Glass 

Defect 
 
Identification & 
Source 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sandip Banerjee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The document is encircled on common defects which we 
experience mostly at CNS & CNN. 
 
On  most  occasions,  it  may  only  be  necessary  to  identify 
inclusions under three main categories; 
 
¾ Melting – Related to Furnace operation 
¾ Refractory–Deterioration  or  damage  to  furnace 
structure 
¾ Contamination – Raw material, Cullet. 
 
Defect  analysis  and  decision  for  corrective  measure 
needs  deep  analysis  like  Thin  section  study  ,  Mass 
Spectrometry, Microprobe analysis which at present is in 
scope of SGR. 
 
This  document  aim  to  assist  to  get  an  prelim  idea  what 
might  be  the  source  of  defect  and  subsequently  taking 
systematic approach for correction. 
 BLISTERS AND GAS BUBBLES
SULPHATE BLISTER
APPEARANCE • Elongated or spherical bubbles containing colourless crystals (see photos).

LOOK FOR • The typical elongated blister shape.

• Crystalline sulphate within the blister.
• Colourless but may be brown or grey due tocontamination.
• High relief.

CAUSE • Inadequate melting temperature allowing undissociated batch sulphate to survive.

–

• Condensation of sulphate vapours on water cooled equipment(blisters may be discoloured due to iron
contamination).
GAS BUBBLES
APPEARANCE • Rounded or elongated sometimes containing fineliquid condensate droplets.
—

LOOK FOR .Shape.

• High relief with a thick black outline to the bubble(photos 3 and 4).
• Condensate liquid droplets or deposits inside the bubble (photo 4).
-

.
CAUSE Melting or refining reactions.
• Contamination particularly by iron or carbon containing materials.
• Leaks from water cooled equipment.
•Open top Bubble are generally originated from entry of float bath – Tweel or Spout area
•Open Bottom Bubble are generally originated from float bath .

Note: ARROWHEAD Bubble/Blister (see photo 7 opposite) as seen in the Rolled Plate wired process, is bubble
distorted by glass-flows local to the rollers.
DEVITRIFICATION
BETA (~3) WOLLASTONITE (“Devit”)
(Calcium Silicate)
APPEARANCE • Colourless laths and needles of variable size with typical broken or splintered ends.
LOOK FOR • Distinct laths with splintered ends.
• Moderate relief.
• Inclined extinction in polarised light.
• Ream (not always present).
-

CAUSE • Primary devitrification of glass in the cooler or stagnant parts of the furnace e.g. downstream Working
End corners, Feeder, Canal or spout lip/wet-back.
• Beta wollastonite is the most common devit ype seen on flat-glass furnaces, and occurs
most frequently in the ribbon edges, either as ingle clusters or strings where it has been
pulled into the glass flow, often following a load or temperature increase.
ALPHA (c~) WOLLASTONITE
(Calcium silicate)
APPEARANCE • Colourless well formed laths or grains, also occasionally coarse dendrites or plates.
LOOK FOR • Clear, colourless laths, grains, dendrites or plates
• High relief
• Little or no ream sac
• Top surface
• Often associated with B-wollastonite
• High birefringence the colours seen under cross polars are much brighter than (Bwollastonite
-

(photo 1).
CAUSE • Generally X-wollastonite is a rare stone type (compared to B-wollastonite) but is caused by
—

devitrification of lime rich glasses, limestone overweigh, lime-containing cements,

—

—(occasionally) batch/cullet contamination by calcium silicate insulation board, e.g.

“Caposil”, etc.
• Occurs (even more rarely) as “Frost” on the• hot face of silica bricks in the working end
-

photo 2 (see also Section B 1.6).

SILICA REFRACTORY FAULTS
SILICA BRICK
APPEARANCE • Dense, crystalline faults.
• White/pale grey in reflected light (photo 1).
• No entrapped bubble but often surrounded by bubbles in the glass (photo 1).
-

(Silica brick faults can be confused with silica melting stones (see Section A 1.1 and 1.2)
- -

but are much rarer).

