REVIEWING LEXICAL CATEGORIES

(ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB)

Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Adjectives
- are words used to describe a noun or pronoun or to give a noun or pronoun a more
specific meaning
-allow people to describe in more details the nouns and pronouns they use.
-provides information that answers any of the following questions about the noun or
pronoun: What kind? Which one? how many? Or how much?

Examples:

red onions (What kind of onions?)

that book )Which book?)
seventeen marbles (how many marbles?)
hundred dollars gown (how much is the gown?)

These examples show the usual location of an adjective-preceding a noun. Sometimes,

however, the adjective is located after the noun it modifies.

Ex.: The bicycle looked new.

An adjective that modifies a pronoun usually follows the pronoun, but on occasion, it can
precede the pronoun.

After: We were sweaty, after our workout.

Before: Sweaty after the workout, we took quick showers.

More than one adjective may modify a noun or pronoun.

Example.

The quick, agile athlete easily made the team.

Articles. The three most common adjectives are the articles a, an, and the . A and an are the
indefinite adjectives. A noun used as an adjective will modify another noun and answer the
questions: What kind? Or the question which one?

Nouns used as adjectives

potato potato soup
party party hat

Proper Adjectives. Like nouns, some adjectives can be proper. Proper adjectives are proper
nouns uased as an adjectives or adjectives formed from proper nouns. They modify other nouns
and usually begin with a capital letter..

Proper Nouns used as adjectives

Roosevelt the Roosevelt era
Australian an Australian lobster
Greek Greek literature
Compound Adjectives. Adjectives can be compound- that is, they can be made up of more than
one word. Most compound adjectives are hyphenated, some are written as combined words.
Compound proper adjectives are usually written as two separate words.

Hyphenated: long-term commitment, crescent-shaped moon

Combined: coldblooded animal, lifelong friendship

Separated: South American birds

Pronouns used as adjectives. Some pronouns can be used as adjectives.

Possessive Pronouns or Adjectives Antecedent

- My, your, his, her, its, out, their The man shaved all his beard.

Demonstrative Adjectives
- This, that, these, those That test took me two hours.
Those roses wilted in the sun.
Interrogative Adjectives
-which, what whose Which job will you take?
Whose money is on the table?
Indefinite Adjectives

Used with singular nouns: Give me another chance

Another, each, either, little
Much, neither, one

Used with plural nouns: Few people attended the concert.

Both, few, many, several

Used with singular or plural nouns: Give me some water.

All, any, more, most, other, some

Verbs used as Adjectives. Verbs used as adjectives usually end in -ing or -ed

Examples:

The rippling water felt refreshing to them.

The washed clothes were neatly folded.

ADVERBS- like adjectives describe or make other words more specific.

An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

An Adverb that modifies a verb answers any of the four questions: Where?When? In what
manner?To what extent? An Adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb also answers,
to what extent? When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it is often called an
intensifier because it increases or decreases the intensity of the adjective or adverb it modifies.

Adverbs modifying Verbs

Where? When?
The balloon floated up. Your letter arrived today.

Your wallet is here. Now I will go.

In what manner? To what extent?

The evening quickly passed. We have just finished eating.

I was eagerly awaiting news She did not warn me

Adverbs modifying adjectives Adverbs modifying adverbs

To what extent? To what extent?

I am extremely hungry. He drives rather carefully

The overly tired worker collapsed The glass was not completely empty

Nouns used as Adverbs. A few words that are usually nouns can function as adverbs that
answer the question: where. Or when? Some of these words are home, yesterday, today,
tomorrow, mornings, evenings, week and year.

Examples:

We raced home. ( raced where?)

I saw them yesterday. (saw when?)

Adverb or adjective. Some adverbs and adjectives share the same form. You can distinguish
between them by determining the part of speech of the word they modify; Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs, adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.

Adverb: The rain arrived early. (arrived when?)

Adjective: She took the early train. (which train?)

Most adverbs and adjectives, however, do not share the same from. Many adverbs are formed by
adding -ly to an adjective.

Adjectives: slow approval, hasty decision

Adverbs: approved slowly, decided hastily

Some adjectives end in -ly too. Do not assume, therefore, that any word ending in -ly is
an adverb.

Examples:

A lonely night, his ghostly act

 REVIEWING LEXICAL CATEGORIES

(NOUN, PRONOUN AND VERB)

Every English word, depending on its meaning and its use in a sentence, can be identified as one
of the eight parts of speech.

