Reed Cartwright Learn Python Programming Write code from the ground up in a clear and succinct method, with a complete standard training course. From beginners to intermediate, an hands-on task with examples, to comply with detailedCongratulation on downloading this ebook and thank You for doing so. Please enjoy ! © Copyright 2021 by All rights __teserved __No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, or by any information storage and retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of very brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.TABLE OF CONTENTSay | ree | mh "ldinddddldsatll Uses doldaaasCHAPTER 1 LEARN PYTHON PROGRAMMING INTRODUCTION Python isan example ofa high level language. Other high level languages you might have heard of are C+#,PHP,Pascal,C#,and Java. Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. Ithas efficient high-level data structures anda simple but effective approach to abjct- oriened programming Python was originally conceived by Van Rossum as a hobby language in December 1989, Also, the major and backwatd-Incompatible version of the general-purpose programming language was released on 3rd December 2008. But Python is recently rated by a numberof surveyors asthe ‘most poplar coding language of 2015, The massive popularity indicates Python's effectiveness asa modem programming language. At the same time, Python 3 is currently used by developers across the worlds for creating a variety of desktop GUI, web and mobile applications. Python is a high-level, interpreted scripting language developed in the late 1980s by Guido van ‘Rossum atthe National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Selence inthe Netherlands. The inital version was published at the atsources newsgroup in 1991, and version 1.0 was released in 1994.Python 2.0 was released in 2000, andthe 2.x versions were the prevalent releases until December 2008, At that time, the development team made the decision to release version 3.0, which ‘contained a few relatively small but significant changes that were not backward compatible with ‘the 2.x versions. Python 2 and 3 are very similar, and some features of Python 3 have been bbackported to Python 2. But in general, they remain not quite compatible Both Python 2 and 3 have continued to be maintained and developed, with periodic release ‘updates for both, As of this writing, the most recent versions available are 2.7.15 and 3.6. However, an official End Of Life date of January 1, 2020 has been established for Python 2, after ‘which time it will no longer be maintained. If you area newcomer to Python, its recommended ‘that you focus on Python 3, as this tutorial will do, Python is still maintained by a core development team atthe Institute, and Guido Is still in ‘charge, having been given the ttle of BDFL (Benevolent Dictator For Life) by the Python ‘community. The name Python, by the way, derives not from the snake, but from the British ‘comedy tcoupe Monty Python's Flying Cireu, of which Guido was, and presumably stil is, a fan. Iis common to find references to Monty Python sketches and movies scatered throughout the Python documentation, “There are also a numberof reasons whi the huge popularity and marketshare of Python will remain inact over a longer period of time.REASONS WHY THE MASSIVE POPULARITY OF PYTHON WILL REMAIN INTACT IN THE FUTURE ‘Supports Multiple Programming Paradigms Good developers often take advantage of different programming paradigms to reduce the amount ‘of time and efforts re quired for developing large and complex applications. Like other modem programming languages, Python also supports a number of commonly used programming styles Including object-oriented, functional, procedural and imperative. t further features automatic ‘memory management, along with a dynamic type system. So programmers can use the language tw effectuate development of large and complex software applications Doesn't Require Programmers to Write Lengthy Code Python is designed with complete focus on code readability, So the programmers can create readable code base that can be used by members of distributed teams. At the same time, the ‘simple syntax ofthe programming language enables them to express concepts without writing longer lines of code. The feature makes it easier for developers to large and complex applications ‘within a stipulated amount of time, As they can easly skip certain tasks required by other programming languages, i becomes easier for developers to maintain and updae thelr applications. Provides a Comprehensive Standard Library Python further scores over ther programming languages due tits extensive standard li ‘The programmers can use these libraries to accomplish a variety of tasks without writing longer lines of code, Also, the standard library of Python is designed with a large numberof high use Programming tasks scripted into it. Thus, it helps programmers to accomplish tasks like string ‘operations, development and implementation of web services, working with internet protocols, ‘and handling operating system interface.Effectuates Web Application Development Python is designed as a general-purpose programming language, and lacks built-in web development features. But the web developers use a variety of add-on modules to write modern ‘web applications in Python, While writing web applications in Python, programmers have option to use several high-level web frameworks including Django, web2py, TurboGears, CubieWeb, and Reabl. These web frameworks help programmers to perform a numberof operations, without ‘writing additional code, like database manipulation, URL routing, session storage and retrieval, and output template formatting. They can futher use the web frameworks to protect the web application from cross-site scripting attacks, SQL injection, and crosssite request forgery Facilitates Development of High Quality GUI, Scientific and Numeric Applications Python is currently available on major operating systems like Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and LUNIX, So the desktop GUI applications written in the programming language can be deployed ‘on multiple platforms. The programmers can further speedup cross-platform desktop GUL application development using frameworks like Kivy, wxPython and PyGitk. A number of reports have highlighted that Python is used widely for development of numeric and scientific applications. While writing scientific and numeric applications in Python, the developers can ‘ake advantage of tools like Scipy, Pandas, IPython, along with the Python Imaging Library Simplifies Prototyping of Applications Nowadays, each organization wants to beat competition by developing software with distinet and Innovative features, That is why; prototyping has become an integral part of modern software development lifecycle. Before writing the code, developers have to create prototype of the application to display its features an functionality to various stakeholders. As a simple and fast programming language, Python enables programmers to develop the final system without puting any extra time and effort. At the same time, the developers also have option to start developing the system directly from the prototype simply by refactoring the codeCan also be used for Mobile App Development Frameworks like Kivy also make Python usable for developing mobile apps. As a library, Kivy can be used for creating both desktop applications and mobile apps. Bu it allows developers to \wrte the code once, and deploy the same code on multiple platforms. Along with interfacing wih the hardware ofthe mobile device, Kivy also comes with bul wlapters, modules to render and play videos, and modules to accept user input through multitouch and gestures. ‘Thus, programmers can use Kivy to creat different versions of the same applications for 108, Android and Windows Phone. Also, the framework does not require developers to write longer lines of code while creating Kivy programs. Afler creating different versions of the mobile app, 1m makes it easier for they can package the app separately for individual app store. The opt developers to create different versions of the mobile app without deploying separate developers. (Open Source Despite being rated as the most popular coding language of 2015, Python is still available as ‘open source and fre software. Along with large IT companies, the startups and freelance software developers can also use the programming language without paying any fees or royalty “Thus, Python makes it easier for businesses to reduce development cost significantly. At the same time, the programmers can also avail the asistance of large and active community to add out-of-box features tothe software application. ‘The last major release of Python took place in December 2008, Python 3 was released as @ backward-incompatible