E-Learning Module

M.Sc. (Mathematics) Semester - I

Composition Series and Jordan-Holder Theorem

Dr. Bhanu Gupta

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics
Jagdish Chandra D.A.V. College, Dasuya, Punjab, India.
Email: [email protected]

Normal and Subnormal Series: A sequence of subgroups

𝐺 = 𝐺0 ⊇ 𝐺1 ⊇ 𝐺2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐺𝐾 = (𝑒) ………………..(1)
of a group 𝐺 is called a subnormal series of 𝐺 if 𝐺𝑖+1 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝑖 for all
𝑖 = 0, 1, 2, … . ., 𝑘 − 1.
Here 𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 are called the factor groups of the subnormal series.
Further, if each 𝐺𝑖 is a normal subgroup of G itself, then the series is called normal
series.
For example, the series 𝑆3 ⊇ 𝐴3 ⊇ {𝐼} ………..………….(2)
is a subnormal (normal) series for 𝑆3 as 𝐴3 Δ 𝑆3 and {𝐼} Δ 𝐴3 .
The numbers of inclusion signs (⊇) in (1) is called the length of the subnormal (normal)
series of a group 𝐺. The length of series (2) above is 2.
The subnormal (normal) series (1) is said to be redundant if 𝐺𝑖 = 𝐺𝑖+1 for some 𝑖 =
0,1, 2, … . , 𝑘 − 1, otherwise it is said to be irredundant.

Remarks:
1. Every normal series is also subnormal series but a subnormal series need not be
normal series.
2. If 𝐺 is an abelian group, then every subnormal series is also a normal series.

Example1. Give an example of a subnormal series of some group, which is not a normal
series. Justify your answer.
Solution: Consider series of 𝐴4
𝐴4 ⊇ 𝑉4 ⊇ 𝐻 ⊇ {1} ……….(*)
where 𝑉4 = {(1), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)} and 𝐻 = {1, (1 2)(3 4)}.
Let 𝜎 ∈ 𝐴4 and (𝑎 𝑏)(𝑐 𝑑 ) ∈ 𝑉4 .
Then 𝜎(𝑎 𝑏)(𝑐 𝑑 )𝜎 −1 = (𝜎(𝑎)𝜎(𝑏))(𝜎(𝑐 )𝜎(𝑑 )) ∈ 𝑉4 because all permutations with
this cyclic structure are in 𝑉4 .
∴ 𝑉4 is normal in 𝐴4 .
𝑜(𝑉4 ) 4
Also [𝑉4 ∶ 𝐻 ] = = = 2 so that H is normal in 𝑉4 .
𝑜(𝐻) 2
∴ (∗) is a subnormal series of 𝐴4 .
Now, 𝐻 (1 2 3) = {(1 2 3), (2 4 3)} and (1 2 3)𝐻 = {(1 2 3), (1 3 4)}
∴ 𝐻 (1 2 3) ≠ (1 2 3) 𝐻, where (1 2 3) ∈ 𝐴4.
Thus H is not normal in 𝐴4.
Hence (*) is not a normal series of 𝐴4.

Maximal Normal Subgroup of a Group: A normal subgroup H of a group G is said to

be maximal normal subgroup if 𝐻 ≠ 𝐺 and there does not exist any normal subgroup K
of G such that 𝐻 ⊂ 𝐾 ⊂ 𝐺.
For example, 𝐴𝑛 is maximal normal subgroup of 𝑆𝑛 , ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.

Composition Series: An irredundant series 𝐺 = 𝐺0 ⊃ 𝐺1 ⊃ 𝐺2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐺𝐾 = {𝑒}

is said to be a composition series of G if each of its factor groups 𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 is a simple
group i.e. if each 𝐺𝑖+1 is a maximal normal subgroup of 𝐺𝑖 .
The factor groups 𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 are then called composition factor of the composition series.
For example (i) The series 𝑆3 ⊇ 𝐴3 ⊇ {𝐼} is a composition series for 𝑆3 as 𝐴3 is
normal in 𝑆3 and factor groups 𝑆3 ⁄𝐴3 , 𝐴3 ⁄{𝐼} = 𝐴3 being of prime order 2, 3
respectively are simple groups.
(ii) If 𝑛 ≥ 5, then 𝑆𝑛 ⊇ 𝐴𝑛 ⊇ {𝐼} is a composition series for 𝑆𝑛 as 𝐴𝑛 is normal in 𝑆𝑛
and factor groups 𝑆𝑛 ⁄𝐴𝑛 , 𝐴𝑛 are simple groups.