LOOK FOR • Dense, fine grained surface (photo 1).
• Sharp outline between stone and the glass.
• Often angular in shape.
• Crystalline, not glassy texture.
1. Thin sections reveal detailed structure tridymite (photos 2 and 3) indicates refiner/working end source, or
-

cristobalite (photos 4 and 5) indicates source in fired area of melter.

2. Refractory drippers (photos 6 and 7) have totally different structures (compare with
photos 2 and 3).
CAUSE • Thermal spalling or mechanical damage of refractorystructure.
• Flame impingement.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
High purity silica refractory bricks are used in:
• melter and working end crowns.
• refiner, waist and working end superstructures.
Their structure is composed of fine tridymite crystals photo 3. In service the tridymite will change to cristobalite
-

(photos 4 and 5) at temperatures above 14500C. Silica brick is readily attacked by soda particularly where
-

condensation of alkali occurs in joints or “cold spots” often resulting in “dripper” and “run down” faults
- -
FUSED SILICA
APPEARANCE • White usually single, smooth textured inclusions with clearly defined edges.
• Surface may show characteristic crack patterns
LOOK FOR • Dense fine grained texture (photos 1 and 2).
• Generally, few bubbles in the surrounding glass.
• Very fine bubbles sometimes seen on the inclusion surfaces photo 2.
-

• Thin sections reveal the dense structure (photo 3) the fused silica grains become crystalline (to tridymite or
-

cristobalite) on exposure to furnace atmosphere.

CAUSE • Mechanical damage to the refractories used as outlined below.
-

• Contamination from repairs i.e. when fused silica patch materials are used particularly for the crown
-

e.g. Fond it K which is made up of small grains (typically 1.5 3mm) of fused silica.
-

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Fused silica refractory has many applications in our furnaces:
• Front tweels
• Front wall toes, shearcakes...
• Repairs and sealing.
It is a dense, fine grained refractory made of amorphous (noncrystalline)silica with very low thermal expansion
-

and, hence, excellent thermal shock resistance.

SUPERSTRUCTURE RUNDOWN
APPEARANCE • Aggregates of dense, well developed tridymite crystals.
• Irregular shape (photo 2).
• Glassy appearance.
• Colourless to blue-grey (dependent on vanadium/nickel pick up from combustion
products in furnace atmosphere).
LOOK FOR • Large transparent often platey crystals (evident in crossed polars).
• Absence of entrapped bubble although may be present in surrounding glass.
-

• Blue/grey colouration particularly on oil fired furnaces (photo 3).

-

• Absence of ream sac.

Note: Confirmation by thin section recommended.
CAUSE • Alkali attack on silica refractory melter j crown or downstream superstructure.
-

Look for drippers on the waist entrance arch, and above. Also examine the furnace crown for local damage -

particularly in the refiner.

SUPERSTRUCTUREICROWN “DRIPPER”
APPEARANCE • Generally small, rounded aggregates.
• Glassy or opaque.
• Typically on (or close to) the top surface of the glass.
• White to grey blue colour see photos 1 and 2.
-

LOOK FOR • Rounded orregularshape.

• Grey/blue colour particular on oil fired furnaces.
-

• Absence of entrapped bubble but may be present in surrounding glass.

-

• Fine crystalline structure (tridymite or cristobal ite).

(This can only be seen in thin section, see photos 3-5).
CAUSE • As below.
• Stones showing only cristobalite indicate a source in fired area of furnace.
Check the furnace superstructure for drippers/damage.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
These inclusions are from the high silica liquid which forms and runs off the solid drippers which build up on
—

the hot face of the refractory. The structure reflects their history i.e. devitrification of
-

high silica glass.