1. Noun-is the name of a person, place or thing.

Types:
 Concrete and Abstract. Nouns can be grouped not only as people, places or things but
also as concrete or abstract. A concrete noun names something you can see, touch, taste,
hear or smell. An abstract noun names something you cannot perceive through any of
your five senses.

CN AN
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate desperation

 Singular and Plural Nouns. A noun can also indicate number. Singular nouns name one
person, place or thing while plural nouns name more than one person, place or thing.

 Collective Nouns. Name groups of persons or things,e.g. army, company, faculty

 Compound Nouns. A noun that is made up of two or more words acting as a single unit.
Compound nouns can be written as separate words, hyphenated words, or combined
words. E.g. radio station, editor-in-chief, pathway

 Common and Proper Nouns. A common noun names any one of a class of people,
places or things. A proper noun names a specific person, place or thing. park-Luneta Park

Pronouns- are words that stand for nouns or for words that take the place of nouns.

A crowd quickly gathered. Looking up, they saw a man inch his way up the skyscraper

 Antecedents are nouns or words that take the place of nouns for which pronouns stand.

 Personal Pronouns – are pronouns that refer to 1.) the person speaking; 2.) the person
spoken to, or 3.) the person, place or thing spoken about.

 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns – pronouns end in -self or -selves.

 Demonstrative Pronouns – direct attention to a specific person, place or thing

Singular – this, that

Plural- these, those

 Relative Pronouns- are used to relate one idea in a sentence to another. A relative
pronoun begins a subordinate clause and connects it to another idea in the sentence.
There are just five words that can be relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom whose
Independent/Main clause Dependent/Subordinate clause

We will go to the store that advertised a sale.

The poet thanked the group from whom she received the award.

 Interrogative Pronouns. Are used to ask questions, e.g. what, which, who, whom,
whose

 Indefinite Pronouns – require no specific antecedents. As a result, these pronouns act

very much like nouns.

Singular Plural Both

Another both all
Everything many any
Each other more
No one several most
Everyone none
Somebody some

2. Verb- is a word or group of words that expresses time while showing an action, a
condition, or the fact that something exists

 Action verbs – most verbs in English express action

 An action verb is a verb that tells what action someone or something is performing.
 A linking verb is a verb that connects its subject with a word generally found near the
end of the sentence

 Linking and Action verbs

Linking verb: The grass felt damp. (The grass is damp)

The milk turned sour.( The milk is sour)

Action verb: The Hikers felt a sudden chill.

The runners turned the corner

 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

An Action verb is transitive if it directs action toward someone or something named in the same
sentence

An Action verb is intransitive if it does not direct action toward someone or something named
in the same sentence.

Ex.;

Transitive: The player caught the ball (Caught what? Answer: ball)

We ate the cake (Ate what? Answer: cake)

Intransitive: Elizabeth slept in the cabin (Slept what? Answer: none)

The little child shouted loudly (Shouted what? Answer: none)

 Verb Phrases

A verb that has more than one word is a verb phrase

Helping verbs are verbs that can be added to another verb to make a single verb phrase. These
are often called auxiliary verbs or auxiliaries because they add meaning to other verbs.

Single verb: I wrote a song today

Verb phrase: I will write a song today.

I should have written a song today.

This song might have been written by me.

Helping verbs other than BE: do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could,
may, might, and must
 REVIEWING LEXICAL CATEGORIES

(PREPOSITION AND CONJUNCTION)

Prepositions and conjunctions work in sentences as connectors. Prepositions relate one word to
another while conjunctions join words, group of words, or even whole ideas.

Preposition- performs the important job of linking words within a sentence. They indicate
relationships between separate things. The relationships may involve such things as location,
direction, cause or possession.
- Is a word that relates the noun or pronoun that appears with it to another word in the
sentences.
- Aboard, about, above, according to, across, after, ahead of, along, amid, among,
apart from, around, aside from, as of, at, atop, because of, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, by means of, concerning,
considering, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, in addition to, in back of, in
front of, near, next, of, off, on, through, upon, with, without, unto, up, since, etc.

In the following examples, notice several different ways that prepositions can affect the
relationship between words.

Location: The tree fell behind the house.

Direction: The tree fell toward the shed
Cause: The tree fell on account of the wind.
Possession: Leaves from the tree littered the lawn in front of our house.

Prepositional Phrases- prepositions are always part of words called a prepositional phrase. A
Prepositional phrase contains a preposition and a noun or pronoun known as the object of the
preposition.