version with most of the major features back ported to Python 2.6 and 2.7. However, the programming language is being updated by the community at regular Intervals. The community released Python 3.4.3 on 23rd February with several features and patches. So the developer can always use the most recent version of the Python programming language to effectuate development of various software applications.CHAPTER 2 HOW TO ACCEPT USER INPUTS AND DISPLAY OUTPUTS, ‘The Input Function The hello program of The Classic First Program always does the same thing This is not very interesting, Programs are only going to be reused if they can act on a variety of data. One way to jet data is directly from the user. Modify the hello py program as follows in the editor, and save Itwith Fle» Save As... using the name hello_youpy. person = input(Enter your name: ‘) print Hello, person) Run the program. Inthe Shell you should seeEnter your name: Follow the instruction (and press Enter). Make sure the typing cursor is in the Shell window, at the end ofthis line. After you type your response, you can see thatthe program has taken in the line you typed. That i what the built-in function input does: First it prints the string you give asa ‘parameter (in this case “Enter your name: ‘), and then it waits fora line tobe typed in, and returns the string of characters you typed. In the hello_you.py program this value is assigned tothe variable person, for use later. The parameter inside the parentheses after input is important. tis a prompt, prompting you that keyboard input is expected at that point, and hopefully indicating what is being requested. ‘Without the promp, the user would not know what was happening, and the computer would just sit there waiting! ‘Open the example program, interview py. Before running it (with any made-up data), se if you can figure out what it will do: ‘lustrate input and print. applicant = input("Enter the applicant's name: ”) Imerviewer = input(Enter the interviewer's name: time input "Enter the appointment time: ") prini{incerviewer, "will interview”, applicant, " time) ‘The statements are executed inthe order they appear inthe text of the program: se q uentially ‘Thisis the simplest way forthe execution ofthe program to flow. You will se instructions later ‘that alter that natural flow. If we want to reload and modify the hello_you.py program to put an exclamation point at theend, you could try: person punter your names’) prini(Hello, person, Run it and you see that i isnot spaced right. There should be no space after the person’s name, butte default behavior of the prin function isto have each field printed separated by a space. ‘There are several ways fix this. You should know one. Think about it before going on to the next section. Hint: 1] [1] The + operation on strings ads no extra space 1.102, Print with Keyword Parameter sep ‘One way to put punctuation but no space after the person in hello_you.py is to use the plus ‘operator, +. Another approach i to change the default separator between fields inthe print function. This will introduce a new syntax feature, Keyword parameters. The print function has & keyword parameter named sep. Ifyou leave it out ofa call to print, as we have so fa, itis set ‘eq val toa space by default. Ifyou adda final fled, sep ‘you get the following example file, hello_you2.py: in the print function in hello. youpy, “Hello to you! Illustrates sep with empty string in print person = input(Enter your name: prini(Hello*, person," sep: ‘Try the program. Keyword paramaters must be listed atthe end ofthe parameter list1.10.3, Numbers and Strings of Digits Consider the following problem: Prompt the user fortwo numbers, and then print ou a sentence stating the sum, For instance if the user entered 2 and 3, you would print “The sum of 2 and 3 is a ‘You might imagine a solution like the example file addition py, shown below. There isa problem. Can you figure it out before you try it? Hint [2] Error in addition from input. x= input("Enter a number: {y= Input("Ener a second number: priniThe sum of x, "andl ysis ty, sep End up running it in any case. ‘We do not want string concatenation, but integer addition, We need integer operands, Briefly mentioned in Whirlwind Introduction To Types and Functions was te fact thet we can use type ‘names as functions to convert types. One approach would be todo that. Further variable names are also introduced inthe example addltion2.py fle below to emphasize the distinctions in types. Read and run "Conversion of stings to int before addition’ String = input("Enter a number: x= int(Sting) String = inpu("Enter a second number: "y= in(yString) printThe sum of "andy," x+y, e [Needing 1o convert string input vo numbers @ common situation, both with Keyboard Input and later in web pages. While the extra variables above emphasized the steps, itis more concise to ‘write a inthe variation in example fil, adition3.py, doing the conversions to type int immediatly: Two numeric inputs, with immediate conversion x= In(input("Ener a number") {y= in(input(“Enter a second number: ) print(The sum of , x," and y,"is', x+y, ‘The simple programs so far have followed a basic programming pattem: input-calculate-output. Get all the data firs, calculate with it second, and output the results lst. The pattern se q wence ‘would be even clearer if we explicitly create a named result variable in the mid, as in addition py “Two numeric inputs, explicit sum” X= int(input("Enter an integer: ")) {y= In(input("Enter another integer: ")) Hy priniThe sum of x, "and ‘We will see more complicated patterns, which involve repetition, inthe future[2] The input function produces values of string type. 1,103.1. Exercise for Addition ‘Write aversion, add3.py, that asks for three numbers, and lists all tree, and their sum, in similar format to addtion4 py displayed above. 1.10.3.2. Exercise for Quotients ‘Write a program, quotient. py, that prompts the use fortwo integers, and then prints them out in 4 sentence with an integer division problem like ‘The votient of 14 and 3 is 4 with a remainder of 2 Review Division and Remainders if you forget the integer division or remainder operator. 1.10.4, Suing Format Operation In grade school q ulzzes a common convention is to use fill-n-the blanks. For instance, Hello__ and you can fill n the name of the person greeted, and combine given text with a chosen insertion. We use this as an analogy: Python has a similar construction, better called fillin-the- ‘braces. There is a particular operation on strings called format, that makes substitutions into places enclosed in braces. For instance the example file, hello_you3,py, creates and prints the ‘same string as in hello_you2.py from the previous section: “Hello co you! Illustrates format with (} In print.person = input(Enter your name: ‘greeting = Hello, )fformat(person) prin(greeting) ‘There are several new ideas here! First method calling syntax for objects is used. You will se this very important modern syntax in more detail atthe beginning ofthe next chapter in Object Orientation. All data in Python are ‘objects, including strings. Objects have a special syntax for functions, called methods, associated With the particular type of object. In particular str objects have a method called format. The ‘syntax for methods has the object followed by a period followed by the method name, and futher parameters in parentheses, ‘object methodname(parameters) Inthe example above, the object i the string Hello (}!. The method is named format. There is ‘one further parameter, person. ‘The string for the format method has a special form, with braces embedded. Places where braces are embedded are replaced by the value ofan expression taken from the parameter list forthe format method. There are many variations on the syntax between the braces. In this case we use the syntax where the first (and only) location in the string with braces has a substitution made from the first (and only) parameter. Inthe code above, this new string is assigned tothe identifier greeting, and then the string is printed ‘The identifier greeting was introduced to break the operations into a clearer se q uence of step. However, since the value of greting is oly referenced once, it can be eliminated with the moreperson sputter your name: ‘) rin Hello (}formar(person)) ‘Consider the interview program. Suppose we want to add a period atthe end ofthe sentence (with no space before it). One approach would be to combine everything with plus signs. Another way is printing with keyword sep. Another approach is with string formating, Using ‘our grade schoo! analogy, the idea i to fill in the blanks in will incerview at “There are multiple places to substitute, and the format approach can be extended to multiple substitutions: Each place in the format string where there is’, the format