earth’s
crust inevitably impacts
the surrounding natural
and social environment.

Re-wilding of a dormant quarry

▪ The removal of rocks/soil and changes in topography of the area are likely to
affect local ecosystems and watersheds.

▪ Impacts can be successfully addressed and mitigated through the development

and implementation of an effective quarry rehabilitation plan.

▪ Effective implementation of a well designed rehabilitation plan can result in

significant environmental and social benefits.

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 How Aggregate are extracted?

How a rock quarry works?

▪ Rock quarries usually operate for at least

30 years and are developed in distinct
benches or steps.

▪ Use controlled explosion to release the

rocks.

▪ Rocks are transported by truck or

conveyor to a crusher.

▪ Rocks go through a series of crushing

and screening stages to produce
Aggregate.

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 How Aggregate are extracted?

Crushing

▪ Powerful metal jaws within the

primary crusher break the rock
down.

▪ Rock passes through a series of

screens that sift it into different
sizes.

▪ It may also pass through further

crushing stages.

Limestone quarry with modern crushing

and screening equipment

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 Marine aggregates

▪ Satellite navigation used to position vessels precisely within licensed dredging

areas. Vessels trail a pipe along the marine floor at speeds approaching 1.5 knots
and use powerful suction pumps to draw aggregate into the cargo hold.

▪ Dredged material is discharged at marine

facilities, where it is processed,
screened, and washed as required.

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 Marine aggregates

▪ Britain has one of the world’s most

developed marine aggregate industries,
extracting 15 to 20 million tons from the
seabed annually.

▪ Used for building houses, transport

infrastructure, replenishing beaches and
improving coastal defenses.

7 dredging regions marine aggregate is sourced from.

117
 Marine aggregates Extraction and delivery
by dredge region

The marine aggregate industry

operates responsibly within the
marine regulatory framework.

These figures refer to year 2014

Pie chart figures in millions of tonnes
These figures refer to calendar year 2014
118
 Sustainable concrete and performance
BES 6001

▪ Permit recycled and secondary aggregate

▪ Consideration for local available natural sources

to reduce ECO2

▪ Do not specify aggregate sizes below 10mm

unless required

▪ BES 6001 is a framework standard for

responsible sourcing of construction products

▪ Maximum points possible for accredited/certified

concrete products in BREEAM and CSH.

119
BREEAM: BRE Environmental Assessment Method
CSH: Code for Sustainable Homes
 Classification of aggregates

BS EN12620: 2013

▪ Geometrical requirements:
Size, grading
Fine aggregates
Coarse Aggregate
Particle shape & Angularity

▪ Physical requirements
Particle density
Water absorption
Resistance to fragmentation
Resistance to surface abrasion

▪ Chemical requirements
Petrographic description
Classification of recycled aggregates
Sulfur containing components
Acid-soluble sulphate & chlorides

▪ Durability
▪ Evaluation and Conformity

120
 Type of Aggregate

Weight Type of Aggregate Usage

ultra-lightweight vermiculite, ceramic insulation

lightweight concrete for

expanded clay, shale or
lightweight structures, used for its
slate, crushed brick
insulating properties

crushed limestone, sand,

river gravel,
normal weight normal concrete
crushed recycled
concrete

high density concrete for

heavyweight iron shot; iron pellets protection against nuclear
radiation
 Aggregate
Physical Properties

▪ Density and porosity

▪ Shrinkage of aggregate
▪ Particle shape and surface texture
▪ Absorption and surface moisture
▪ Resistance to freezing and
thawing
 Classification of aggregates
Aggregate may be natural, manufactured or recycled.

▪ Natural aggregate: from mineral sources which has been

subject to nothing more than physical processing (crushing and
sizing).

▪ Manufactured aggregate: mineral origin resulting from an

industrial process involving thermal or other modification e.g.
slag.

▪ Recycled aggregate: resulting from the processing of

inorganic materials previously used in construction e.g.
construction and demolition waste.

▪ Primary aggregates: produced from naturally occurring

mineral deposits, extracted specifically for use as aggregate and
used for the first time.

▪ Secondary aggregates: defined as aggregates obtained as a

by-product of other quarrying and mining operations, such as
china clay waste, slate waste and colliery spoil (mine-stone), or
aggregates obtained as a by-product of other industrial
processes, such as blast furnace/steel slag, coal-fired power
station ash, incinerator ash, and spent foundry sand.