Examples:

The ice in the lemonade cooled the drink.

I saw the movie with her.

Shawn checked under the couch and chair.

Although a prepositional phrase can consist of as few as two words, it is usually longer because
of the addition of words to modify the object of preposition.

Examples:

behind her

behind the seat

behind the newly upholstered car seat

Examples:

The ball rolled down the steps

The child fell down

Conjunctions – Unlike prepositions, which simply relate words, conjunctions join words into a
single unit.

A conjunction is a word used to connect other words or groups of words.

There are three main kinds of conjunction in English: coordinating, correlative, and
subordinating conjunctions A special kind of adverb, called a conjunctive adverb, is often also
considered a conjunction.

Coordinating Conjunctions. Connecting words or groups of words.

Examples: And, for, or, yet, but, nor, so

With Nouns and Pronouns: Her friends and she went sailing

With VERBS: The waves thundered and pounded the shore.

With Adjectives: The dog’s fur is soft, silky, and clean.

With Adverbs: The carpenter works quickly but efficiently.

With Prepositional Phrases: Turn to the left or to the right.

With Subordinate ideas: They went swimming, for it was very hot.

Correlative Conjunctions: These conjunctions also join equal elements in sentences, but they
always work in pairs.

Examples: both…and either…or neither…nor

Not only…but also whether…or

With Nouns: Neither Lola nor Peter will perform in the play

With Nouns and Pronouns: I do not know whether Allan or I won.

With Adjectives: Yogurt is not only nutritious but also tasty.

With Prepositional Phrases: We saw pelicans both near the pier and along the beach.

With Complete Ideas: Either I can go shopping or I can study.

Subordinating Conjunctions. Join two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate-
that is , dependent on the other.

Examples:

After because lest till

Although before now that unless
As even if provided until
As if even though since when
As long as how so that whenever
As much as if than where
As soon as inasmuch as that wherever
As though in order that though while*
 Subordinating Conjunctions always begin subordinate clauses, but theyneed not come
between the ideas they connect.
Examples:

I play soccer, whenever I get the chance.

Main idea subordinate idea

Now that our cousin is here, We will give a party.

Subordinate idea main idea

To illustrate:

Before you leave, feed the cat.

Come home before dark.

We had seen the museum before.

Conjunctive Adverbs. Are used as conjunctions to connect complete ideasThey are ofter
used as transitions, creating bridges between different ideas by showing comparisons,
contrasts, or results.

Examples:
Accordingly finally nevertheless
Again furthermore otherwise
Also however then
Besides indeed therefore
Consequently moreover thus

The circus starts at 8:00pm ; we should, therefore, leave soon.

Determiners
What is a Determiner?
 used in front of nouns to indicate whether you are referring to something specific
or something of a particular type.
 A word placed before a noun to provide information such as quantity, ownership,
and specificity.
Types of Determiners:
Articles
- are among the most common type of the determiners. There are three singular
articles: a, an, and the. Articles specify (or determine) which noun the speaker is
referring to. A and an are indefinite articles and are used when you are talking
about a general version of the noun. For examples:
• A dog is a good pet.
• An ostrich would beat a chicken in a race.
- On the other hand, the is a definite article, meaning the speaker is referring to a
specific noun. For example:
• We went to the best restaurant in town.
• The dog is barking too loudly.
Demonstratives
- Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners in English. There are four
of them: this, that, these and those. Demonstratives are used in a situation in
which the speaker can point to the item they mean, making them even more
specific than a definite article. For examples:

 Do you want this piece of chicken?

 I don't want to go to that movie.
 These black raspberries are sour.
 He wanted those boys to go away.

- This and these refer to items nearby; that and those refer to items far away. Note

also that this and that are singular while these and those are plural.
Quantifiers
- are determiners that indicate how much or how little of the noun is being
discussed. They include words such as all, few and many. For examples:
 He took all the books.
 She liked all desserts equally.
 Few children like lima beans, so the cafeteria stopped serving them.
 Many kittens are taught to hunt by their mothers.
Possessives
- When referring to a noun that belongs to someone or something, you can
use possessive pronouns to show ownership. Possessive pronouns include my,
your, his, her, its, our, and their. For example:

 Where is your car?
 The dog growled and showed its teeth.
 My best friend is a cat.
 Which one is his house?
 Honesty is her best quality.
  The tree shed its leaves.
 It's our secret recipe.