operation will substitute the value ofthe next parameter inthe format parameter lis. Run the example file interview2.py, and check thatthe results from all three methods match, "Compare print with concatenation and with format string” put( "Enter the applicant's name: ver the interviewer's name: ") input "Enter the appointment time: prin(interviewer +° will interview * + applicant +" at” + time +) Drin(inerviewer, will interview ' applicant, ° a ime, sep=") prin((() will interview {) at (}-\format(interviewer, applicant, time)) Sometimes you want a single string, but not just for printing. You can combine pieces with the + ‘operator, but then all pieces must be strings or explicitly converted to strings. An advantage ofthe format method is that i will convert types to string automaticaly, like the print function. Here is another variant of our addition sentence example, addition4a.py, using the format method “Two numeric inputs, explicit sun X= int(inpur("Enter an intege » {¥ © In(input("Enter another integer oy sentence = "The sum of () and () is (format, , sum) prin(sentence) Conversion to strings was not needed in interview2.py. (Everything started out as a string.) In addlition4a.py, however, the automatic conversion ofthe integers to strings is useful. So far there is no situation that requires a format string instead of using ther approaches. Sometimes a format string provides a shorter and simpler expression. Except where specifically instructed in an exercise for practice, use whatever approach to combining strings and data that ‘you like. There are many elaborations to the fields in braces to contro formatting, We will look at one later, String Formats for Float Precision, where format strings ae particularly useful AA technical point: Since braces have special meaning ina format string, there must be a sped rule if you want braces to actually be included inthe final formated sting. The rule isto double the braces: '{{’ and} The example code formatBraces.py, shown below, makes setStr reer to the string The set is (5,9). The inital and final doubled braces in the format string generate literal braces inthe formatted string: illustrate braces in a formated sting.ass b=9 setStr= The set is {({), (})-sformat(a,b) prinisetStr) ‘This kind of format string depends directly onthe order ofthe parameters tothe format method, ‘There is another approach with a dictionary, that was used inthe fist sample program, madlib,py, and willbe discussed more in Dictionaries and String Formatting. The dictionary approach is probably the best in many cases, but the count-based approach isan easier stat, particularly if the parameters ae just used once, in order. Optional elaboration with explicitly numbered entries, Imagine the format parameters numbered in order, starting from 0. In this case , 1, and 2. The numberof the parameter position may be included inside the braces, so an alternative tothe last line of interview2.py is (added in example file interview3.py) print {0} will interview (1} at (2}-.format(inerviewer, applicant, time)) ‘This is more verbose than the previous version, with no obvious advantage. However, if you desire to use some ofthe parameters more than once, then the approach with the numerical identification with the parameters is useful. Every place the string includes "{0), the format ‘operation will substitute the value of the inital parameter in thelist. Wherever "(L} appears, the next format parameter will be substtued.. Predict the results of the example file arith.py shown below, if you enter 5 and 6, Then check ‘yourself by running it, In this case the numbers referring to the parameter positions are necessary. They are both repeated and used out of order: "Fancier format string example withparameter identification numbers ~ useful when some parameters are used several times." x= in(input(Eoter an inceger:)) {y= In(input(Enter another integer: ) formatsur="0} + (1) = (2); (0}* (1) = (3) equations = formatSt format, y, +9, .*9) rine q uations) “Try the program with other data [Now that you have a few building blocks, you will see more exercises where you need to star to do creative things, You are encouraged to go back and reread Learning to Problem-Solve 1.10.4.1, Addition Format Exercise ‘Write a version of Exercise for Addition, add3t py, that uses the string format method to ‘construct the same final string as befor. 1.10.4. Quotient Format Exercise ‘Write aversion ofthe quotient problem in Exercise for Quotients, q uosientformat.py, that uses the string format method to construct the same final string as before, Again be sure to give a full sentence stating both the integer quotient and the remainder.CHAPTER 3 HOW TO DEFINE YOUR OWN FUNCTIONS AND MODULES Modules refer toa file containing Python statements and definitions A file containing Python code, for e.g: example py, is called a module and its module name would be example ‘We use modules to break down large programs into small manageable and organized files. Furthermore, modules provide reusability of code. ‘We can define our most used functions ina module and import it, instead of copying their definitions into different programs.Let us create a module. Type the following and save it as example.py. + Python Module example def ada, by: ‘This program adds two ‘numbers and return the result” +b return result Here, we have defined a function add inside a module named example. The function takes in ‘two numbers and returns their sum, How to import modules in Python? ‘We can impor the definitions inside a module to another madule or the interactive interpreter in Python ‘We use the import keyword to do this. To import our previously defined module example we type the following in the Python prompt. >>> import example “This does not enter the names of the functions defined in example directly in te current symbol table. It only enters the module name example there Using the module name we can access the function using the dot . operator. For example: >>> example.add4.5.5)95 Python has aton of standard modules available. ‘You can check out the full lst of Python standard modules and what they ate for. These files are in the Lib directory inside the location where you installed Python. Standard modules can be imported the same way as we import our user-defined modules ‘There are various ways to import modules. They are listed as follows. Python import statement ‘We can import a module using impor statement and access the definitions inside it using the dot ‘operator as described above, Here is an example. 4 Import statement example 4 co import standard module math import math) print("The value of pi is", math pi ‘When you run the program, the output will be: “The value of pl is 3.141592653589793Import with renaming ‘We can importa module by renaming it s follows. 4# Import module by renaming it Import math as m print("The value of pi is", mpi) ‘We have renamed the math module asm, This can save us typing time in some cases, [Note that the name math is not recognized in our scope, Hence, math.pl i invalid, m.p is the correct implementation. Python from. impor statement ‘We can impor specific names from a module without importing the module asa whole. ere is, an example, 4# impor only pt from math module from math import pi print("The value of pl is pi) ‘We imported only he atvibute pi from the module. In such case we don't use the dot operator. We could have imported multiple atributes as>>> from math impor pi, € 3,141592653589793 2.718281828459045, Import all names ‘We can impor all names(definiions) from a module using the following construct. ‘import all names from the standard module math from math import * print("The value of pi is" pi) ‘We imported all the definitions from the math module. This makes all names except those bbeginnig with an underscore, visible in our scope. Importing everything withthe asterisk (*) symbol isnot a good programming practice. This can lead to duplicate definitions for an identifier. It also hampers the readability of our code Python Module Search Path ‘While importing @ module, Python looks at several places, Interpreter first looks for a built-in ‘module then (if not found) into a list of directories defined in sys.path. The search isin this order. “The current directory.PYTHONPATH (an environment variable witha listofetectory) The insallation-dependent default directory. >>> impor sys >>> sys.path 7 “CA\Python33\LAbvialets, “CAWindows\system32\python33 zip, “CAPython33NDLLs, “CA\PythonBib, “cA\Pythona3, “C2NPython2a\libsite-packages) ‘We can add modify this list t0 add our own path Reloading a module ‘The Python interpreter imports a module only once during a session. This makes things more efficent. Here isan example to show how this works. ‘Suppose we have the following code in a module named my_module, + This module shows the effect of '® multiple imports and reload print("This code got executed”) Now we se the effect of multiple import. >>> import my_module‘This code got executed >>> import my_module >>> import my_module ‘We can see that our code got executed only once. This goes to say that ur module was imported only one. [Now if our module changed during the course ofthe program, we would have to reload ine ‘way to do this is to restart the interpreter. But this does not help much. Python provides @ neat way of doing this. We can use the reload) function inside the imp module to reload a module, This is how its done, >>> impor imp >>> Import my_madule This code go executed >>> import my_module >>> imp relay module) “This code go executed “The dif builtin function ‘We can use the dirt) function to find out names that are defined inside a module For example, we have defined a function add) in the module example that we had in the beginning, >>> die(example) t *_uitins_“cached ‘oc “file: “tniaizing_s, “loader “package. ‘ad Here, wecan see a sorted list of names (along with add). Al ther names that begin with an ‘underscore are default Python attributes assoratd with the module (we id not define them ourself, For example, the _name__atrbute contains the name of the module, >>> impor example >>> example._name_ “example All the names defined in our current namespace can be found out using the de) function without any arguments pearl >>> b= “hello” >>> import math, >>> dit) builtins math; ‘pyscripter] eck out these examples to learn more:Python Program to Shuffle Deck of Cards Python Program to Display Calendar,CHAPTER 4 HOW TO WRITE YOUR OWN CLASS ara) FY Python Class In object-oriented computer languages such as Python, classes are basically a template to create ‘your own objects. Objects are an encapsulation of variables and functions imo a single entity. ‘Objects get tele variables and functions from classes Here are some examples that will belp you understand—read on. There Is also an interactive ‘code shel, simply press the “Run” button at the top of the specific window. ‘The simplest way to describe classes and how to use them is this: Imagine you have great powers. You create a species (“class”) ‘Then you create attributes for that species (“properties")—height, weight, limbs, color, powers,and $0 on ‘Then you create an instance of that species—Fido the dog, Drogon from Game of Thrones, and so on. Then you work with these instances: Ina game, for instance, they would engage in action, interact, using their atributes Ina banking app, they would be the diferent transactions. Ina vehicle buy/sel/trade/lease app, the vehicle class could then spawn subclasses such as car, Each would have atuibutes such as mileage, options, features, color, and tim. ‘You can already see why this is useful. You are creating, re-using, adapting, and enhancing items ina very efficient, logical, and useful way. By now, you have probably realized that this isa way to classify and group, one that that i similar to how humans learn: Animals ae living things that are not human or ees, ina basic sense then you move on to different types of animals —dogs, cats are probably the frst animals most ‘of us Ieamt about then you move to different aributes of animals—shapes, sizes, sounds, appendages and so on. For instance, when you were a child, your first understanding of a dog was probably something ‘with four leg that barked. Then you learn to distinguish that some were real dogs, others were toys. That this “dog” concept commained many types. Creating and using classes is basically: building a template to put “things” in—a classification which can then be operated on. For example, pulling up all the people with dogs that you could re q uest link toa blog on pes, oral bank clients who might be good prospects for a newcreditcard, "The main point here is classes are objects that can produce instances of those templates, on ‘which operations and methods can be applied. Its an excellent way to conceptualize, organize, nd build a hierarchy for any organization or process. [As our world gets more complex, this is away to mimic that complexity from a hierarchical Perspective. Italso builds a deeper understanding of the processes and interactions for business, technical, and social setings from a viral information technology point ‘An example might be a video game you create. Each character could be a “cass”, with its own, attributes, that interacts with instances of other classes. King George of the “King” class might interact with Coutt Jester Funnyman of the “Clown” class, and so on. A King might have a royal “servant” class, anda “servant” class would always have a “King” lass, for example. ‘Thisis what we will do: create a class and use it create a module and move the class creation and initiation to the module call the module in a new program to use the class. {#TSB - Create Class in Python - rocket positions (x,y) and graph ‘some items and comments bolded to call atention to process import matpltib.pyplt as pt class Rocket): def init__(self, x=0, y=0}. ‘each rocket has (x,y) position; user or calling function has choice Wo passing in x and y values, or by default they are set at 0selfx=x selfy=y def move_up(sell) selfy 41 def move_down(selt): self def move_right(sell selfx 41 def move_lefi(se): self ‘Make a series of rockets - x,y positions 1am calling it rocket rockets={} rockets append(Rocket()) rockets append(Rocket(0,2)) rockets append(Rocket(4) rockets.append(Rocket2,6)) rockets append(Rocket(3.7) rockets append(Rocket(5,9)) rockets append(Rocket(, 15)) ‘#Show on a graph where each rocket is for index, rocket in enumerate(rockets}:original postion of rockets print@"Rocket 6d i a (éd, é)." 96 (index, rocket.x,rockety)) pltplot(rocket.x, rockety, ro, linewidth=2,linestyle~dashed!, markersize=12) ‘move the rocket one up rocket.move_up() print("New Rocket position dis at (%, Yd)” % (index, rocket.x, rackety)) ‘plot the new position pliplox(rocket.x, rockety, ‘bo, linewidth=2,linestyle='dashed, markersize=12) ‘move the rocket lef, then plot the new position rocket. move. lef pliplot(rocket-x, rockety, yo, linewidth=2,linestyle~'dashed, markersize=12) ‘show graph legend to match colors with position plt.gca( egend\(Corginal position, - Moved up’, ‘<- Moved left)) pltshow( ‘plulegenci 1pper left’) So there you have it. You can creste many different classes, with parent classes, sub-classes andOBJECT ORIENTED Python has been an object-oriented language since it existed. Because ofthis, creating and using lasses and objects are downright easy. This chapter helps you become an expert in using Python's object-oriented programming suppor. If you do not have any previous experience with object-oriented (OO) programming, you may ‘want to consult an introductory course on itr atleast a tutorial of some sort so that you have a ‘rasp of the basic concepts However, here is small introduction of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) w bring you at speed ~ Overview of OOP Terminology Class ~ A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes that characterize any object ofthe class. The attributes are data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dot notation, (Class variable ~ A variable that is shared by al instances ofa class. Class variables are defined ‘within a class but outside any ofthe class's methods. Clas variables are not used as freq uently as instance variables are, Data member ~ A class variable or instance variable that holds data associated with a class and its object. Function overloading ~ The assignment of more than one behavior to particular function, The ‘operation performed varies by the types of objects or arguments involved.Instance variable ~ A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs only to the current Instance of a class. Inheritance ~ The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes that are derived from it, Instance ~ An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs toa class Circle, for ‘example, isan instance ofthe clas Circle, Instantiation ~ The creation of an instance of a clas. Method ~ A special kind of function that is defined ina class definition, ‘Object ~ A unig ue instance ofa data structure that's defined by its clas. An object comprises ‘both data members (class variables and instance variables) and methods. Operator overloading ~ The assignment of more than one function toa particular operator. Creating Classes “The class statement creates a new class definition. The name ofthe lass immediately follows the keyword class followed by a colon as follows ~ lass ClassName: "Optional class documentation string’ class_suite The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed via ClassName,__doc_. ‘The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining class member, data attributesand functions Example Following isthe example ofa simple Python class ~ ,‘empCount 2, “dispayEmployee': , “doc "Common base clas fr all employees’ “int function _init_ at oxb7ea4sbe>) Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection) Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or lass instances) automaticaly to fre the memory space. The process by which Python periodically reclaims blocks of memory that no longer are in use is termed Garbage Collection. Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered when an object's reference count reaches zero. An objec’ reference count changes asthe numberof aliases that point to it changes. ‘An objec’ reference count increases when it is assigned a new name or placed in a container (st, tuple, or dictionary) The objects reference count decreases wien it's deleted with del, is reference is reassigned, or is reference goes out of scope. When an object's reference countreaches zero, Python collects it automatically 8= 40 # Greate object <40> =a # Increase ref. count of <40> c= [b] | # Increase ref. count of <40> dela # Decrease ref. count of <40> b= 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40> clO}=-1 # Decrease ref. count of <40> ‘You normally wll not notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned instance and reclaims its space. But a class can implement the special method __del_0, called a destructor, thats invoked when the instance is about tobe destroyed, This method might be used to clean ‘up any non memory resources used by an instance. Example ‘This_del_() destructor prints the class name ofan instance that is about tobe destroyed ~ ‘#usebinvpython lass Point: def _init_{( self, selfix selty=y def _del_ (sey class_name = self,_class_.__name_ prin class_name, “destroyed”pul = Poin’) p= ptt p= pe print tpt), (p23) # prints te ds ofthe obefers del pat del pra aelpa ‘When the above cade is executed, it produces following result ~ ‘302401324 3083401324 3082401224 Point destroyed [Note ~ Ideally, you should define your classes in separate file, then you should import ther in ‘your main program file using import statement Class Inheritance Instead of starting from seratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a preexisting class by listing the parent class in parentheses after the new class name. ‘The child class inherits the attributes ofits parent class, and you can use those atrbutes as if ‘they were defined in the child class A child class can also override data members and methods from the parent. Syntax Derived classes are declared much lke their parent class; however, alist of base classes to inherit from is given after the class name ~ ‘lass SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, Dy"Optional class documentation string’ class_suite ‘itusebnvpython class Parent: # define parent class parentAatr = 100, def _ init__(self): print "Calling parent constructor” def parent Method self) print Calling parent method! def setAtusel, at): Parent parentActr def getAtrself) print "Parent attribute", Parent parent ‘lass Child(Parent) # define child class def _init_{self): print "Calling child constructor” def childMethod{sel) print Calling child methodc= Child) #instance of child CcchildMethod() — # child calls its method cparentMethod() _# calls parents method {esetAtu(200)—_# again call parent's method getAur) —— #again call paren’s method ‘When the above code is executed, it produces the following resalt~ Calling child constructor Calling child method Calling parent method Parent aibute: 200 Similar way, you can drive a class from multiple parent classes as follows ~ class A: # define your class A class B: define your class B class C(A, BY: # subclass of A and B. ‘You can use issubclass() or isinstance( functions to check a relationships of two classes and instances. ‘The issubclass(sub, sup) boolean function returns tre Ifthe given subclass sub is indeed a subclass ofthe superclass sup.The isinsance(obj, Class) boolean function returns true if obj is an instance of class Class oF is an instance ofa subclass of Class Overriding Methods ‘You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for overriding parent's methods is because you may want special or different functionality in your subclas, Example ‘#husePbinvpython class Parent: # define paren class def myMethodsel: print Calling parent method! lass Child(Parent) # define child class def myMethodse) print Calling child method" = Child). #instance of child ‘cmyMethod) _ # child calls overridden method ‘When the above cade is executed, it produces the following result Calling child method Base Overloading MethodsFollowing table lists some generic functionality that you can override in your own classes ~ Sr.No, Method, Description & Sample Call 1 init__(self Largs.) Constructor (with any optional arguments) Sample Call: obj = className(args) 2 —del_(sel) Destructor, deletes an object Sample Call: del obj a —repr_(self) Evaluable string representation Sample Call: repr(obj) —stt_(self)Printable string representation Sample Call: su(ob)) 5 —emp_( self, x) ‘Object comparison Sample Call : emp(obj, x) Overloading Operators Suppose you have created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional vectors, what happens ‘when you use the plus operator to add them? Mos likely Python will yell at you. ‘You could, however, define the _add__ method in your class to perform vector addition and ‘then the plus operator would behave as per expectation ~ Example ‘/usebinvpython class Vector: def _ init__(self a,b sella=aself def _str_ (elf return "Vector (6d, 96d)’ % (self, selEb) def _adld_(selfother): return Vector(self.a + other.a, sel + other:b) vL=Vector(2,10) v2 = Vector(5-2) print vl + v2 ‘When the above code is executed, it produces the following resalt~ Vector(7.8) Data Hiding ‘An abject’ atwibutes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. You need to name attributes witha double underscore prefix, and those attributes then ate not be directly visible to outsiders. Example ‘/usebinvpython lass JustCounter: —secretCountdef coun(sef) self_seeretCount print slf,_secretCount ‘counter = JustCounter() ccounter-count() counter-count() print counter, secretCount ‘When the above code is executed, it produces the following result ~ 1 2 “Traceback (most recent call last) File “test.py", line 12, in print counter, seeretCount AtaibuteError:JustCounter instance has no atrbute"_secretCount’ Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include the class name. You ‘cam access such attributes as objec_className_attrName. If you would replace your last line as following, then it works for you ~ print counter. JustCounter__secretCount.CHAPTER 5 HOW TO WORK WITH XTERNAL FILES Why use Files? & python _— — Extomal Fle Read rom S22 | rescondary ‘ile (Load) afcrage) @ Al programs must deal with extemal data, They will either accep data from sources outside the text ofthe program, or they will produce some kind of output, oF they will do both. Think about it if the program produces no output, how do you know it did anything? By external data, we mean data ouside of volatile, high-speed, primary memory; we mean data ‘on peripheral devices. This may be persistent data on a disk, or transient data on a network Imerface. For now, it may mean transient data displayed on our termina.“Most operating systems provide simple, uniform access to external data via the abstraction called a file. We'll look a the operating system implementation, as well as the Python class that gives us access tothe operating system file in our programs. In File Objects - Our Connection To The File System, we provide definitions of how Python orks with files. We cover the built-in functions for working with files in The File and Open Functions. In Methods We Use on File Objects, we describe some method functions of file objects. We'll look at fil-processing statements in File Statements: Reading and Writing (but no Aithmetic), File Objects ~ Our Connection To The File System Abstractions Built on Top of Abstractions, Files do a huge numberof things for us. To support this broad spectrum of capabilities, there are two layers of abstraction involved: the OS and, Python. Unfortunately, both layers use the same words, so we have to be careful about casually misusing the word “file. ‘The operating system has devices of various kinds. Al ofthe various devices are unified using a n abstraction that we cll the file system. All of a computer's devices appear as OS files of one kind oF another, Some things which aren’t physial devices also appear a files, Files are the plumbing that move data around our information infrastructure. Additionally, Python defines file objects, These file objects are the fixtures that give our Python rogram access to OS fies. Python File and OS File How Files Work. When your program evaluates a method function of a