123
 Classification of aggregates
Aggregates Types: Sands/ Fine aggregate

▪ From stream beds or dunes

▪ Often rounded with smooth surfaces
▪ May be washed to remove undesirable material

Fine aggregate quality is affected by a number of factors:

▪ The mean particle size and the grading
▪ The presence of impurities
▪ Shape & texture

Designation given to the smaller aggregate sizes with D ≤ 4mm

Filler aggregate
▪ Fine aggregate, most of which passes a 0,063mm sieve

Fine aggregate limestone mineral

▪ When required the typical grading, in terms of the percentages passing

the 4mm, 2mm, 1mm, 0,250mm and 0,063mm sieves shall be declared.
124
 Classification of aggregates

Aggregates Types: Gravel/ Coarse aggregate

▪ Water born pieces of rock, in buried or current stream beds

▪ Crushed gravel is larger gravel particles that have been
reduced in size by a crusher
▪ May be washed to remove undesirable material
▪ May be screened to divide into desired size groupings

▪ Designation given to the larger aggregate sizes with D > 4mm

▪ When required the typical grading, in terms of the percentages passing

the 6.3mm, 8mm, 10mm, 14mm, 16mm and 20mm sieves shall be
declared.

125
Aggregates Standards/Sieves

Standard sieves

126
 Fine & Coarse aggregate: Grading Curves

Fine aggregate interspersed

with slightly isolated, large
Particle sizes span Particles pack together, aggregate pieces embedded
from the finest to the leaving relatively large in the fine aggregate.
coarsest size voids in the concrete.

127
 Recycled Aggregate

▪ Recycled aggregate, RA: Resulting from

the reuse of material previously used in
construction

▪ Recycled concrete aggregate, RCA:

predominantly consists of crushed concrete

▪ Secondary aggregate, by-products:

Arising from industrial processes such as
blast furnace and zinc slag, foundry sand,
slate aggregate, china clay sand…etc.

128
 Recycled Aggregate

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Designated Concrete Applications

Designated mixes

Typical applications
for designated mixes

130
 Use of Recycled Aggregates

▪ Efficiently used as hardcore and

in landscaping

▪ Used for landfill and trench

reinstatement

▪ Consistency of supply and source

material are required for use in
concrete

▪ Quality control is rigorous than for

natural/primary aggregate

131
Fine aggregate: Grading Curve

Grading sieves

Method BS EN 933-1

132
 Aggregates’ Impurities
▪ BS EN 13139 (Aggregates for Mortar) Annex D “Guidance on the effects of some chemical
constituents of aggregates on the mortar in which they are incorporated”.

▪ Small quantities of some impurities can have a significant effect on the properties of the
mortar, render or screed and therefore their presence must be avoided if possible.

▪ Organic Matter: Decaying vegetation may contaminated aggregate. It may have a

retarding effect on the setting of cementitious material and may result in lower strengths of
the hardened material.

▪ Chlorides: presence in aggregates may dissolve in the mixing water and promote corrosion
of any embedded metal present. They may also cause efflorescence, which is a white
deposit that may form on the surface of brickwork.

Annex D of BS EN 13139 recommends that the water soluble chloride content of the
aggregate does not exceed 0.15% for plain mortar and 0.06% for mortar with embedded
metals (e.g. wall ties or lathing support).

▪ Sulfates: presence of sulfates can lead to the expansion of the mortar and the formation of
unsightly deposits on the mortar surface. The presence of sulfates may be determined by
the method given in clause 12 of BS EN 1744-1.

133
Properties of Fresh Concrete

134
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

▪ Introduction

▪ Workability

▪ Standards Measurement methods

▪ Other Measurement methods

▪ Workability for SCC

▪ Segregation and Bleeding

▪ Concrete curing

135
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

▪ The potential strength and

durability of concrete of a
given mix proportion is very
dependent on the degree of its
compaction.

▪ It is important that the

consistency of the mix be such
that the concrete can be
transported, placed, and
finished sufficiently early
enough to attain the expected
strength and durability.

136
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

▪ The first 48 hours are very

important for the performance of
the concrete structure.

▪ It controls the long-term

behaviour, influences ultimate
strength, elastic modulus,
creep, and durability.

137
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Main properties of fresh concrete during mixing, transporting,

placing and compacting are:

▪ Consistency & Workability

▪ Compactability

▪ Stability or cohesiveness
 Properties of Fresh Concrete

▪ Fluidity or consistency
Consistency or fluidity of concrete is an important
component of workability and refers in a way
to the wetness of the concrete.