- As always, the determiner comes before the noun and any modifying adjectives.
In English, you can use the same possessive whether the noun refers to a
singular or plural.
 REVIEWING COMPLEMENTS

The meaning of some sentences is complete when they contain no more than a subject
and a verb with perhaps some modifiers, as in:

I laughed or I laughed wholeheartedly

In other sentences, however, the verbs need more modifiers to complete the meaning os
sentences, as in

The storm definitely ruined… or

The marathon runners are..

These sentences require complements such as crop and exhausted to finish the meaning
of the verbs:

The storm definitely ruined the crop

The marathon runners are exhausted.

A complement is a word or group of words that completes the meaning of the predicate of a
sentence

Four different kinds of complements can be found in English sentences:

1. Direct objects;
2. Indirect objects;
3. Objective complement; and
4. Subject complements

 Direct Objects- can be found only with transitive verbs, direct objects complete verbs by
receiving the action from them.

A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun that receives the
action of a transitive verb.

Examples:

We baked a cake.
DO
 Compound Direct Object

We baked a cake and two loaves of bread.

DO DO

To find the direct object in a sentence, ask Whom? Or what? After an action verb, If you
find no answer, the verb is intransitive verb and has no direct object.

Examples:

I was reading the book until midnight. (Was reading what?Answer: book)
A bee stung him twice. ( Stung whom? Answer: bee)

In some inverted questions, the direct object will appear near the beginning of the
sentence, before the verb. To locate the direct object in this type of question, rephrase the
question as a declarative sentence in normal word order.
Inverted question: Which jacket did you wear?
Reworded as a statement: You did wear which jacket

 Indirect Objects are found in sentences already containing direct objects.

An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that appears with a direct object with a direct
object and names the person or thing that something is given to or done for.

Indirect objects appear only with transitive action verbs. They are usually found after
such verbs as ask, bring, buy, give, lend, make, promise, show, teach, tell, or unite.

Examples:

I taught Randy the alphabet.

IO DO

We gave the car a thorough cleaning.

IO DO

To find the indirect object in a sentence, first make certain that the sentence contains a direct
object. Then ask To or for whom? Or to of for what? After the verb and direct object.
Like direct objects, indirect objects may be compound.

 Objective Complements complete the meaning of the direct object in a sentence. It occurs,
therefore, only in sentences that already contain a direct object.

An objective complement is an adjective or noun that appears with a direct object and
describes or renames it.

Objective complements are found only after such verbs as appoint, call, consider, elect, label,
make, name or think.

Examples:

We appointed Liza secretary.

DO OC

I consider her the best candidate for the job.

DO OC

To determine whether a word is an objective complement, say the verb and direct object, and
then ask What?

Example:

The professor called the student brilliant. (called the student what? Answer: brilliant)

 Subject Complements

Direct objects, indirect objects, and objective complements appear with action verbs. Subject
complements appear with linking verbs.

 A subject complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that appears with a linking vebr
and tells something about the subject.

There are two kind of subject complements: predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives
 Predicate Nominatives. The words nominative, noun, and pronoun all came from the Latin
word, nomen, meaning “name.” Knowing this common derivation can help you remember
what a predicate nominative is.

A predicate nominative is a noun, pronoun that appears with a linking verb and renames,
identifies, or explains the subject.

Examples:

Ms. Casey became an accountant.

PN

Robert Pen Warren is a poet, novelist, and essayist.

PN PN PN

A predicate adjective is an adjective that appears with a linking verb and describes the
subject of the sentence

Examples:

Today the waves seemed wild and angry.

PA PA

The sanded plank of wood still feels rough.

PA
Basic Sentence Parts and Patterns

A. Subject and Verb

- in any language, the basic unit of thought that expresses meaning is the sentence. In
English, every sentence has two essential parts, a complete subject and a complete
predicate.

Complete Subjects and Predicates

A group of words in English is considered a sentence when it has two parts, either clearly
stated or implied: a complete subject and a complete predicate.

A Sentence is a group of words with two main parts: a complete subject and a complete
predicate, together these parts express a complete thought.

A complete subject is the noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun, with any
modifiers, that tells who or what the sentence is about. The complete predicate is the verb or
verb phrase with any modifiers and complements, that tells what the complete subject of the
sentence does or is. As the following examples show, complete subjects and complete predicates
can vary in length.

Complete Subject Complete Predicate

Dogs bark.
My favorite hideout is in the old pine tree.
Althea and Pepita went scuba diving and sailing.
A little girl with pigtails licked her ice cream cone happily.