Python file object, Python transforms this into an operation on the underlying OS file. An OS file operation becomes an operation on one of the various kinds of devices attached to our computer, Or, a OS file operation can become a network operation that reaches through the Internet to access data from remote computers. The two layers of abstraction mean that one Python program can do awide variety of things on a wide variety of devices. Python File Objects In Python, we create a file object to work with files inthe file system. In alton to files in the (0's filesystem, Python recognizes a spectrum of file-like objects, including abstractions for network interfaces called pipes and sockets and even some kind of in-memory buffers. Unlike sequences, sets and mappings, there are no Python literals fr file objects. Lacking literals, we create a file object using the file() or open) factory function. We provide two pieces of information o this function. We can provide a third, optional, piece of information that may Limprove the performance of our program. ‘The name of the file, The operating system will interpret this name using its “working directory" rules. Ifthe name starts with / (or device) it’s an absolute name. Otherwise, i’ a relative name; the current working directory plus this name Identifies the fle, Python can translate standard paths ( having to really understand the differences. We can name all of our files using /, and avoid the messy details 1) to Windows-specific paths. This saves us from {we want, use raw strings to specify Windows path names using the \ character The access mode fo the file. This is some combination of read, write and append. The mode can also include instructions for interpreting the bytes as characters. Optionally, we can include the buffering forthe file. Generally, we omit this. Ifthe buffering argument is given, 0 means each byte is transferred as itis read or writen. A value of 1 means the data is buffered a line at atime, suitable for reading from a console, or writing to an error log. Larger numbers specify the buffer size: numbers over 4,096 may speed up your program.‘Once we create the file object, we can do operations to read characters from the fle or write ‘characters tothe file, We can read individual characters or whole lines. Similarly, we can write Individual characters of whole lines. ‘When Python reads file a ase q wence of lines, each line wll become a separate string, The wn" ‘characteris preserved at the end ofthe string, This extra character can be removed from the ‘sting using the rstrip) method function. A file object (like a sequence) can create an iterator which will yield the individual lines ofthe file. You can, consequently, use the file object ina for statement. This makes reading text files very simple ‘When the work is finished, we also need to use the file's close() method. This empties the in- ‘memory buffers and releases the connection with the operating system file. Inthe case of a socket connection, this will release all ofthe resources used to assure that data travels through the Internet sucessfully ‘The File and Open Functions Here’s the formal definition of the fileQ and openg) factory functions. These functions create Python file objects and connect them tothe appropriate operating system resources. ‘opencfilename, model, buffering) ~ file ‘The filename isthe name of the ile. This is simply given tothe operating system. The OS ‘expects either absolute or relative paths; the operating system folds inthe current working, itectory to relative paths. “The mode is covered in detail below. In can be 'w’ ors for reading (default), writing oF appending, Ifthe file doesn’t exist when opened for writing or appending, it will be created. If 2 file existed when opened for writing, it will be truncated and overwriten. Add a tothe modeforbinary files. Add ato the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing, If the buffering argument is given, 0 means unbuffered, 1 means lin buffered, and larger numbers specify the buffer size. filefitename, model, buffering) ~ file ‘This is another name for the open() function. It parallels other factory functions like int() and diag, Python expects the POSIX standard punctuation of /to separate elements of the filename path for all operating systems. f necessary, Python will translate these standard name stings to the Windows punctuation of \. Using standardized punctuation makes your program portable ta all ‘operating systems, The os.path module has functions for creating valid names in a way that, works on all operating systems. ‘Tip Constructing File Names ‘When using Windows-specifie punctuation for filenames, you'll have problems because Python lnerprets the \as an escape character. To create a string with a Windows filename, you'll either need to use \ in the string, or use an r"™ string literal. For example, you can use any of the following: E:writing\echnical\pythonbook’ python. tml” oF “EA\writing\technical\pythonbook’\python hum”. [Note that you can often use "E:/wrting/technical/pythonbook/python.huml". This uses the POSIX standard punctuation for files pats, J, and isthe most portable. Python generally translates standard file names to Windows file names for you. Generally, you should either use standard names (using ) or us the s.path module to construct filenames. This module eliminates the need to use any specific punctuation, The os.pathjoin() function makes properly punctuated filenames from se q uences of strings‘The Mode String. The mode string specifies how the OS file will be accessed by your program. ‘There are four separate issues addressed by the mode string: opening, bytes, newlines and ‘operations, ‘Opening. For the opening part of the mode string, there ae three alternatives: +: Open for reading, Start at the beginning ofthe OS file. Ifthe OS file does not exist, raise an OError exception. This isthe default. ‘ws Open for writing. Start at he beginning of the OS file, Ifthe OS file does not exist, create the OS file 4: Open for appending, Star atthe end ofthe OS file. Ifthe OS file does not exist, create the OS file Bytes or Characters. For the byte handling part of the mode sting, there are two alternatives: ’: The OS file isa se q uence of bytes; do not interpret the fle as a sequence of characters. This Is sultable for sv files as well as images, movies, sound samples, etc. ‘The default, if bis not included, is to interpret the file isa sequence of ordinary characters. The Python file object will be an iterator that yields each individual lin from the OS file asa ‘separate string. Translations from various encoding schemes like UTF-8 and UTF-16 will be handled automatically. Universal Newlines, The newline part ofthe mode string has two alternatives: U: Universal newline interpretation. The firs instance of, \n (or) will define the newline character(s). Any ofthese three newline se q uences will be silently translated to the standard ‘wn’ ‘character, The vin is a Windows Feature. ‘The default, if U isnot included, is o only handle this operating system's standard newline character(s).Mixed Operations. For the additional operations part ofthe mode string, there are two altematives: +: Allow both read and write operations to the OS file ‘The default, if + is not include, i to allow only limited operations: only reads for files opened ‘with "7"; only writes for OS files pened with “w" or “a” ‘Typical combinations include the following "to read text files “0” to read binary files. A .csv file, for example, is often processed in binary mode. ‘w+ to create new text file for reading and writing. ‘The following examples create Python file objects for further processing dataSource= open( "name_addr.csv", "tb" ) nnewPage= open("addressbook htm theErrors= open(“iustlocaliog/eror log" dataSource: ‘This example opens the existing file name_adde.csv in the current working directory for reading. ‘The variable dataSource identifies this fi from this fi ‘object, and we can use this vaiable for reading stings ‘This file is opened in binary mode. newPage: ‘This example creates a new file addressbook hun (ort will truncate this file if it exists), The fle ‘wil be inthe current working directory The variable newPage identifies te file object, We can then use this variable to write strings to the filetheErrors ‘This example appends to the file ertorJog (or creates a new file, i he fle doesn’t exis), The fle hhas the directory path /us/local/lo. Since this isan absolute name, it doesn’t depend on the ‘current working directory. Buffering files is typically left as a default, specifying nothing, However, for some situations, adjusting the buffering can improve performance. Error logs, for instance, are often unbuffered, so the data is available immediately. Large input files may be opened with large buffer numbers { encourage