It must not be assumed that the wetter

the mix is the more workable it is.

If the mix is too wet, segregation may occur

with a resulting honeycomb, excessive
bleeding, and sand streaking on the formed
surfaces.

139
 Workability

Effort required to manipulate a concrete mixture with a minimum of

segregation.

Factors affecting concrete workability:

▪ w/c ratio: increase in w/c ratio increases workability (decreases

strength)
▪ Grading of aggregate : increasing aggregate to cement ratio decreases
workability
▪ Aggregate properties: rounded aggregate has high workability
▪ Time and temperature: high temperature decreases workability
▪ Cement: increasing cement fineness decreases workability
▪ Admixture: increasing concrete workability

140
 Workability

Measurement methods

▪ Slump test

▪ Flow table test

▪ Vebe test

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 Workability

Slump test – the simplest test

▪ Fill concrete into frustum of a steel cone in three layers

▪ Hand tap concrete in each layer
▪ Lift cone up. Define slump as downward movement of the concrete

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 Consistence Class Workability
Max. allowable deviation on
Class Slump range
range limit (mm)

S1
10 - 40 0 - 60
S2
50 - 90 30 - 110
S3
100 - 150 80 - 170
S4
160 - 210 140 - 230

The following tables gives the maximum allowable deviation based on a spot sample
taken from the initial discharge of a ready-mixed concrete truck (BS EN 12350-2)

Target slump Max. allowable deviation on

▪ Due to lack of sensitivity of slump test (mm) target value (mm)
values less than 10mm or greater than ≤ 40 ± 30
50 - 90 ± 40
210mm, it recommended to only use the ≥ 100 ± 50
test for slump ≥10mm and ≤210mm
Based on BS 8500-1:2015

143
Workability

144
 Workability

Flow table test

▪ Flow test is used for high workability concrete (with a slump of more that 175 mm)

▪ It is carried out in accordance with BS EN 12350-5, Testing fresh concrete.

Flow table test. This replaces BS 1881: Part 105.

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 Workability
Vebe test

The main advantage of this test is that it is a dynamic test and can be used
on concretes that are too stiff for a slump test.

146
 Workability
Compaction Factor Test

▪ BS 1881: Part 103

Designed mainly for laboratory testing but in some cases, it can be used for field
concrete tests. The compacting factor test has been developed at the Road
Research Laboratory in UK.

The most accurate test performed in order to determine the workability of

concrete.

147
Workability

148
V funnel & L-Box Workability

BS EN 12350-9 BS EN 12350-10:2010

▪ The L-Box test is used to assess the

▪ This test measures the ease of flow of passing ability of self-compacting
concrete, shorter flow time indicates concrete to flow through tight
greater flow ability. For SCC a flow time of obstructions without segregation or
10 seconds is considered appropriate. blocking.

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 Segregation and Bleeding
From placing to final set, concrete is in a plastic, semi-fluid state.
Heavier particles (aggregates) have tendency to move down:
Segregation

Mix water has a tendency to move up:

Bleeding

▪ Segregation is when the coarse and fine

aggregates, and cement paste, become separated.
▪ Segregation may happen when the concrete is mixed,
transported, placed or compacted.
▪ Segregation makes the concrete: Weaker, less durable and with a
poor surface finish

150
 Segregation and Bleeding

A layer of water (2 % or more of total

depth of concrete) accumulates on surface,
later this water evaporates or is re-
absorbed into the concrete.

Separation of the mortar (paste + fine

aggregate) from the body of concrete.

Causes and Control

▪ Improper consistency
▪ Excessive amount of large particles of coarse
aggregate with either too high or too low density
▪ Presence of less fines (low cement and sand
contents or the use of a poorly graded sand)
▪ Inappropriate placing or compacting methods

151
 Concrete and setting

▪ Time and temperature

Considerable evidence that temperature increase will decrease
workability as higher temperatures will increase both the
evaporation rate and hydration rate.
Very warm weather will require more water to maintain the same
workability.

▪ Cement characteristics
Less important factor in determining workability than the aggregate
properties.
However, increased fineness of cements will reduce workability at
a given w/c ratio.
152
 Concrete and curing
Curing : Protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon
after placing as possible, and for the first few days of hardening.
Curing means to cover the concrete so it stays MOIST (by keeping
concrete moist the bond between the paste and the aggregates
gets stronger.