1. The tail stranger tipped his hat politely

2. The ruler is only 12 inches long.
3. Yesterday my science class visited the museum

B. Sentence or Fragment

- If a group of words does not contain a complete subject and a complete predicate, it is
not a sentence but a fragment.

A Fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought.

Fragments Complete Sentences

The gardener with The gardener with the mustache trimmed the hedge.
the mustache.

Rushed through The shoppers rushed through the store.

the store.

On a cold, breezy We drank hot chocolate on a cold, breezy morning.

morning.

 In conversations…
 Dialogue in a play or short story
 Elliptical sentence: Good night (I hope you have a good night)
Why so restless ( Why are you so restless)
 C. Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates

-Each complete subject and complete predicate contains a word or group of words
that is essential to the sentence. Without these elements know as the simple subject
and simple predicate, a sentence is considered incomplete.

 The simple subject is essential noun, pronoun or group of words acting as a noun that
cannot be left out of the complete subject.

 The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the
complete predicate.

Simple Subject Simple Predicate

The popular and busy filled quickly

restaurant

Gerald Manley Hopkins destroyed nearly all his early poetry in 1868

The tiny nation of San Marino has always received most of its income
from sale of postage stamps.

 In locating subjects and Verbs. Knowing a method for locating subjects and verb in
sentences will help you avoid fragments in your own writing

For example: The red lights signaled a warning

To find the subject first, ask, “What word tells what this sentence is about?”

Answer: lights (lights is the subject)

Then to find the verb, ask, “ What did the lights do?”

Answer: signaled (signaled is the verb)

Then to find the subject, ask, “Who or what signaled?”

Answer: lights (lights is the subject)

D. More than One Subject or Verb

- Sometimes, a sentence may contain a compound subject or compound verb

A compound subject is a two or more subjects that have the same verb and joined by a
conjunction such as, and or or.

Examples:

The salt and vinegar are on the table.

Neither the cat nor the dog greeted me.

A compound verb is two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a
conjunction such as, and or or.

Examples:

She sneezed and coughed throughout the play.

We will think about it and act soon.

 Some sentence constructions may contain both compound subjects and compound verbs.

Example:

The dog and cat eyed each other, circled warily, and then advanced into combat.
 SENTENCE DIAGRAM

 A sentence diagram is a visual organization system that you can use to see how
the parts of speech like nouns, verbs, prepositions, and articles work together
and relate to each other in any given sentence. 

What is a sentence diagram?

A sentence diagram is a visual tool to help understand sentence structure, which reorganizes a
sentence’s words along interconnecting lines in order to demonstrate each word’s function. 

What is the purpose of a sentence diagram?

Sentence diagrams are a learning aid to help simplify complicated sentences by grouping words
visually.  

We’ll explain everything you need to know below so that you, too, can understand sentence

diagrams. Knowing how to identify what roles each word plays in a sentence based on their

function and placement is an excellent practice for both improving your English writing and

learning how to write better sentences.

 Sentence diagramming uses a fixed set of rules and a standardized “code” of line
types (e.g., diagonal lines, dotted lines, etc.) so that anyone who knows how to
diagram a sentence can read other people’s sentence diagrams. The most commonly
used method is known as the Reed–Kellogg system, which is what we discuss here. 

What grammatical components you should be able to identify before diagramming? 

Before we get down to actually diagramming sentences, let’s review the technical elements that

sentences are composed of: parts of speech and sentence constituents. Sentence diagramming

deals heavily with the functions of words, and you need to identify each word or phrase’s role so

you know where to put it on your sentence diagram. 

You might recognize some of these are parts of speech like articles and conjunctions, but others

are concepts that describe the constituents of a sentence like predicates or subordinate clauses.

Constituents can be a single word or a collection of words that form a single function. 

 Subject noun or noun form: The subject is the doer of the action in a sentence. 

 Predicate verb: The predicate specifies the complete action of the sentence, and at its

center is the predicate verb.

 Direct object: The direct object is the noun that receives the action. 

 Indirect object: The indirect object is the noun that receives the direct object. 
  Preposition: Prepositions such as in, at, to, or behind show relationships like direction,

time, location, and space. 

 Modifier: Modifiers, like adjectives and adverbs, add more description to nouns, verbs,

or other modifiers. Possessive nouns like my, your, or  Mom’s act as adjectives, so they’re

also considered modifiers. 

 Article: Articles are also a kind of modifier, and they define a noun as either specific

(the) or unspecific (a, an). 