the operating system to optimize input operations by reading a few large chunks of data from the device instead of a large number of smaller chunks. ‘Tip Debugging Files “There are a number of things that can go wrong in attempting to create a file object. Ifthe file name is invalid, you will get operating system errors. Usually they will look like this: “Traceback (most recent call last File "", lie 1, in TOEmor: [Ero 2] No such file or directory: 'wakawakat tis very important to get the file's path completely correct. You'l notice that each time you start IDLE, thinks the current working directory is something like C\Python26, You're probably doing your work ina different default directory. ‘When you open a module file in IDLE, you'll notice that IDLE changes the current working, lrectory isthe directory that contains your module. If you have your py files and your data files all in one directory, you'l find that chings work out wel‘The next most common error is to have the wrong permissions. This usually means trying to writing toa file you don't own, or attempting to create a file ina directory where you don’t have \wrte permission. If you are using a server, oF a computer owned by a corporation, this may require some work with your system administrators to sort out what you want to do and how ‘you can accomplish it without compromising security ‘The [Errno 2] note inthe error message isa reference to the intemal operating system error numbers. There are over 100 ofthese error numbers, all collected ino the module named ero, ‘There area lot of different things that can go wrong, many of which are very, very obscure situations. Methods We Use on File Objects ‘The Python file object is our view of the underlying operating system file. The OS fie, in tum, ives us access toa specific device. ‘The Python file object has a number of operations that transform the file object, read from or write to the OS file, or access information about the file objec. Reading. The following read methods get data from the OS file. These operations may also ‘change the Python ile object’s internal status and buffers. For example, at end-o-file, the imernal status ofthe file object wll be changed. Most importantly, these methods have the very visible effect of consuming data from the OS file, fileread(size) string Read as many as size characters from file {asa single large string. If size is negative or omitted, ‘the rest ofthe file is read into a single string from _future__ import print function dataSource= open “name_add.csv","t")form in theData splitines( rina) daaSource.closeQ, fileeadline(size) ~ string Read the next line or as many as size characters from fie f an incomplete line can be read. If size is negative or omitted, the next complete line is read. IF a complete line is read, it includes ‘the railing newline character. If che file is atthe end, f. readline() returns a zero length sting. If ‘the file has a blank line this will be a string of length 1, just the newline character. from _future_ import print function dataSource= file “name_addr.cs ey n= dataSourcerreadline() ‘while len(ny > 0: print(nrstip() n= dataSource.realineQ) dataSource.closeQ) filexeadlines(hint) Read the next lines or as many lines from the next hint characters from fief. The hint size may ’be rounded up to match an ieenal butfer size I hint is negative oF omitted, the rest ofthe file is read. All lines will include the trailing newline character. Ifthe file fs at the end, freadlines() returns a zero length list When we simply reference a file object in a for statement, this s the function that's sed for iteration over the file, dataSouree= file “name_addt.es for in dataSource:print(nsstip() dataSource.closeQ, ‘Writing, The following methods send data tothe OS file, These operations may also change the Python file object's internal status and buffers. Mast importantly, these methods have the very visible effect of producing data tothe OS file file flash) Flush all accumulated data from the internal buffers of file tothe device or interface, Ifa file is buffered, this can help to force writing ofa buffer that i less than completely full. This is appropriate for log files, prompts written to sysstdout and error messages. file.sruncate(size) “Truncate file f If size isnot given the ile is truncated atthe current position. If size is given the file willbe truncated ator before size, This function is not available on all platforms. ‘ie. writestring) ‘Write the given string o file. Buffering may mean that the string does not appear on a console Lunt a closeQ or fush() operation is used. newPage= file "adessbook hum, "w" ) newPage.write("\nchead>Hello World\ncbody>\n" ) newPageswrite"

Hello World

in" ) newPage write "\nin") newPage-close() file swritlinestist) ‘Write the list of strings to file Buffering may mean tha the strings do not appear on any console until a close() or flush() operation is usednewPage= file “adessbook hum", "w") newPage.wrteine( ["cm>\n*, “chead>Hello Worl title>n", “” 1) new Pageseritelines( ["

Hello World

a’ }) newPageswrtelines, {*\n", "tum" J) newPage close) [Accessor The following file accessors provide information about the file object filesell) + integer Return the position from which file willbe processed. This is a parner tothe seek() method; any position returned by the el’) method can be used as an argument to the sek() method to restore the file to that position, fileilenoQ) ~ integer Return the interna ile descriptor (fd) number used by the OS library when working with fief A number of modules provide access to these low-level libraries for advanced operations on devices and files filesattyQ) + boolean Return True if file fis connected to an OS file that is a console or keyboard. file closed) ~ boolean “This attribute of fle fis True if the file is closed. file.mode() ~ sting This attribute isthe mode argument the file) function that was used to create the file objec filename‘This attribute of fle fi the filename argument co the fle( function that was used to create the file objec. ‘Transfomers. The following file transforms change the file object itself. This includes closing it {and releasing all OS resources) or change the position at which reading or writing happens. file.close() Close file. The closed flag is set. Any further operations (except a redundant close) raise an lOEmor exception, file seek(offsett, whencel) ‘Change the position from which file f will be processed, There are three values for whence which determine the direction of the move. If whence is 0 (the default, move 1 the absolute position given by offset. f.seek(0) will rewind fief If whence is 1, move relative tothe current position by offset bytes. If offset is negative, move backwards; otherwise move forward. I whence is 2, move relative tothe end of file. £eek{0,2) will advance file fo the end. File Statements: Reading and Writing (but no Arithmetic) A file object like a se q uence) can create an iterator which will yield the individual lines of the file, We looked at how se q uences work with the for statement in Looping Back: Iterator, the forsatement and Generators. Here, we'll use the file object ina for statement to read al of the lines.Additionally, the prin statement can make use ofa file other than standard output as destination forthe printed characters. This will change with Python 3.0, so we won't emphasize this, ‘Opening and Reading From a Fie. Let's say we have the following fle. f you use an email service like HotMall, Yahoo! or Google, you can download an address book in Comma- Separated Values (CSV ) format that will look similar to this file. Yahoo!'s format wll have many more columns than this example. name_adacsv loe","[email protected] Howard’,"Curly","[email protected]’, actor” arry’,[email protected]’,"musician" ‘Jerome’, "Besser" Joe", stor” joe@ 3stooges.com*, "Joe", DeRita,"CurlyJoe,"[email protected]’,"actor* "Shemp’,""/"Howard?,"Shemp”, "[email protected]", ‘actor Here's a quick example that shows one way to read this file using the file's iterator. This isn't the ‘best way, that will have to wait for The csv Module, 1 2 3 4 dataSoutce = fle “name_addrcsv foraddr in datSource: rint(addr)daaSource.closeQ) ‘We create a Python file object forthe name_ad-esv inthe current working directory in read mode. We call this object dataSource. “The for statement creates an iterator for ths file; the iterator will yield each individual line from, the file. ‘We cam print each line. ‘We close the file when we're done. This releases any operating system resources that our rogram ted up while it was running. [A More Complete Reader. Here's. a program that reads ths file and reformat the individual records, I prints the results to standard output. This approach to reading CSV files isn’t very ‘800d. Inthe next chapter, we'll look atthe csv module that handles