WHY CURE Concrete that is cured is: LESS LIKELY TO CRACK.

polythene sheets

Spay water

153
 Concrete and curing

Effect of curing temperature

▪ 20 ± 2 degrees and provides a moist environment that allows the cubes to

hydrate properly. BS EN 12390-2: Testing hardened concrete. Making and curing
specimens for strength tests

▪ At early ages, rate of strength gain increases with curing temperature (higher
temperatures increases rate of reaction, thus more C-S-H and gel is produced at
earlier times, achieving a higher gel/space ratio and thus higher strength)

▪ At later ages, higher strength are obtained from concrete cured at lower
temperatures. (C-S-H gel is more rapidly produced at higher temperature and is
less uniform and hence weaker than produced at lower temperatures).

▪ The hydration reactions do still proceed at temperatures below the freezing

point of water, 0oC. In fact they only cease completely at about -10oC.

154
Concrete Design Mix

155
 Design of normal concrete mixes

▪ Durability Aspect

▪ Procedure for Concrete Design mix

o Recommended limiting values for concrete

o target means compressive strength

o water-cement ratio

o Free-water content

o Cement content

o Fine and Coarse aggregate Contents

156
Procedure for Concrete Design mix

Application 1:

Using the British DoE method determine the proportions for BS EN:206-1
concrete with slump class: S1 (unplasticised) for application in structures for 50
years of service life under exposure classes XC3, XC4, XD1 and XA1. The
proportions are to be based on cement CEM I class 42.5N of specific gravity of
3.15 conforming to BS EN:197-1 standard without additives. The materials
available are uncrushed fine and coarse aggregate of specific gravity of 2.65.
The coarse aggregate class is 4/10 and fine aggregate conforms to the grading
zone III with percentage passing of 600µm sieve being 70%. The standard
deviation as obtained from the past records is 5.0Mpa and defective rate at five
per cent, probability factor k = 1.65.

157

DoE: Design Of Experiments

158
▪ Recommended limiting values for concrete

Min. Max. Min.

Exposure strength w/c cement Air content
class class ratio (kg/m3) (%)

XC3

XC4

XD1

XA1
Specified
mix

159
▪ Recommended limiting values for concrete

Min. Max. Min.

Exposure strength w/c cement Air content
class class ratio (kg/m3) (%)

XC3 C30/37 0.55 280

XC4 C30/37 0.5 300

XD1 C30/37 0.55 300

XA1 C30/37 0.55 300

Specified
mix C30/37 0.5 300

160
▪ The concrete application in structures for 50 years of service life under
exposure classes of C30/37 at 28 days.

The steps involved in concrete design are:

▪ For the stipulated strength class, the target means compressive strength,

ft = fck + ks

In the UK fck is taken as the

characteristic compressive
strength of cube results.

k: probability factor
S: standard deviation

ft = 37 + 1.65 x 5 = 45.25MPa

▪ For the cement class 42.5 and uncrushed aggregate used, from table 2 for
the reference free water–cement ratio of 0.5, 28 day compressive is 42MPa.

161
▪ Water-cement ratio:

With this pair of data (42MPa and w/c ratio

0.5) as a passes through the controlling point
A. On this curve, the point B corresponding to
the target strength of 45.25MPa is marked.
This point corresponds to water-cement ratio
of 0.48.

For the exposure classes XC3, XC4, XD1 and

B
XA1 (50 years life), the maximum permitted A

value of free water-cement ration is 0.5.

Therefore, a water-cement ratio of 0.48 can
be adopted.

0.48

162
▪ Free-water content:

▪ Selection of free-water content consists simply of determining the free-water content from
table 3 depending upon the type of maximum size (10mm)of the aggregate to give a
concrete of the specified slump.

Free-water content = 180kg/m3

163
▪ Cement content:

w/c = 0.48 C = 180/0.48 = 375kg/m3

▪ This cement content is satisfactory as it is more than the minimum cement content of
300kg/m3 recommended in the table F1 BS EN 206 and less than the maximum prescribed
450kg/m3 .

▪ Density of Concrete

Wet density of fully compacted fresh

concrete as obtained from
figure 5 is 2400kg/m3.

(Proportions of fine and coarse aggregate).