Theorem 1.1 Every finite group has at least one composition series.
Proof: Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order 𝑛. We prove the result by induction on 𝑛.
For 𝑛 = 2, G has a composition series 𝐺 ⊇ {𝑒}.
∴ Result is true for 𝑛 = 2.
Let the result be true for every group whose order is less than n. We have two cases:
Case I. 𝐺 is simple.
When G is simple, then 𝐺 ⊇ {𝑒} is a composition series for G and we are through.
Case II. 𝐺 is not simple.
Since G is not simple, therefore, G has a proper normal subgroup, say N, such that G/N is
simple. Since 𝑜(𝑁) < 𝑜(𝐺 ), therefore by induction hypothesis N has at least one
composition series.
Let 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ⊇ 𝑁1 ⊇ 𝑁2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝑁𝐾 = {𝑒} be a composiyion series for N, so that each
𝑁𝑖 ⁄𝑁𝑖+1 is simple.
Thus, we have the series
𝐺 = 𝐺0 ⊇ 𝑁 ⊇ 𝑁1 ⊇ 𝑁2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝑁𝐾 = {𝑒},
such that all its factor groups are simple.
Hence every finite group has at least one composition series.

Theorem 1.2 An abelian group G has a composition series iff G is finite.

Proof: Let 𝐺 has composition series
𝐺 = 𝐺0 ⊇ 𝐺1 ⊇ 𝐺2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐺𝐾 = {𝑒} so that each factor group 𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 is
simple.
Also each 𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 is abelian as 𝐺 is abelian.
∴ 𝑜(𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 ) must be prime number, ∀ 𝑖, 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 − 1.
Let 𝑜(𝐺𝑖 ⁄𝐺𝑖+1 ) = 𝑝𝑖+1 , where 𝑝𝑖+1 is a prime number for all 𝑖, 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 − 1.
Then 𝑜(𝐺 ) = [𝐺: {𝑒}] = [𝐺: 𝐺1 ][𝐺1 : 𝐺2 ] … … . [𝐺𝑘−1 : 𝐺𝑘 ] = 𝑝1 𝑝2 … . 𝑝𝑘
= finite number.
Hence 𝐺 is a finite group.
Converse part follows from the above theorem.

Cor. An infinite abelian group cannot have a composition series.

Note. The composition series of a group need not be unique.

Counter example: Let 𝐺 =< 𝑎 > be a cyclic group of order 24.
Consider two subnormal series
𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎2 〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎6 〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎12 〉 ⊇ {𝑒} …….…………….. (3)
3 6 12
and 𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎 〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎 〉 ⊇ 〈𝑎 〉 ⊇ {𝑒}. …………………… (4)
Factor groups of (3) are 〈𝑎〉⁄〈𝑎 〉 , 〈𝑎 〉⁄〈𝑎 〉 , 〈𝑎 〉⁄〈𝑎 〉 and 〈𝑎12 〉⁄{𝑒}, which are of
2 2 6 6 12

order 2, 3, 2, 2 respectively.
Since factor groups are of prime orders, they are all simple.
Similarly factor groups of (4) are 〈𝑎〉⁄〈𝑎3 〉 , 〈𝑎3 〉⁄〈𝑎6 〉 , 〈𝑎6 〉⁄〈𝑎12 〉 and 〈𝑎12 〉⁄{𝑒},
which are of order 3, 2, 2, 2 respectively and hence are simple.
∴ (3) and (4) both are composition series of 𝐺.

Refinement of a Subnormal (Normal) Series:

Let 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊇ 𝐻1 ⊇ 𝐻2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒) --------------------------------------------- (5)
be a subnormal (normal) series for G.
A subnormal series 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊇ 𝐻1 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻𝑖 ⊇ 𝐻 ⊇ 𝐻𝑖+1 ⊇ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒) is called
one-step refinement of series (5). Here a subgroup 𝐻 is inserted between 𝐻𝑖 and 𝐻𝑖+1 .
A refinement of (5) is a subnormal (normal) series which is obtained by a finite sequence
of one-step refinements of series (5).
OR
Let 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊇ 𝐻1 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒) be a subnormal (normal) series for G. Then a
subnormal (normal) series 𝐺 = 𝐾0 ⊇ 𝐾1 ⊇ 𝐾2 ⊇ ⋯ 𝐾𝑚 = (𝑒) is called refinement if
{𝐾0 , 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , … … … , 𝐾𝑚 } ⊇ {𝐻0 , 𝐻1 , … . . , 𝐻𝑛 }
and a proper refinement if
{𝐾0 , 𝐾1 , … … … , 𝐾𝑚 } ⊃ {𝐻0 , 𝐻1 , … . . , 𝐻𝑛 }.