some of the addtional details, re quired for a really reliable program. nameaddrpy 10 ‘#usr@biaveny python. "Read the name_addr.csv file." dataSource = file *name_add.csvfor addr in dataSource: 4 split the string onthe from each field stip the fields=[f ip") for Fn quotes} in Fields), fet, ieldt2), elds) ‘dataSource.close() We open the file name_addrcsv in our current working directory. The variable dataSource is our Python file object “The for statement gets an iterator from the ile t can then use the iterator, which yields the Individual ines ofthe fle. Each line isa Tong sting. The fields are surounded by "sand are separated by We use the split) function to break the string up using the. This particular process won't work if there ares inside te quoted fields, We'll look a the csv module to see how todo this beter. We use the spt function o remove the "s fom each field. Notice that we used a ist, ‘comprehension to map from alist of field wrapped insta ist of fields that are not wrapped in Seeing Ourpu with pint. The print) function does two things. When we introduced prin) back in Seving Results: The print Statement, we hustled past both ofthese things because they were realy «ite advanced concepts. We covered string chapter. Now we can open up the hood and look closely tthe print() function, ‘Seq wences of Characters: strand Unicode. We're covering files inthis ‘The print function evaluates all of its expressions and converts them to stings. In effect, it calls the st) built-in function for each argument value “The print) function writes these strings, separated by a separator character, sep. The default separator isa space," ‘The print function also writes an end character, end. The default end isthe newline character,ow ‘The print) function has one more feature which can be very helpful to us. We can provide a file parameter to redirect the output to a particular file. We can use this to write lines to sys.stders 1 2 3 4 5 from _future__import print Import sys priny(*normal ourpue rin’Rea Aer”, ile=sysstder) print normal ouput, le=sysstdout) ‘We enable the prin function ‘We impor the sys module. ‘We write a message to standard output using the undecorted print statement ‘We use the file parameter to write to syste. ‘We also use the:vomame:ile parameter to write sysstdout ‘When you run this in IDLE, you'll notice thatthe error messages display in red, while the standard output displays in blue. Print Command. Here isthe syntax for an extension tothe print statementprint >> file, expression ,..} ‘The >> isan essential part ofthis peculiar syntax. This is an odd special case punctuation that doesn’t appear elsewhere in the Python language. It's called the “chevron print”. Important Python 3 “This chevron print syntax will go away in Python 3, Instead of a print statement with a bunch of special cases, we'll use the print() function ‘Opening A File and Printing. This example shows how we open a file inthe local directory and ‘write data to that file, In this example, we'll create an HTML file named addressbook him ‘We'll write some content to this file. We can then open this file with FireFox or Intemet Explorer and se the resulting web page. adapage py u ‘#iuseibinveny python‘Write the addressbook hum! page.” from _future__import print function nnew_page = open( “addressbook.huml prin, new_page) prin’ ’ “meta hup-e ¢ viv="content-type” content="texUhiml charset=us-asci>" “atitle>addressbook-title>, fil new. page) ring’

Hello worl, ile-new_ page ) rin "w_page) new page.close() Basic File Exercises Device Structures. Som disk devices are organized into cylinders and tracks instead of blocks. A disk may have @ ‘number of parallel platters; a cylinder isthe stack of tracks across the platters available without moving the read-write head. A track isthe data on one circular section ofa single disk patter ‘What advantages does this have? What (if any) complexity could this lea 10? How does an application program specify the tracks and sectors to be used? Some disk devices are described asa simple se q uence of block, inno particular order. Each block has a unique numeric identifier. What advantages could this have? Some disk devices can be partitioned, What (if any) relevance does this have to file processing? Skip The Header Record ‘Our name addres file has a header record, We can skip this record by geting the iterator and advancing to the nex item.‘Write a variation on nameaddr.py which uses the iter to get the iterator forthe dataSource file, Assign this iterator object to dataSrcter. If you replace the file, dataSource, with the iterator, dataSrcter, how does the processing change? What i the value retuned by dataSrclter.next() ‘before the for statement? How does adding this change the processing of te for statement? ‘Combine The Two Examples. (Our ewo examples, adrpage py and name_add.py are really two halves of a single program. ‘One program reads the names and address, the other program writes an HTML file. We can ‘combine these two programs to reformat a CSV source file into a resulting HTML page. ‘The name and adresses could be formatted in a web page that looks like the following: Address Bookcitile>

lastnames/d> <> Each of our input fields becomes an output field sandwiched in between . In this ‘case, we uses phrases like last name, first name and email address to show where real data would ‘be inserted, The other HTML elements like

fist names/td>	emsil adessStr> -lastname<>fist name	emal adress <>
last name	fist name	emall address
and

have tobe printed as they're shown in this‘Your final program should open two files: name_add.csv and addressbook:html. Your program should write the intial HTML material (up co the first ) tothe output file. It should then ead the CSV records, writing a complete address line between to . After it finishes reading nd writing names and addresses, it has to write the lst of the HTML file, from to .CHAPTER 6 DISCOVER VARIABLES, STRINGS, INTEGERS, AND MORE TO DESIGN CONVERSATIONAL PROGRAMS Before we tat to write the program, we need to generate a token for our bot. The oken is needed to access the Telegram API, and install the necessary dependencies. 1, Create a new bot in BotFather If you want to make a bot in Telegram, you have to “register” your bot frst before using it. ‘When we “register” our bot, we will et the token to access the Telegram API. Go tothe BotFather (if you open it in desktop, make sure you have the Telegram app) den create new bot by sending the /newbot command. Follow the steps unl you get the username ad token for your bot. You can go to your bot by accessing this URL: Iatpsuitelegram.me/YOUR_BOT_USERNAME and your token should looks like thisTOAABO3I:AAEICZ**eereneees 2. Install the library Since weare going to use a library for this tutorial, instal it using this command, pip3 install python-telegram-bot If the library is successfully installed then we are good to go. ‘Write the program Let's make our firs bot. This bot should return a dog image when we send the bop command. ‘To be able to do this, we can use the public API from RandomDog to help us generate random dog images. “The workflow of our bot is as simple as this access the API-> get the image URL -> send the image 1 Import the libraries First, import all the Mbraries we need. from telegram ext import Updater, CommandHandler impor req uests import re 2. Access the APL and ge the image URL. Let's create a function to get the URL. Using there quests library, we can access the APL and ‘get the jon data ‘contents = req uestsget(htps:/irandom.dog/woot json’) json() ‘You can check the json data by accessing that URL: htps:/random.dog/woof,json in yourbrowser. You will see something ike this on your screen: ‘(ur”s"hups:trandom.dog/***** JPG") Get the image URL since we need that parameter 1 be able to send the Image. image_l = contents ur) ‘Wrap this code into a function called get_uel def get_urld: contents = req uests. gets: random. dog/woot json) json) vl = contents[ut) recurn url 3, Send the image ‘To send a messagefimage we need two parameters, the image URL and the recipient's ID—his ‘can be group ID oF user ID. ‘We can get the image URL. by calling our get_url0 function, url= get_url Got the recipient's ID using this code: chat id = update,messagechat_id [After we get the image URL. and the recipient's ID, it’s time to send the message, which is an Image. bot.send_photo(chat_id=chat_ photo=url)‘Wrap that code in a function called bop , and make sure your code looks lke this def bop(bot, update): vu = get_urlo chat_id = update:messagechat_id bot send_photo(chat_id=chat_d, photo=url) 4, Main program Lastly, create another function called main to run our program. Don't forget to change YOUR_TOKEN with the token that we generated earlier in this tutorial. def main: ‘updater = Updater(' YOUR TOKEN) dp = updater dispatcher