2182580 Optoelectronics

Wave Nature of Light

(II)

Lecturer: Charusluk Viphavakit, PhD

ISE, Chulalongkorn University, 2nd/2018

Email: [email protected]
Website: https://charuslukv.wordpress.com
 Snell’s law
 The waves 𝐴𝑡 and 𝐵𝑡 have different velocities
than 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐵𝑖 .
𝐴𝑡
Refracted light 𝝀𝑡 𝒌𝑡
 If it takes time 𝑡 for the phase at 𝐵 to reach 𝐵′
(Transmitted light) 𝐵𝑡 and the phase 𝐴 has progressed to 𝐴′ .
𝑦 𝐴′ 𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑡
𝐵𝐵′ = 𝑣1 𝑡 = and 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑣2 𝑡 =
𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝑡 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑧 𝐴 𝐵′
𝑛1 > 𝑛2
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟 𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟  From geometrical considerations;
𝐴′′ 𝐵
𝝀
𝒌𝑖
𝝀 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐴𝐴′
𝐴𝐵′ = and 𝐴𝐵′ =
sin 𝜃𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑡
𝒌𝑟
𝐴𝑖 𝐵𝑟
𝑣1 𝑡 𝑣2 𝑡
Incident light 𝐵𝑖 𝐴𝑟 Reflected light 𝐴𝐵′ = =
sin 𝜃𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑡
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 Snell’s law 𝐴𝐵′ =
𝑣1 𝑡
=
𝑣2 𝑡
sin 𝜃𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑡
 Snell’s law;
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
= =
sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑣2 𝑛1
Refracted light
𝑦
(Transmitted light)
𝑧 𝐴
𝜃𝑡 𝑛2  When the refraction angle 𝜃𝑡 reaches 90°, the
𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑐
𝑛1 > 𝑛2 incidence angle is called the critical angle, 𝜃𝑐 ,
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
Incident light Reflected light

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 Snell’s law 𝐴𝐵′ =
𝑣1 𝑡
=
𝑣2 𝑡
sin 𝜃𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑡
 Snell’s law;
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
= =
sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑣2 𝑛1
𝑦

𝑧 𝐴
𝑛2  When the refraction angle 𝜃𝑡 reaches 90°, the
𝑛1 > 𝑛2 incidence angle is called the critical angle, 𝜃𝑐 ,
𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
Incident light Reflected light 𝑛1
 When the incidence angle 𝜃𝑖 exceeds 𝜃𝑐 then
Total internal reflection there is no transmitted wave but only a
reflected wave.
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Fresnel’s equation
 To obtain the magnitude of the reflected and refracted waves, electric field in
the light wave must be considered.

𝑧 Direction

Incident plane
 The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the incident
and the reflected rays.

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Fresnel’s equations
The plane of incidence corresponds to the plane of the paper.

𝑦
Transmitted
𝐸𝑡,∥ wave Evanescent
𝑦
𝒌𝑡 wave
𝜃𝑡 𝑛2
𝑧 𝐸𝑖,∥ 𝐸𝑡,⊥ 𝐸𝑖,∥
𝒌𝑖 𝐸𝑟,⊥ 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟 𝐸𝑟,⊥ 𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟
𝒌𝑖
𝒌𝑟
𝒌𝑟 𝐸𝑖,⊥
𝐸𝑖,⊥ 𝐸 𝐸𝑟,∥
𝑟,∥
Incident Incident Reflected
Reflected
wave wave wave
wave
𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐

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 Fresnel’s equations
 The amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves can be obtained in terms of
𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , and the incidence angle 𝜃𝑖 from the Fresnel’s equations.

 The reflection and transmission coefficients for 𝐸⊥ are;

𝐸𝑟0,⊥ cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2

𝑟⊥ = =
𝐸𝑖0,⊥ cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2

𝐸𝑡0,⊥ 2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑡⊥ = =
𝐸𝑡0,⊥ cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2

𝑛2
where the relative refractive index 𝑛 =
𝑛1

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 Fresnel’s equations
 The reflection and transmission coefficients for 𝐸∥ are;

𝐸𝑟0,∥ 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2

− 𝑛2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑟∥ = = 2
𝐸𝑖0,∥ 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2 + 𝑛2 cos 𝜃
𝑖

𝐸𝑡0,∥ 2𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝑡∥ = = 2
𝐸𝑡0,∥ 𝑛 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑛2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖 1/2

 The coefficients are all related by;

𝑟⊥ + 1 = 𝑡⊥ 𝑟∥ + 𝑛𝑡∥ = 1
𝑛2
where the relative refractive index 𝑛 =
𝑛1
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 Fresnel’s equations
 For normal incidence: 𝜃𝑖 = 0

𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑟 = 𝑟∥ = 𝑟⊥ =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2

2𝑛1
𝑡 = 𝑡∥ = 𝑡⊥ =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2

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 Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
 It is necessary to calculate the intensity or irradiance of the reflected and transmitted waves.