-Specific gravity of aggregate is 2.65

164
▪ Determination of Fine and Coarse aggregate Contents:

Wet density Free-water Cement

of concrete content content

Total aggregate content: 2400 - 180 - 375 = 1845kg/m3

▪ The percentage of fine aggregate is either specified or obtained from Figure 6

Expressed as a percentage of total aggregate that will provide the target consistence
of the fresh concrete to be made with the given grading of fine aggregate, the
nominal upper size of coarse aggregate and the free water-cement ration obtained.

▪ For BS EN 206-1 concrete with consistence class S1, water-cement of 0.48 and fine
aggregate conforming to grading zone III, the proportion of fine aggregate as % of
the total aggregate from figure 6 is 35%.

▪ Fine aggregate content: 1845 x 35 % = 646kg/m3

▪ Coarse aggregate content: 1845 - 646 = 1199kg/m3

165
Figure 6: Recommended proportions of fine aggregate for different grading zones (DoE)

The coarse aggregate class is

4/10 and fine aggregate
conforms to the grading zone
III with percentage passing of
600µm sieve being 70%.

166
▪ The final proportions are established by trial batches and site adjustments.

Materials proportions by mass for 1m3.

Cement (kg) Water (kg) Fine (kg) Coarse (kg)

375 180 646 1199

1 0.48 1.72 3.2

Concrete wet density: 375 + 180 + 646 + 1199 = 2400kg/m3

167
Figure 6: Recommended proportions of fine aggregate for different grading zones (DoE)

168
Procedure for Concrete Design mix

Application 2:

C30/37 @28 days

Spec. strength margin = 5 N/mm2
CEM II Class 42.5N
Slump Required 60 – 180mm
Max aggregate size = 10mm
Coarse aggregate = crushed
Fine aggregate = uncrushed
Relative density of aggregates (SSD) = 2.7
Fine aggregate passing a 600μm sieve = 70%
Exposure classes XC3, XD1 and XA1

169

DoE: Design Of Experiments

▪ Recommended limiting values for concrete

Min. Max. Min.

Exposure strength w/c cement Air content
class class ratio (kg/m3) (%)

XC3

XD1

XA1

Specified
mix

170
▪ Recommended limiting values for concrete

Min. Max. Min.

Exposure strength w/c cement Air content
class class ratio (kg/m3) (%)

XC3 C30/37 0.55 280

XD1 C30/37 0.55 300

XA1 C30/37 0.55 300

Specified
mix C30/37 0.55 300

171
▪ The concrete application in structures for 50 years of service life under
exposure classes of C30/37 at 28 days.

The steps involved in concrete design are:

▪ For the stipulated strength class, the target means compressive strength,

ft = fck + ks

In the UK fck is taken as the

characteristic compressive
strength of cube results.

k: probability factor
S: standard deviation

ft = 37 + 1.65 x 5 = 45.25MPa

▪ For the cement class 42.5 and crushed aggregate used, from table 2 for the
reference free water–cement ratio of 0.5, 28 day compressive is 49MPa.

172
▪ Water-cement ratio:

With this pair of data (49MPa and w/c ratio

0.5) as a passes through the controlling point
A. On this curve, the point B corresponding to
the target strength of 45.25MPa is marked.

For the exposure classes XC3, XD1 and XA1

(50 years life), the maximum permitted value A
B
of free water-cement ration is 0.5. Therefore,
a water-cement ratio of 0.53 can be adopted.

0.53

173
▪ Free-water content:

▪ Selection of free-water content consists simply of determining the free-water content from
table 3 depending upon the type of maximum size (10mm)of the aggregate to give a
concrete of the specified slump.

▪ When coarse and fine aggregate of different types are used, the free-water
content is estimated by the expression:

▪ 2/3 Wf + 1/3 Wc = (2/3) 225 + (1/3) 250 = 150 + 83 = 233kg

174
▪ Cement content:

w/c = 0.53 C = 233/0.53 = 440kg/m3

▪ This cement content is satisfactory as it is more than the minimum cement content of
300kg/m3 recommended in the table F1 BS EN 206 and less than the maximum
prescribed 450kg/m3 .

▪ Density of Concrete

Wet density of fully compacted fresh

concrete as obtained from
figure 5 is 2370kg/m3.

(Proportions of fine and coarse aggregate).

-Specific gravity of aggregate is 2.7

175
▪ Determination of Fine and Coarse aggregate Contents:

Wet density Free-water Cement

of concrete content content

Total aggregate content: 2370 - 233 - 440 = 1697kg

▪ The percentage of fine aggregate is either specified or obtained from Figure 6

Expressed as a percentage of total aggregate that will provide the target
consistence of the fresh concrete to be made with the given grading of fine
aggregate, the nominal upper size of coarse aggregate and the free water-
cement ration obtained.