TRIDYMITE “SCALE”ITRIDYMITE “FROST”
APPEARANCE • Single or aggregates of clear tridymite plates.
• Often irregular shapes with well rounded edges or necking due to alkali corrosion.
LOOK FOR • Clear, colourless crystals.
• Low relief.
• Highly corroded outline (photos 2 and 5).
• Absence of bubble or ream sac.
• Top surface position for tridymite “frost”.
CAUSE • See below.
Note: With very high refiner temperatures (> 14500C) the inclusions will appear as cristobalite “scale”.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
At low alkali concentrations the furnace gases attack the silica crown/superstructure. This causes the glassy
phase (within the refractory) to soften and migrate away from the hot face of the brick,
leaving a layer of corroded, loosely bonded crystals of tridymite. These loose crystals can then fall (or be blown)
on to the glass surface. Tridymite “scale” faults are larger and can be found throughout the
glass thickness (photos 1-4). These faults originate from the crown or superstructure of the downstream refiner
including the waist gable wall.
Tridymite “frost” faults originate in the working end are small and always found on the top surface of the glass.
-

They reflect inadequate working end pressurisation allowing alkali containing gases from the
melter to enter.
ALUMINO-SILICATES HIGH ALUMINA
LOW ALUMINA FIREBRICK
APPEARANCE • Single opaque inclusions usually associated with bubble and ream sac (see photo 1).
LOOK FOR • White/buff/grey colour
• Opaque in transmitted light
• Bubble over the inclusion surface - often to a lessening extent as the alumina content in the firebrick type
increases.
• Intense heavy ream-sac
• Nepheline formation at the edges (see also 2.5).
• Conversion to secondary mullite needles (photo 2) – not seen in stones from high alumina firebrick.
CAUSE • Batch or cullet contamination
• Spalling or mechanical damage of low alumina firebrick in the furnace
• Heavy wear on the furnace bottom (loss of AZS tiles).
HIGH-ALUMINA FIREBRICKS -

SILLIMANITE and MULLITE

-
-

APPEARANCE • Usually rounded, single opaque inclusions with no bubble associated.

• High alumina firebrick, sillimanite and mullite all appear very similar and are often difficult to
distinguish in the raw state. It is usually necessary to make thin sections 50 that a confirmation can be made
(photos 1-6 overleaf show thin sections of typical
materials).
LOOK FOR • White/buff colour
• Smooth often cracked glassy surface
• Absence of bubble
• Poorly formed ream sac
• Stress vents often radiating into the
surrounding glass.
CAUSE • As for low-alumina firebrick sources, but mainly from batch or cullet contamination.
• Sillimanite stones may arise from spalling of the canal superstructure.
• Mullite occasionally derives from spalling of the waist flat arches.
NEPHELINE (Na2OAI2O3SiO2)
APPEARANCE • Semi transparent/glassy stones.
• Generally rounded or elongated (“worms”)photos 1-3.
• Fine grain crystals or transparent plates.
• White/pale brown in reflected light.
• Heavy ream sac is common.
LOOK FOR . Glassy appearance (can sometimes be mistaken for silica inclusions).
• Absence of bubbles within or around the stone.
-

• Heavy ream sac.

• Low relief “fernlike” crystals evident in crossed polars photos 4 and 5).
- (-

Note: 1. If from AZS refractory rundown, dendritic zirconia is often associated see photos 4 & 5 in
-

3.1.3 (Dendritic zirconia).

2. Related to nepheline are: Carnegieite, the high temperature
form of the same mineral, which also shows twins see photo 5.
-

Kaliophilite which contains potash.

Anorthite which contains lime.
All are of similar appearance to nepheline and have very similar causes.
CAUSE . Alkali attack on any alumina-silica containing refractory.
• Nepheline will form on firebricks (see SectionB 2.1 & 2.2), on high alumina and fusion cast
AZS refractories.
• Often associated with refractory contamination of cullet/raw materials.
ZIRCONIA/ZIRCON
ZIRCONIA (Zr02) FROM AZS REFRACTORIES
3.1.1 “Primary” AZS Refractory
LOOK FOR • Dense/opaque inclusion photo 1.
-

• White/pale buff colour.