Equivalent or Isomorphic Series:

Let 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊃ 𝐻1 ⊃ 𝐻2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒)
and 𝐺 = 𝐾0 ⊃ 𝐾1 ⊃ 𝐾2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐾𝑚 = (𝑒) be two subnormal (normal) series of a group
G. Then these two series are said to be equivalent or isomorphic if there is one to one
𝐻𝑖 𝐾𝑗
correspondence between the factors { } and { } such that the corresponding factors
𝐻𝑖+1 𝐾𝑗+1
are isomorphic.
For example, consider the group (𝐙15 , +15 ).
The two subnormal series of 𝑍15 are
𝒁15 ⊃ 〈3〉 ⊃ (0) ………………….(6)
and 𝒁15 ⊃ 〈5〉 ⊃ (0) ………………… (7)
𝒁 〈 〉
The possible factors of series (6) are 15⁄〈3〉 and 3 ⁄(0) and that of series (7) are
𝒁15 〈 5〉
⁄〈5〉 and ⁄(0).
𝒁 〈 〉 〈 3〉 𝒁
Clearly 15⁄〈3〉 ≅ 𝒁5 ≅ 5 ⁄(0) and ⁄(0) ≅ 𝒁3 ≅ 15⁄〈5〉.
∴ the two series for 𝒁15 are equivalent.

Example 2. Let 𝒁 ⊃ 2𝒁 ⊃ 4𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ (0) and 𝒁 ⊃ 3𝒁 ⊃ 6𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ (0) be

two subnormal (normal) series for Z. Prove that the series are equivalent.
Solution: The given series are
𝒁 ⊃ 2𝒁 ⊃ 4𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ (0) ………………….(*)
and 𝒁 ⊃ 3𝒁 ⊃ 6𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ (0) ………………… (**)
Collection of factors of series (1) are {𝒁⁄2𝒁 , 2𝒁⁄4𝒁 , 4𝒁⁄12𝒁 , 𝟏𝟐𝒁⁄(𝟎)} and

collection of factors of series (2) are {𝒁⁄3𝒁 , 3𝒁⁄6𝒁 , 6𝒁⁄12𝒁 , 12𝒁⁄(0)} .

Using the result that 𝒁⁄𝑛𝒁 ≅ 𝒁𝑛 , we get that 𝒁⁄2𝒁 ≅ 𝒁⁄
𝒁2 , 3𝒁 ≅ 𝒁3 ,
𝟐𝒁⁄ 3𝒁⁄ 𝟒𝒁⁄ 6𝒁⁄
𝟒𝒁 ≅ 𝒁2 , 6𝒁 ≅ 𝒁2 , 𝟏𝟐𝒁 ≅ 𝒁3 , 12𝒁 ≅ 𝒁2 ,
12𝒁⁄ 12𝒁⁄
(0) ≅ 𝒁 and (0) ≅ 𝒁.
∴ 𝒁⁄ ↔ 3𝒁⁄
2𝒁 6𝒁
2𝒁⁄ ↔ 6𝒁⁄
4𝒁 12𝒁
4𝒁⁄ ↔ 𝒁⁄
12𝒁 3𝒁
12𝒁⁄ ↔ 12𝒁⁄ , that is, every factor from series of (*) is isomorphic to
(0) (0)
some factor of series (**). Hence both the series are equivalent.