 For a light wave traveling with a velocity 𝑣 in a medium with relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟 ,
the light intensity 𝐼 is defined in terms of the electric field amplitude 𝐸.

1
𝐼 = 𝑣𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 2
2
𝐼≈ 𝐸 2

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 Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
 Reflectance 𝑅 measures the intensity of the reflected light with respect to that of
the incident light.
2
𝑅= 𝑟

• the reflection coefficients can be complex numbers that can represent phase changes,
reflectance is necessarily real numbers representing intensity changes.

• For normal incidence: 𝜃𝑖 = 0

2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑅=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
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 Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
 Transmittance 𝑇 relates the intensity of the transmitted wave to that of the incident
wave.
𝑛2 cos 𝜃𝑡 2
𝑇= 𝑡
𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑖

• The transmitted wave is in a different medium and also that its direction with respect
to the boundary is different from that of the incident wave by virtue of refraction.
• For normal incidence: 𝜃𝑖 = 0

𝑛2 2
4𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑇= 𝑡 = 2
𝑛1 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

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 Intensity, Reflectance and Transmittance
 The fraction of light reflected and fraction transmitted must add to unity.

𝑅+𝑇 =1

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
 Fresnel equations are routinely used in a number of applications in optoelectronics to
design and fabricate optical coatings, that is, thin films, to reduce reflections and glare.

 When light is incident on the surface of a semiconductor, it becomes partially reflected.

 Partial reflection is an important consideration in several optoelectronics devices such

as solar cells and photodiodes where transmitted light energy into the semiconductor
device is converted to electrical energy.

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1 and 𝑛𝑆𝑖 = 3.5 at wavelength around 600-800 nm
 The reflectance is

 This means that 30% of the light is reflected and is not available for conversion to
electrical energy.

 A considerable reduction in the efficiency of the solar cell.

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
 The surface of the semiconductor device can be coated with a thin layer of a
dielectric material, such as an a-𝑆𝑖1−𝑥 𝑁𝑥 : 𝐻 (amorphous hydrogenated silicon
nitride based on silicon nitride), 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 .
𝑑
Incident light 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3
1
 The thickness 𝑑 and the refractive index
𝐴 𝑛2 of the antireflection coefficient are
𝐵
𝐶 such that the waves 𝐴 and 𝐵 have a
phase difference of 𝜋 and hence interfere
𝐷
destructively. There is no reflection.
Surface
Antireflection Semiconductor or
coating photovoltaic device

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
 The surface of the semiconductor device can be coated with a thin layer of a
dielectric material, such as an a-𝑆𝑖1−𝑥 𝑁𝑥 : 𝐻 (amorphous hydrogenated silicon
nitride based on silicon nitride), 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 .
𝑑  𝑛1 (𝑎𝑖𝑟) = 1,
Incident light 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 𝑛2 (𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 1.9
1
𝑛3 (𝑆𝑖) = 3.5
𝐴
𝐵
𝐶 • A is external reflected wave with 180°
𝐷
phase change
Surface • B is coating/semiconductor reflected
Antireflection Semiconductor or wave with 180° phase change as 𝑛3 > 𝑛2 .
coating photovoltaic device

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
𝑑
Incident light 𝑛 • When wave 𝐵 reaches 𝐴, it has suffered
1 𝑛2 𝑛3
a total delay corresponding to traversing
𝐴 the thickness d of the coating twice.
𝐵
𝐶
• The phase difference is 𝜙 = 𝑘𝑥
𝐷
Surface 𝜙 = 𝑘𝑐 (2𝑑)
Antireflection Semiconductor or
coating photovoltaic device where 𝑘𝑐 = 2𝜋/𝜆𝑐 is the propagation
constant in the coating
• The phase difference ∆𝜙 between 𝐴 and 𝐵; and 𝜆𝑐 = 𝜆/𝑛2 is the propagation constant
in the coating in which 𝜆 is the free-space
∆𝜙 = 2𝜋𝑛2 /𝜆(2𝑑) wavelength.