• Fine crystalline layered texture.
• Faint ream sac.
• Absence of bubbles.
• Nepheline (best seen in thin section, photo 2).
-

CAUSE • Mechanical/thermal damage to AZS ref ractories (see below).

3.1.2 Globular Zirconia
LOOK FOR • Aggregates/clusters of rounded dense zirconia grains (photo 3, and in thin section at
higher magn, photo 4).
• White/pale buff colour in incident light.
• Dark grey to black in transmitted light.
• High relief.
• Ream sac see photos 3 & 5.
-

• Nepheline may be present.

CAUSE • Globular zirconia almost always originates from wear of glass contact AZS refractory
below glass level due to: accelerated corrosion, excessive temperatures, glass level instability.
— — —

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Fused cast AZS refractories (ER1681/1711, Monofrax S3/S5) are used
for all glass contact applications in the melt end of Float furnaces. Also used for superstructure applications -

particularly 4 in upstream/over-blanket areas.These refractories contain 30/40% Zr02. The appearance of

theinclusions is a reliable guide to their origin above/or below glass level.
-
Dendritic/Secondary Zirconia
APPEARANCE • Clusters or strings of characteristic dendritic crystals usually contained in a distinct ream-sac.
LOOK FOR . Sharply defined “Pine tree” crystals (dendrites) photos1-3.
• High relief.
• White in incident light.
• Brown/black in transmitted light.
• Normally associated with very heavy ream sac photo 1 and 2.
-

• Nepheline (sometimes stained brown from impurities).

CAUSE • Rundown of Zr02/Al203 rich glass caused by alkali attack on superstructure AZS refractory.
-

• The presence of dendrites indicate an AZS source above the glass. Well formed dendrites indicate a long time
of formation such as in a flux-line dripper (photo 3).
• Often associated with:- temperature increase following change in furnace-load, tint changes/excessive flame
length.
• Sometimes associated brown staining (in the glass) indicates contact with superstructure support
steelwork.
Note: Sometimes the dendrites are replaced by very fine zirconia globules (photos 4 and 5) indicating a short
—

time for crystallisation to occur. (The dendrites form slowly as the glass cools).
CONTAMINANTS
CASSITERITE (TIN OXIDE SnO2)
APPEARANCE • Dense almost opaque agglomerates of grains, laths or finely crystalline dendrites.
• Structure can be granular or needlelike (see photos opposite).
LOOK FOR • Dense, high relief faults.
• Shape can be very varied see photos.
-

• Colour dense-white/opalescent in incident light.

-

• Colourless to (almost) black in transmitted light.

• Absence of ream sac.
• Absence of bubble.
Note: Careful observation may reveal “knee bend twinning” in some lath-shaped crystals which confirms
-

identity (see lower photos).

CAUSE • Most cassiterite stones arise from condensation of tin oxide vapours around the Float
tweel/canal superstructure and bath lintel areas, typically as top photos (opposite).
• Cullet contamination (especially after Float bath start up).
• Recrystallisation, within the furnace, produces typical granular structures (see centre opposite).
• Distinct well-formed laths (opposite bottom) often originate from the Bathlintel.
SULPHIDE BLISTER
APPEARANCE • Elongated or spherical blisters/bubbles containing dark opaque crystals.
LOOK FOR • Shape.
• Opaque contents metallic lustre in incident light.
-

• Colour:
• Nickel sulphide dark green/yellow metallic cast.
-

• Ferrous sulphide dark brown to green/black.

-

• Copper sulphide red-orange-yellow.

-

CAUSE • Nickel sulphide sulphur reaction with nickel containing steels or contamination of the raw
-

materials/cullet with nickel steels.

• Iron sulphide the reaction between sulphur condensate and water cooled equipment e.g. tuck
-

coolers, stirrers, waist pipes etc.