 Appositive: An appositive is a noun or noun phrase and is a special kind of modifying

component. Appositives further identify or even rename another noun for descriptive

purposes. 

 Conjunction: Conjunctions like and, but, and or join words or phrases together. 

 Subordinate clauses: Subordinate clauses contain a subject and a predicate but need to

join an independent clause to form a complete sentence. These can include both noun

clauses and infinitive clauses. 

 Gerund: Gerunds are verbs that act as nouns, using the participle or –ing form.

How to diagram a sentence in Five Steps:

To show you how to diagram a sentence, let’s start with simple sentences and work up to
more advanced constructions. For this section, we’ll use the example sentence: 

The dog brought me his old ball in the morning. 

1.  Diagram the subject noun and main predicate verb first

- The subject and main verb are the core of all sentence diagrams, so start there. Begin by
drawing a long horizontal line (the “base line”) below the sentence and then draw a short
vertical line down the middle of the horizontal one. The subject noun, dog, goes on the
left side and the verb, brought, goes on the right side. 
- Auxiliary verbs that are necessary to form different tenses (like have or will) are written
together with the main verb. This also includes modal verbs like might or can. 

-
2. Add the direct object

- The direct object, ball, goes on the base line after the verb. The verb and the direct object
are separated by another vertical line that sits on top of the base line and does not pass
through it. 

3. Add indirect objects

- Indirect objects (in this example: me) go on a small horizontal line under the verb,
connected by a diagonal line. 

4. Put the prepositions in place

- For a prepositional phrase like in the morning, draw a small horizontal line under the
word it modifies and connect it with a diagonal line. In this case, in the morning refers to
the time that the action took place, so the horizontal line would go under the
verb brought. Then write the preposition (in) on the diagonal line and the preposition’s
object (morning) on the horizontal line. 

- Placing prepositional phrases correctly on the diagram can be tricky because

prepositional phrases don’t always go next to the words they modify. This is especially
true with sentence starters. For example, let’s say you were diagramming this sentence: 

In the morning, the dog brought me his old ball.

Even though it is right next to the subject, the dog, the prepositional phrase in the
morning would still go under the verb brought because it describes when the action
happened. 

5. Add the modifiers and articles

Place modifiers and articles on diagonal lines beneath the words they describe. 
 Advanced Rules for Diagramming Sentences

Once you can handle the basics, it’s time to move on to more advanced sentence
diagramming. There are dozens of complex constructions in English grammar. Here are a few
with their own particular method when it comes to diagramming sentences. 

Diagram linking verbs

Linking verbs like be, seem, and become have special rules for sentence diagrams when

they’re followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun, which describe the subject. Write the
verb normally and then write the predicate adjective/noun after it on the same base line. Then,
separate the verb and predicate adjective/noun with a vertical line slanted to the left. Just like
with direct objects, the line does not intersect the base line. 

She seems happier after the breakup. 

Diagram a sentence with noun clauses, noun phrases, and infinitive phrases 

Noun clauses, noun phrases, and infinitive phrases are distinct ideas nested within
another sentence and are diagrammed as extensions from the main diagram base line. To do this,
you will use “pedestals”—long vertical lines with triangular bases—to connect it to the main
diagram. Put pedestals directly on the base line where a single noun would go; then draw a
horizontal line on top of the pedestal. On the new horizontal line, you can diagram the noun
clause or phrase just like a separate sentence. 

I bet it will rain in the evening.

Diagram a sentence with conjunctions

Conjunctions are tricky in sentence diagramming because the method is different

depending on how they’re used. Let’s look at some sentence diagram examples for the different
uses of conjunctions. 

Compound subjects

For compound subjects, separate the subject line into two or more horizontal lines and
use conjoined diagonal lines to connect them to the base line where the main predicate verb sits.
Write each subject on one of the horizontal lines, with their respective modifiers below each. At
the point where the diagonal lines start, draw a vertical dotted line and write the conjunction
sideways on the line. 
For correlative conjunctions like both . . . and or neither . . . nor, write both conjunctions
sideways on the dotted line, one on each side. 

Both the teachers and the students wanted a half day. 

Compound predicates

Compound predicates use a mirrored version of the construction for compound subjects.
You’ll likely need to make the horizontal lines longer to fit more words. 

The cat woke from its nap and went to its food bowl. 

Compound sentences

If you’re diagramming a compound sentence with two independent clauses, diagram each

clause individually and then connect their verbs with a dotted line that looks like a step. On the
horizontal part of the dotted line, write the conjunction. 