▪ For BS EN 206-1 concrete with consistence class S3, water-cement of 0.53 and
fine aggregate conforming to grading zone III, the proportion of fine aggregate
as % of the total aggregate from figure 6 is 42%.

▪ Fine aggregate content: 1697x 42 % = 713kg/m3

▪ Coarse aggregate content: 1697 - 713 = 985kg/m3

176
Figure 6: Recommended proportions of fine aggregate for different grading zones (DoE)

The coarse aggregate class is

4/10 and fine aggregate
conforms to the grading zone III
with percentage passing of
600µm sieve being 70%.

42

177
▪ The final proportions are established by trial batches and site adjustments.

Materials proportions by mass for 1m3.

Cement (kg) Water (kg) Fine (kg) Coarse (kg)

440 233 713 985

1 0.53 1.62 2.24

Concrete wet density: 440 + 233 + 713 + 985 = 2371kg/m3

178
References

179
180
Concrete pathologies

191
 Concrete pathologies

▪ Sulfate attack

▪ Alkali-Silica Reaction

▪ Carbonation and Corrosion

▪ Freeze and Thaw Action

▪ Prevention Mesures for Concrete Durability

192
 Sulfate attack
Causes of sulfate attack

▪ Seawater
▪ Soils and groundwater
▪ Industrial waste
Sulfate soils on concrete pylons, Queensland
▪ Sewage
▪ Clinker, delayed release

Causing spalling/expansion, it is not only

a cosmetic problem, it is a
microstructural problem within the
concrete matrix.
Concrete, building by seawater

Often evidenced by bloom (the presence of sodium sulfates Na2SO4

and/or Na2SO4.10H2O) at exposed concrete surfaces.
193
 Sulfate attack

Chemical breakdown mechanism where sulfate ions attack

components of the cement paste (expansion and cracking)

Sulfate ions + hydrated calcium aluminate = Ettringite

C3A.CS.H18 + 2CH +2S+12H C3A.3CS.H32

C3A.CH.H18 + 2CH +3S + 11H C3A.3CS.H32

Sulfate ions + calcium hydroxide components of hardened

Cement paste + water = gypsum (calcium sulphate hydrate)

Na2SO4+Ca(OH)2 +2H2O CaSO4.2H2O +2NaOH

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH)2

194
 Alkali-Silica Reaction
ASR consists of chemical reaction involving
aggregate (gravel and sand) in a matrix of cement paste.

The reaction can be visualized as a two-step

process:

1. SiO2 + 2NaOH + H Na2SiO32H

Reactive Alkalis Water Alkali-silica gel

2. Alkali-silica gel + moisture Expansion

▪ Water migration trough the interconnected microscopic pores.

Alkali-silica reaction forms ASR gel that swells as it draws water from the
surrounding cement paste and expands, causing concrete cracking.
▪ High-swelling gel causes pressures exceeding concrete tensile strength.

▪ Conditions required for ASR to occur are high alkali content of the cement,
reactive aggregate and Water.

195
SiO2 : Silicon dioxide, silica
 Carbonation and Corrosion
Carbonation occurs when the calcium-bearing
phases are attacked by aerial CO2 and converted
into calcium carbonate.

Cement paste contains calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

pH = 12.5 non carbonated concrete

pH = 7 fully carbonated

Reaction: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Carbonation process requires water because CO2 dissolves into it, giving H2CO3

At RH <40%: CO2 cannot dissolve and no carbonation occurs

At RH >90%: CO2 cannot enter the concrete no carbonation occurs
Optimal conditions for carbonation occur at a RH of 50% (range 40-90%).

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Testing Method:

The measurement of carbonation depth using the phenolphthalein

solution (indicator) is carried out by spraying the indicator on the
split surface of the concrete.

The solution becomes pink color in the carbonated concrete and

can be differentiated from the uncarbonated concrete.

197
 Freeze and Thaw Action
▪ When concrete is critically saturated (90% of
its pores are filled with water)

▪ When water freezes to ice, it occupies 9%

more volume than that of water.

▪ Freezing may cause distress in the concrete if

there is no space for this volume expansion
occurring in small capillary pores.