• Copper sulphide sulphur attack on copper usually from contamination e.g. copper wire etc.
-
SILICON
APPEARANCE • Dull grey, usually spherical metallic pellets.
LOOK FOR . Matt grey metallic pellets in incident light, opaque in transmitted light.
• Development of dendritic cristobalite on the surface.
• Often associated with large bubble
CAUSE • Contamination of batch or cullet by metallic aluminium typically drink containers, food cartons,
-

wrappers, bottle tops etc. (the aluminium reduces silica to silicon).

SILICONIALUMINA STONES
APPEARANCE • White/grey agglomerates interspersed with black metallic spheres of silicon.
LOOK FOR • Metallic spherical pellets.
• A white stone, occasionally grey or green if impure.
• Cracking or venting of the surrounding glass.
• Gas bubble at the edges.
CAUSE • Contamination of the cullet or batch by commercial aluminium alloys e.g. diecast
machine parts, double glazing spacers etc.
SILICON CARBIDE
APPEARANCE • Dark blue/green to black angular grains either single or in clusters.
LOOK FOR • Dense angular grains.
• Blue or green colour
• Similar size of grains.
• Very high relief.
• Gas bubbles in and around the grains.
CAUSE • Contamination of batch and cullet by abrasive materials or bath roof heaters.
CERAMIC FIBRE INSULATION
APPEARANCE • Glassy agglomerates of fused fibres which may be brown to colourless in transmitted light
(photo 1) and pearlescent (grey-blue) in incident light (photo 2).
Photo 3 shows a large agglomerate of these fibres.
LOOK FOR • Glassy fused fibres.
• Ream.
• Nepheline at the edges.
• Often containing bubble.
• Position generally top surface.
-

CAUSE • Contamination by ceramic fibre blanket or board used for furnace insulation and repairs.
IRON METAL
APPEARANCE • Rounded opaque, grey/black shiny reflective metallic pellets.
LOOK FOR • Characteristic metallic pellet with distinct reflective surface.
• Green/brown coloured streaks in the surrounding glass.
• Gas bubbles.
CAUSE • Contamination of batch or cullet by steel.
• Corrosion of furnace steelwork e.g. springer plates.
Note: The formation of spherical pellets indicates a source where the temperature is high enough to elt the metal.
MOLYBDENUM
APPEARANCE • Generally grey/black single aggregates of metallic pellets with a dull to reflective lustre in
incident light.
LOOK FOR • Finely divided “filigree” structure.
• Colour black in transmitted light. grey in incident light.
— —

• Presence of needle like crystals.

• Absence of ream.
• Absence of gas bubble.
• Random distribution through the glass thickness.
CAUSE
• The breakdown of molybdenum components e.g. electrodes, thermocouple sheaths, bubblers, etc.
Note: Molybdenum is also an occasional source of blisters and related faults.
Molybdenum oxide (photo 3) opaque, but white colour in incident light.
-

Molybdenum sulphide (clusters of fine brown plates grains) from contamination by lubrication materials, or
-

reaction with sulphur.

FLOAT BATH FAULTS
Faults derived from the Float bath are normally surface-related. They occur on both top and bottom surfaces
but, apart from bubble from the wetback, never in the body of the ribbon. They can originate from different parts
of the Float bath.
Before identification is attempted, the top surface should be identified and marked (if not already known). This
is done using an Ultra-violet (U.V.) lamp which causes the tin in the bottom surface of the glass to temporarily
opalesce or “bloom”. The top surface which contains no tin, does not show this effect.
The faults listed in this section are only a few of the most common. Wherever possible reference must be made to
the Pilkington “Float Defects” Manual (J.S.Gardner) where much further information will be provided.
Examples included here are:
Top Tin
Splash (top surface tin)
Flake or “Hot-End” drip
Bottom surface Tin Pickup
Top surface tridymite
Tin speck/crater
Ceramic Fibre
Roller damage
Silica drip from running/glazed
roof-heater (candle)
Comments are as found on the photomicrographs.
FLOAT BATH FAULTS

Roller Mark

THE END