Theorem 1.3 (Zassenhau’s Lemma) Let 𝐻, 𝐾, 𝐻 ′ , 𝐾 ′ be subgroups of a group 𝐺 such

that 𝐻 ′ Δ 𝐻 , 𝐾 ′ Δ 𝐾. Then 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ ) Δ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾), 𝐾 ′ (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾)Δ 𝐾 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) and
𝐻 ′ (𝐻∩𝐾) 𝐾′ (𝐻∩𝐾)
≅ .
𝐻 ′ (𝐻∩𝐾′ ) 𝐾′ (𝐻 ′ ∩𝐾)
Proof: Since 𝐻 ′ Δ 𝐻 and 𝐾 ′ Δ 𝐾,
∴ 𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾 △ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 and 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ △ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 and so (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾) (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ ) △ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
Let us write J = (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾) (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ ).
We define a map
H ∩K
𝑓: 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) ⟶ as follows:
J
Take any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) ⇒ 𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏 where ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 ′ , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
Set 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓 (ℎ′ 𝑏) = 𝐽𝑏.
𝒇 is well defined:
Let 𝑎 = 𝑎1 for 𝑎, 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾)
𝑖. 𝑒 ℎ′ 𝑏 = ℎ1′ 𝑏1 where ℎ′ , ℎ1′ ∈ 𝐻 ′ , 𝑏 , 𝑏1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾.
Then (ℎ1′ )−1 ℎ′ = 𝑏1 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝑎1 = ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ) = 𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾 ⊆ J
∴ 𝑏1 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐽
⇒ 𝐽𝑏 = 𝐽𝑏1
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓 (ℎ′ 𝑏) = 𝑓 (ℎ1′ 𝑏1 )
∴ 𝑓 is well defined.
𝒇 is homomorphism:
Take any 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾)
𝑎1 = ℎ1′ 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 = ℎ2′ 𝑏2 where ℎ1′ , ℎ2′ ∈ 𝐻 ′ and 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
𝑎1 𝑎2 = (ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ) (ℎ2′ 𝑏2 )
= (ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ℎ2′ )𝑏2 = ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ℎ2′ 𝑏1−1 𝑏1 𝑏2
= (ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ℎ2′ 𝑏1−1 ) (𝑏1 𝑏2 ) = ℎ𝑏1 𝑏2 where ℎ = ℎ1′ 𝑏1 ℎ2′ 𝑏1−1 ∈ 𝐻 ′
So that 𝑓 (𝑎1 𝑎2 ) = 𝐽 𝑏1 𝑏2 = 𝐽 𝑏1 𝐽𝑏2 = 𝑓(𝑎1 ) . 𝑓 (𝑎2 )
𝑓 is homomorphism
𝒇 is onto:
Any element of 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾⁄J is of the form J𝑏 where 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩𝐾
Then 𝑒𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾), 𝑒 =identity of 𝐺 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ′ and 𝑓 (𝑒 𝑏) = 𝐽𝑏.
∴ 𝑓 is onto.
So 𝑓 is a homomorphism of 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) onto 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾⁄𝐽 .
∴ By Fundamental theorem of homomorphism
𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾) 𝐻 ∩𝐾
≅ ………………….(*)
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝐽

Now 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾)⁄𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾⁄𝐽}

= {𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) ⁄𝐽𝑏 = 𝐽}
= {𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾)⁄𝑏 ∈ 𝐽 = (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾)(𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ )}
= {𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 ′ & 𝑏 ∈ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) ∩ (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾)(𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ )}
= {𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏⁄ℎ′ ∈ 𝐻 ′ & 𝑏 ∈ (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾)(𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ )}
= {𝑎 = ℎ′ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ )} [∴ 𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾 𝐶 𝐻 ′ ]
= 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ ).
Since 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 ∆ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾), therefore 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 ′ ) ∆ 𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾)
𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾) 𝐻 ∩𝐾
and putting the value of 𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑓 in (*), we get ≅ .
𝐻 ′ (𝐻∩𝐾′ ) 𝐽
𝐾′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾) 𝐻 ∩𝐾
Similarly 𝐾 ′ (𝐻 ′ ∩ 𝐾)∆ 𝐾 ′ (𝐻 ∩ 𝐾) and ≅ .
𝐾′ (𝐻 ′ ∩𝐾) 𝐽
𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾) 𝐾′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾)
Above two relations imply ≅ .
𝐻 ′ (𝐻 ∩𝐾′ ) 𝐾′ (𝐻 ′ ∩𝐾)