English is a good language, but Spanish is easier. 

Multiple nouns

If a conjunction connects two or more nouns that aren’t the subject, diagram the nouns on
separate lines stacked like a list and draw a dotted vertical line between them. Write the
conjunction sideways on the dotted line. 

Nothing scares me except snakes, darkness, and bugs. 

Multiple modifiers

For multiple modifiers, write each adjective or adverb separately on diagonal lines under
the word they modify. Then, draw a dotted horizontal line between them near the top and write
the conjunction on that line. 
The turtle ran slowly and steadily. 

Diagram a sentence with subordinate clauses

Similar to compound sentences, start by diagramming each clause individually, with the
independent clause on top. Then, connect the clauses with a diagonal dotted line between the
verbs and write the conjunction on that line. 

If you do not vote, you should not complain. 

Diagram a sentence with gerunds

Gerunds are written on a stepped line. 

My favorite activity is sleeping. 

Diagram an imperative sentence with no subject 

Imperative sentences, or commands, generally don’t have written subjects because it’s
assumed the subject is whomever the speaker is talking to. When making a sentence diagram for
an imperative sentence, simply put “(you)” in the subject place. 

Give me your money!

Diagram a sentence with appositives

Appositives have their own special diagramming rules that can seem confusing. When
diagramming, it’s useful to remember that appositives are a form of renaming—because of this
function, the noun of the appositive is written in parentheses on the same line as the noun it
describes or modifies. Modifiers of the nouns are on diagonal lines below, extending from
whichever noun they modify. 

A human-made waterway, the Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
 PHRASE, CLAUSE AND SENTENCES

TYPES OF PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words that are used as a single unit within a sentence to express a concept.
The eight most common types of phrases, used especially in the English language, are noun.
verb, gerund, infinitive, appositive, participial, prepositional, and absolute.

A. Noun Phrases are made up of a noun as well as all of its modifiers. (eg. The frustrated writer
got lost in his words.)

B. Verb Phrases. The verb and all of its modifiers make up a verb phrase. (eg. I have been
yearning for your love.)

C. Gerund Phrases. A gerund phrase is a noun phrase that begins with the word gerund. (e.g.
Becoming a published author is a dream of mine.)

D. Infinitive Phrases. A noun phrase that starts with an infinitive verb is called an infinitive
phrase (eg. To be an ambassador of the Philippines is a great honor.)

E. Appositive Phrases. An appositive phrase is a phrase that both restates and defines a noun.
(eg. My boyfriend, the love of my life, is the most precious person I have known)

F. Participial Phrases. A past or present participle makes up a participial phrase. (eg. Heaving a
sigh, 1 successfully uttered the last line of my speech in public).

G. Prepositional Phrases. A prepositional phrase can act as a noun, adjective, or adverb which
starts with a preposition. (e.g. I trudge the streets of challenges against all odds.)

H. Absolute Phrases. Because an absolute phrase lacks an action verb, it cannot function as a
complete sentence. It affects the entire sentence rather than just a noun (The food enthusiast tore
into the pile of nachos, his fingers scraping the last bit of cheese from the plate)

TYPES OF CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words which consists of a subject and a finite verb. There is only one
subject and one verb in it. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but its verb must
be distinct and visible.

A. Independent Clause. It can make a meaningful sentence on its own and resembles a regular
sentence. The coordinators can be used to connect two independent clauses in a sentence; and,
but, so, or, nor, for, and yet. To have a clearer understanding, here are some examples:

 She is an amazing writer.

 I love her works.

 Can you make it?

 Do me a favor, please. (Subject you is hidden)

 I heard the news.

 I wanted to enter Law school, but I didn't have the means. (Iwo independent clauses)
They went to the Philippines and visited the President. (Subject of the second clause is
"they," so "they visited the President" is an independent clause.)
  Dexter feels liberated whenever he speaks about his political contentions. (One
independent clause)

B. Dependent Clause. This type of clause is unable to function on its own because it leaves an
unfinished idea or thought, it is also called a subordinate clause. These help in the completion of
the sentence by the independent clauses that can stand alone and make a complete sentence on its
own. So, dependent clauses are referred to as subordinators that can be relative pronouns.
subordinating conjunctions, or noun clause markers. To have a clearer understanding, here are
some examples:

 When I was writing my book. I had a mental health issue

 I appreciate all the people who support me in this Journey

 I have always dreamed of becoming a linguist which is so challenging

 She believes that her sick friend will get through it

 They assert their dominance in this place where needy people suffer

 Types of dependent Clauses are sub divided into three:

 Adjective Clause. It is a Noun-modifying Dependent Clause. Adjective Clauses, like

Adjectives that modify Nouns, have similar qualities, hence the name. These are also
known as Relative Clauses, and they are usually placed immediately following the Nouns
they modify. (eg. He has been searching for his perfect soulmate whom he wants to be
with for the rest of his life.)