▪ The ice crystals can damage the cement paste by pushing the capillary
walls and by generating hydraulic pressure.

▪ Freezing and thawing cycles distress the concrete resulting in cracking,

spalling and surface scaling.

▪ Deterioration by freeze thaw actions may be difficult to diagnose

198
 Methods to Prevent ASR

▪ Limit alkali presence

-Low alkali cement: Slag, fly ash, silica fume

-Limit other sources:
salt-contaminated aggregates
penetration of seawater
penetration of deicing solution
-Cement content of the concrete

▪ Limit reactive aggregate

-amount, size, reactivity

▪ Limit available moisture

-RH around 75% required for reaction
-Repair cracks

199
 Methods to Prevent frost damage

▪ Paste damage
-Low w/c ratio
-Ensure proper curing of concrete

-Air entraining agents

▪ Aggregate damage
-Frost-resistant aggregate
200
 Methods to Prevent sulfate attack

▪ Produce high quality, impermeable concrete

-Limit C3A content

Type II Portland Cement
Type V Portland Cement

-For high sulfate concentrations: addition of

pozzolanic materials

-Coating of protective overlays

201
 Concrete repair
Aggressiveness of the environment accelerates corrosion
when concrete cover is not appropriate.

BS EN 206, BS 8500 & BS EN1992-1.2 environment classes

XD3
XC4 XS3
Carbonation Chlorides in seawater. Tidal zones, Chlorides not due to marine
Alternate wetting splash areas environment. Alternate wetting and
and drying drying.

Façades exposed to rains, Bridges and buildings on seashore, Car parks under deicing salts or with
superstructures of bridges marine structures. frequent water leakagess.

202
 Concrete repair

BS EN 1504 describe the repair methods for concrete, various methods

of repair and rehabilitation

After chloride extraction treatment

concrete surface is coated (paste)

Close zones, where corrosion can appear in a short term, must be

treated by other methods.

slow down corrosion rate, even to stop it.

The methods which can be proposed are either

concrete impregnation with:

✓ water-proof products (sealants)

✓ corrosion inhibitors
203
Electrochemical treatments :

Cathodic protection

An electric circuit is established

between an anode (zinc) and a steel
cathode (rebar). The zinc is oxidized
instead of the steel and protects it
from corrosion.

The anode also can be copper or steel.

One half of the circuit is a

wire, the other half is ions
in the concrete’s moisture.

204
205
 Electrochemical treatments:

Chloride extraction

An electric current of at least

1 Amp/m2 between an anode
(zinc) on the concrete’s
surface and the steel rebar.

Chloride inclusions in the

concrete are pulled to the
surface to reduce steel
oxidization long after
treatment.

206
 Embodied CO2 of
Concrete and Reinforced
Concrete

207
 Embodied Energy and Carbon

The dictionary of energy defines

‘embodied energy’ as “the sum
of the energy requirements
associated, directly or indirectly,
with the delivery of a good or
service” (Cleveland & Morris,
2009).

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Relationship between ‘embodied’ carbon and ‘operational’ carbon

▪ In the building life cycle, embodied carbon is

the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2) or
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated
with the non-operational phase of the project.

▪ This includes emissions cause by extraction,

manufacture, transportation, assembly,
maintenance, replacement, deconstruction,
disposal and end of life aspects of the
materials and systems that make up a
building.

▪ The whole life carbon of the building is both the embodied carbon and the
carbon associated with operation (heating, cooling, powering, providing
water etc).

▪ Understanding the relationships between ‘embodied’ carbon and ‘operational’

carbon can assist in determining the overall optimum carbon reductions.

209
What is embodied carbon and how is it estimated?

▪ Embodied carbon means all the CO2

emitted in producing materials.

▪ Estimated from the energy used to

extract and transport raw materials
as well as emissions from
manufacturing processes.

▪ Embodied carbon of a building can

include all the emissions from the
construction materials, the
building process, all the fixtures
and fittings inside as well as from
deconstructing and disposing of
it at the end of it’s lifetime.

210
 Who estimates embodied carbon?

▪ Surveyors, architects or designers at

the design stage of a construction.

▪ Researchers and analysts to provide

evidence for policy making.

211
 What evidence is there about embodied carbon in the
costs and benefits of refurbishment and demolition?

▪ Most studies on retrofit compare

“before and after” energy
performance, but some assess
the potential savings that could
be achieved if occupants were
rehoused in new low energy
houses.