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
𝑑
Incident light 𝑛 • To reduce the reflected light, 𝐴 and 𝐵
1 𝑛2 𝑛3
must interfere destructively and this
𝐴 requires the phase difference to be 𝜋 or
𝐵
𝐶 odd-multiples of 𝜋, 𝑚𝜋 in which 𝑚 =
𝐷
1, 3, 5, … is an odd integer.
Surface
Antireflection Semiconductor or 2𝜋𝑛2
2𝑑 = 𝑚𝜋
coating photovoltaic device 𝜆

• The thickness of the coating must be odd 𝜆

multiples of the quarter wavelength in the 𝑑=𝑚
4𝑛2
coating and depends on the wavelength.

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 Antireflection (AR) coatings
𝑑
Incident light 𝑛 • The minimum reflectance obtainable
1 𝑛2 𝑛3
from such a coating is calculated from
𝐴 multiple reflections 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷.
𝐵
𝐶
2
𝐷 𝑛22 − 𝑛1 𝑛3
Surface 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑛22 + 𝑛1 𝑛3
Antireflection Semiconductor or
coating photovoltaic device
The best choice is for 𝑛2 = (𝑛1 𝑛3 )1/2 .

• Note that 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 is only minimum at one wavelength.

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 Diffraction principle
 A collimated light beam passing through a circular aperture
 The passing beam is found to be divergent and to exhibit an intensity pattern
that has bright and dark rings, called Airy rings.
 The passing beam is said to be diffracted and its light intensity pattern is called
a diffraction pattern.
Airy rings

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 Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffractions
 Diffraction phenomena are generally classified into two categories.

 Fraunhofer diffraction:
 The incident light beam is a plane wave and the observation or detection of
the light intensity pattern is done far away from the aperture.
 Inserting a lens between the aperture and the photographic screen enables
the screen to be closer to the aperture.

 Fresnel diffraction:
 The incident light beam and the received light waves are not plane waves
but have significant wavefront curvatures. Typically, the light source and the
screen are both close to the aperture so that the wavefronts are curved.

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 Fresnel diffraction
 Huygen’s principle

 Knowing the wave front of the light at a certain location, the new wavefront
can be reconstructed old wave front by combining point sources located on the
previous wave front.

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 Fraunhofer propagation: Plane wave
 A uniform plane wave is normally incident on an aperture of width 𝐷.
𝑥′ 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥′)
𝐷/2
𝑧
−𝐷/2
𝑧

Source plane Observation plane

 The Fraunhofer diffraction at a distance 𝑧 can be written as 𝑔 𝜈 ≈ 𝐹. 𝑇 𝑓 (𝑥′)

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Fraunhofer propagation
 Frauhofer diffraction patterns from different apertures.

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Fresnel and Fraunhofer propagation
𝑎2 where 𝑎 is aperture size, 𝜆 is wavelength
 Fresnel number (𝐹); 𝐹=
𝜆𝑧 and 𝑧 is distance from aperture.
Characteristics Fresnel propagation Fraunhofer propagation
Other name Near field Far field
Observation plane Finite distance from an object Infinite observation distance
Fresnel number (𝐹) 𝐹≫1 𝐹≪1
Wave fronts Cylindrical wave fronts Planar wave fronts
Surface of calculation on spherical surfaces on flat surfaces
Shape and intensity of diffraction
pattern change as the waves Shape and intensity remain
Diffraction pattern
propagate downstream of the constant
scattering source
Move along the corresponding
Movement of diffraction pattern Remains in a fixed position
shift in the object
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 Rayleigh criterion
 Consider what happens when two neighboring point light sources are examined
through an imaging system with an aperture of diameter 𝑑.

 The two sources have an angular separation of ∆𝜃 at the aperture.

 As the points get closer, their angular separation becomes narrower and
the diffraction patterns overlap more.

𝑆1
∆𝜃
𝑆2

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Rayleigh criterion
 According to the Rayleigh criterion, the two spots are just resolvable when
the principal maximum of one diffraction pattern coincides with the
minimum of the other, which is given by

1.22𝜆
sin ∆𝜃 =
𝑛𝑑

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 Diffraction grating
 A diffraction grating in its simplest form is an optical device that has a periodic
series of slits in an opaque screen.