 Noun Clause. Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses are dependent clauses that act as nouns
in sentences. These frequently begin with words like "how," "that." and other WH-words
(What, Who, Where, When, Why. Which, Whose, and Whom), as well as if, whether,
and so on. (eg, We have to be expressive of the things that are already crossing a line for
us.)

 Adverbial Clause. These are Adverbial Dependent Clauses by definition. This means that
these clauses can change verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. A group of athletes
sprinted to the point of panting in so much exhilaration.)

C. Principal Clause. These have a Subject (Noun Pronoun), a Finite Verb, and an Object, and
they can stand alone or be used as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence.
Independent and Principal Clauses are functionally identical, but they are named differently. (eg
I like that kid.)

D. Coordinate Clause. Coordinate Clauses are two or more similarly important Independent
Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but, etc.) in terms of Compound
Sentences. (eg. I prefer the face-to-face classes, but she wants to stay in pure online classes.)

E. Non-finite Clause. They have a Participle or Infinitive verb in them, which makes the
Subject and Verb visible despite the fact that they are hidden. In the case of a Participle,
the Participial Phrase replaces the sentence's Subject or Object (eg. We are in ecstasy
dancing in the pouring rain.)
 TYPES OF SENTENCES

As we go back to the basic rules of grammar, there are four types of English sentences as
classified by their use, along with their form, function, and purpose:

A. Declarative sentence (a statement tells us something). It gives us information and normally

ends with a period or full stop.

Examples:

 Sheena likes Lester.

 Lester doesn't like Sheena.

Note: Its usual word order is subject verb...

B. Interrogative sentence (a question that asks us something). It wants information and always
ends with a question mark.

Examples:

 Do you like me?

 Don't you like me?

Note: Its usual word order is (wh-word-) auxiliary + subject + verb....

C. Imperative sentence (a command tells us something to do). It tells us to do something and

ends with a period or full stop (.) or an exclamation point or mark (!)

Examples:

 Stop!

 Do not stop!

Note: Its usual word order is base verb.....

D. Exclamative sentence (exclamation). It expresses a strong intense feeling, emotion, or

surprise. It always ends with an exclamation mark (!).

Examples:

 What a lovely surprise!

 How exhilarating that was!

Note: Its usual word orders:

 What (+ adjective) - noun + subject + verb How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb

On the other hand, there are four types of English sentences as classified by their structure:
A. Simple Sentence Structure

It consists of one independent clause that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete or
unfragmented thought.

Examples:

 I like pizza.

 Michael loves reading.

 The earth orbits around the sun.

 Lester did not study for the exam.

B. Compound Sentence Structure

It is when two (or more) independent clauses are joined or connected by a conjunction or
semicolon. Each of these clauses can form sentences that can stand alone

Examples:
 I like pizza and Lester likes pasta.

 Jasmine went to work, but Neal joined a school conference.

 Our car's wheels got flattened; we arrived late.

 I want to pursue business and study Linguistics. FANBOYS, as a known acronym, stands
for the seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and. nor, but, or, yet, and so.

C. Complex Sentence Structure

It consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause (that starts with a subordinating
conjunction (any of the FANBOYS, generally) and relative pronoun. It also contains a subject
and verb, but does not express a complete thought.

Examples:

 We missed the bus because we were not early.

 The dogs bark at night whenever a car passes by.

 Dennis left in a hurry after knowing about the accident.

 Do you know the workmate who is conversing with Mary?

There are some subordinating conjunctions that are common to us. These include: "after,
although, as. because, before, how, if, once, since, than that, though, till, until, when, where.
whether, while"

On the other hand, here are five basic relative pronouns to note:

"that, which, who, who, whose"

D. Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

It consists of at least two independent clauses (that can stand alone) and one or more dependent
clauses.

Examples:

 Jane didn't come because she was sick, so Joy got worried.

 We left in a hurry after we were called for a meeting, but we came back after less than
half an hour.

It is to note that a dependent clause is also called a subordinate clause.