▪ Only a few include the embodied

carbon of demolishing and
retrofitting buildings.

212
 How is it used in decision-making?

▪ Used to compare the environmental

impacts of different building
materials, designs and construction
processes.

▪ Can help to identify elements which

are carbon-intensive and promote
alternative options which reduce the
amount of CO2 released.

▪ Used to design policies that reduce

the CO2 emissions from the
construction sector.

213
 Life cycle Analysis
▪ Established method, used to
quantitatively evaluate the
environmental impacts of a
product.

▪ BS ISO14040:2006
(Environmental Management -
Life cycle Assessment - Principles
and Framework).

▪ Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a technique for assessing the

environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a
product.

▪ The LCA method entails compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and

outputs for a clearly defined system; and then evaluating the potential
environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs.

214

ISO 14001:2015 - environmental management system (EMS)

 Embodied CO2

▪ Embodied Energy that was used in the work of making a product.

▪ Embodied energy is attempts to measure the total of all the energy

necessary for an entire product Lifecycle.

215

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 Embodied CO2
The embodied CO2 (ECO2) figure of cementitious material is
720kg/tonne. The ECO2 for water is 0.3kg/m3 and for aggregate is
4kg/tonne. The ECO2 for reinforcement is 427kg/tonne. The steel
reinforcement content for 1m3 of concrete is 110kg, this figure is
considered representative for UK reinforced concrete construction.

A density of 2380kg/m3 is assumed for normal weight concrete. The

concrete composition and mix proportions for 1m3 are as follows:

Cement: 300kg
Water: 165kg
Aggregate: 1915kg

-Calculate the ECO2 figure for concrete of a class C28/35.

-Calculate the ECO2 figure for a reinforced concrete of class C28/35.

216
 Embodied CO2 of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

? ?

? ?

▪ ECO2 of cementitious material is 720kg/tonne.

▪ ECO2 for water is 0.3kg/m3.

▪ ECO2 for aggregate is 4kg/tonne.

▪ ECO2 for reinforcement is 427kg/tonne.

▪ Concrete density is 2380kg/m3

217
 Embodied CO2 of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

225 95

▪ ECO2 of cementitious material is taken of 720 kg/tonne.

▪ ECO2 for water is 0.3 kg/m3.
▪ ECO2 for aggregate is 4 kg/tonne.
▪ ECO2 for reinforcement is 427 kg/tonne.

➢ ECO2 = 0.3 x 720 + 0.165 x 0.3 + 1.915 x 4 = 224 kg of CO2/m3

ECO2 = 224/2.380 = 94 kg/tonne

218

Note: figures are then rounded up to the nearest 5kg

 Embodied CO2 of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

225 95

270 110

▪ ECO2 of cementitious material is taken of 720 kg/tonne.

▪ ECO2 for water is 0.3 kg/m3.
▪ ECO2 for aggregate is 4 kg/tonne.
▪ ECO2 for reinforcement is 427 kg/tonne.

➢ ECO2 = 0.3x720 + 0.165x0.3 + 1.915x4 + 0.110x427 = 270kg of CO2/m3

ECO2 = 270/2.5 = 108 kg/tonne

219

Note: figures are then rounded up to the nearest 5kg

Additional Slides

220
References

221
The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic
compressive strength cubes/ cylindres tested at 28 days fck. The characteristic
strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5%
of the test results are expected to fall.

Normal Distribution curve on test specimens for determining compressive strength

222
 Heat of hydration of cement
Hoover Dam, concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of
the Colorado River. It was constructed between 1931-36

223
 Heat of hydration of cement

▪ When concrete is used in

massive structures, such as
dams, foundations, it must
be cooled to minimize
cracking. Refrigeration is
required to offset the heat
of hydration of cement
after pouring.

▪ As the concrete setts it may

experience shrinkage, some
water evaporates and if
shrinkage is not controlled,
cracks can form.

224
 Heat of hydration of cement

225
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 Grande Dixence Dam
285m tall Grand Dixence Dam is located in Switzerland in Canton of Valais on
the Dixence River. it is the tallest gravity dam in the world, fifth tallest dam
overall, and the tallest dam in Europe. It is 695m long with a base width of 200m.

226

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 Built in successive stages

Figure shows the profiles for each stage. Keys Figure shows the years in which different blocks have
were provided at each stage for better been Constructed - Longitudinal Joints created during
bonding. Longitudinal joints were created in successive stages can be seen
the process.
227