One possible
𝑦 diffracted beam  Diffraction grating with 𝑁 slits in an opaque
screen. Slit periodicity is 𝑑 and slit width is 𝑎;
𝑎 𝑎 ≪ 𝑑.
Incident
light wave  An incident beam of light is diffracted in certain
well defined directions that depend on the
wavelength and the grating properties.
𝑑 𝜃 𝑧

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 Diffraction grating Intensity pattern in the diffracted
beam for a finite number of slits.
One possible 𝑦
Single slit
𝑦 diffracted beam
diffraction
envelop
𝑎
Incident
light wave

𝑑 𝜃 𝑧
𝑑 sin 𝜃
Intensity
Strong beams of diffracted light” along certain directions (𝜃)
are labeled according to their occurrence: zero-order (center),
first-order and so on.
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 Diffraction grating
 Waves emanating at an angle 𝜃 from two neighboring slits are out of phase by
an amount that corresponds to an optical path difference 𝑑 sin 𝜃.
One possible  All such waves from pairs of slits will interfere
𝑦 diffracted beam
constructively when this is a multiple of the
whole wavelength.
𝑎
Incident
light wave 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, … defines the diffraction order.

𝑑 𝜃 𝑧
𝑑 sin 𝜃 “Grating equation” or “Bragg diffraction condition”

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 Diffraction grating
 If the incident beam is not normal to the diffraction grating, then the diffraction
angle 𝜃𝑚 for the 𝑚-th mode is given by

𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚 − sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

where 𝜃𝑖 is an incident angle.

Incident
light wave
Transmission grating
𝜃𝑚
𝜃𝑖

Incident
Reflected grating
light wave
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 Absorption of light and complex refractive index
 When light propagates through a material it becomes attenuated in the direction
of propagation.
𝐸  The attenuation coefficient 𝛼 is defined
as the fractional decrease in the
𝒌 irradiance 𝐼 of a wave per unit distance
along the direction of propagation 𝑧.
𝑧 𝑑𝐼
𝛼=−
𝐼𝑑𝑧
 If the attenuation of the wave is due to
absorption only, then 𝛼 is the absorption
Attenuation of a traveling wave in a medium
coefficient.
results in the decay of its amplitude.
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 Absorption of light and complex refractive index
 Suppose that 𝑘0 is the propagation constant in vacuum. This is a real quantity as a
plane wave suffers no loss in free space.
 The complex refractive index, 𝑛, ෤ with a real part, 𝑛, and imaginary part, 𝜅, is
defined as the ratio of the complex propagation constant in a medium to
propagation constant in free space.
𝑘 1 ′
𝑛෤ = 𝑛 − 𝑖𝜅 = = 𝑘 − 𝑖𝑘′′  In the absence of attenuation,
𝑘0 𝑘0
𝑘 ′′ = 0 𝑘 = 𝑘′
𝑘′ 𝑘′′ and
𝑛= and 𝜅=
𝑘0 𝑘0
𝑛෤ = 𝑛
Refractive index Extinction coefficient
(Real part) (Imaginary part)
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 Absorption of light and complex refractive index
 In the absence of loss, the relationship between the refractive index 𝑛 and the
relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟 is
1/2
𝑛 = 𝜀𝑟

 In the presence of loss, the relationship between the complex refractive index 𝑛෤
and the relative permittivity 𝜀𝑟 is

𝑛෤ = 𝑛 − 𝑖𝜅 = 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟′ − 𝑖𝜀𝑟′′

𝑛2 − 𝜅 2 = 𝜀𝑟′ 2𝑛𝜅 = 𝜀𝑟′′

(Real part) (Imaginary part)

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 Absorption of light and complex refractive index
 The reflection coefficient that we derived before were based in using a real
refractive index, that is neglecting losses.

 The reflection coefficient for the complex refractive index, 𝑛,

෤ is;

1 − 𝑛 + 𝑖𝜅
𝑟=
1 + 𝑛 − 𝑖𝜅

 The reflectance is then;

2 2
𝑛 − 𝑖𝜅 − 1 𝑛−1 + 𝜅2
𝑅= = 2 + 𝜅2
𝑛 − 𝑖𝜅 + 1 𝑛+1

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