Theorem 1.4 (Schreir’s Theorem) Any two subnormal series of a group 𝐺 have
equivalent refinements.
Proof: Let 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊇ 𝐻1 ⊇ 𝐻2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒) …………………………………. (I)
and 𝐺 = 𝐾0 ⊇ 𝐾1 ⊇ 𝐾2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐾𝑚 = (𝑒) …………………………………. (II)
be two subnormal series of the group 𝐺.
Between 𝐻𝑖 and 𝐻𝑖+1 (𝑖 = 0, 1, … … . , 𝑛 − 1) , we insert subgroups
𝐻𝑖,𝑗 = 𝐻𝑖+1 (𝐻𝑖 ∩ 𝐾𝑗 ), 𝑗 = 0, 1, … … . . , 𝑚.
Then 𝐻𝑖,𝑗+1 = 𝐻𝑖+1 (𝐻𝑖 ∩ 𝐾𝑗+1 ) △ 𝐻𝑖+1 (𝐻𝑖 ∩ 𝐾𝑗 ) = 𝐻𝑖,𝑗 (Zassenhau’s Lemma)
Thus we get a refinement
𝐺 = 𝐻0 = 𝐻0,0 ⊇ 𝐻0,1 ⊇ 𝐻0,2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻0,𝑚 = 𝐻1 ⊃ 𝐻1,1 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐻1,𝑚 = 𝐻2 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇
𝐻𝑛−1,𝑚 = (𝑒) ……………………………………………………………………(III)
of series (I). ( 𝐻𝑛−1,𝑚 = 𝐻𝑛 (𝐻𝑛−1 ∩ 𝐾𝑚 ) = 𝐻𝑛 (𝐻𝑛−1 ∩ 𝑒) = 𝐻𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑒. 𝑒 = 𝑒)
Similarly, between 𝐾𝑗 and 𝐾𝑗+1 (𝑗 = 0, 1, … . . , 𝑚 − 1), we insert subgroups
𝐾𝑗,𝑖 = 𝐾𝑗+1 (𝐾𝑗 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 ) = 𝐾𝑗+1 (𝐻𝑖 ∩ 𝐾𝑗 ) (𝑖 = 0, 1, … .. , 𝑛).
By Zassenhau’s Lemma
𝐾𝑗,𝑖+1 ∆ 𝐾𝑗,𝑖
and so we get a refinement of series II given by
𝐺 = 𝐾0 = 𝐾0,0 ⊇ 𝐾0,1 ⊇ ⋯ ⊇ 𝐾0,𝑛 = 𝐾1 ⊇ 𝐾1,0 ⊇ … ⊇ 𝐾𝑚+1,𝑛 = (𝑒) ……… (IV)
In view of Zassenhau’s Lemma, series III & IV are equivalent. Hence series I & II have
equivalent refinements.

Example of Schreir’s Theorem

Let 𝒁 ⊃ 2𝒁 ⊃ 6𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ (0) …………………… (I)
Z ⊃ 3𝒁 ⊃ 24𝒁 ⊃ (0) ……………… (II)
be two subnormal series of 𝒁. After refinement, series (I) & (II) can be written as
𝒁 ⊃ 2𝒁 ⊃ 6𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ 24𝒁 ⊃ (0)
𝒁 ⊃ 3𝒁 ⊃ 6𝒁 ⊃ 12𝒁 ⊃ 24𝒁 ⊃ (0), which are equivalent.

Theorem 1.5 (Jordan Holder Theorem) Any two composition series of a group are
equivalent (isomorphic).
Proof: If 𝐺 = 𝐻0 ⊃ 𝐻1 ⊃ 𝐻2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐻𝑛 = (𝑒)
𝐺 = 𝐾0 ⊃ 𝐾1 ⊃ 𝐾2 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝐾𝑚 = (𝑒)
are two composition series of a group 𝐺 then being subnormal series, they have
equivalent (isomorphic) refinements (by Schreir’s theorem). But a composition series has
no-proper refinement. That is, a composition series is equivalent to every refinement of
itself. Hence the two composition series of 𝐺 must be equivalent.

Exercise
1. Let 𝐺 be a group having a composition series and 𝐻 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺.
Prove that 𝐺 has a composition series with H being one of its members.
2. Let a group 𝐺 be direct product of two subgroups 𝐻 and 𝐾. Show that 𝐺 has a
composition series iff each of the subgroups 𝐻 and 𝐾 has a composition series.
3. Let 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝐺 has a composition series. Prove that 𝑁 has
a composition series.