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Energy Meter

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Energy Meter

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wien
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Measurement Industrial 12.1 GENERAL Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is, ‘energy = power x time Electrical energy developed as work or dissipated asheat over an interval of time t may be expressed as: t W =| vide (121) a If vis expressed in V, jin A and tin 5, the unit of energy is joule or watt second which is 1 watt over an interval of one second. If the unit of time is taken as hour, energy is then expressed in watt hours. In many instances, this unit is of inconvenient size and a larger ‘unit is used-the kilowatt hour, ie, energy consumed when power is delivered at an average rate of 1000 watt for one hour. 42.2 MOTOR METERS ‘Motot meters are used for measurement of enerBy inboth dc. and a.c. circuits. For d.c. circuits, the meter may be an ampere hour meter or a watt hour meter. In motor meters the moving system revolves continuously unlike in the indicating instruments Where it deflects through a fraction of a revolution. The speed of rotation is proportional to power in the 12 of Energy and Metering 12.3 BRAKING In a motor meter the speed of the moving system is controlled by a braking system. The braking system consists of a permanent magnet (braking magnet) so placed that it induces eddy currents in some part of the moving system. These eddy currents produce a + braking (retarding) torque which is proportional to the speed of moving system. The part in which eddy currents are produced is usually an aluminium disc. The disc is mounted on the moving system and, therefore, when the moving system revolves this disc cuts through the field of the permanent magnet, Emf generated in the disc e= Kon where ¢ = flux of the permanent magnet, speed of rotation, a constant. 0 and K, Let rbe the resistance of the eddy current paths. Therefore, eddy current produced is : ize/r=K,On/r ‘The braking torque is produced by the interaction of the eddy current and the field of the permanent magnet, This torque is directly proportional to the product of flux ofthe magnet, magnitude of eddy current and the effective radius R from the axis of the disc. :, Braking torque case of watt hour meters and ampere hours in seem ein = KK o7AR ane Le ae Cee io given K,o°nR/r (2.2) rolutions made by a watt hour v interval of time is vportional to the energy supplied where Ky and K, are constants. (ed in he ease of ampere hour meters, to the total Ir the radius R ofthe disc is constant fe i r, ?, wn 12.5 {anity of electricity supplied. In this connecon * Ty bands [, = Soe series ) magnet Fig. 12.10 Lag adjustment with change of position of shading bands. Hence by providing any of the. above arrangements, the shunt magnet flux ©, can be brought exact quadrature with applied voltage V. This, adjustment is known as “lag adjustment”, Sometimes it is referred to as “power factor’, “quadrature” or “inductive load adjustment fon Compensation 12.7.4 Light Load or Fri Despite every care taken in the design of both the jewelled-pivot bearing, which forms the lower bearing for the spindle, and of the simple sleeve pin-type bearing at the top of the spindle, friction errors are liable to be serious, particularly at light loads. In order to ensure accurate registration at iota oats a etefore necessary to arrange for He, ba ically independent of the fond om the meter which acts in the direction of rotat pond aie nearly as possible equal in magnitude fo the To torque. This is usually obtained by mene ola shading loop (or vane) situated pragti 12 386 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation pole of the shunt magnet and the disc and slightly the ‘one side of the center-line of the pole. This is shown as 1, in Fig, 12.10. The interaction between the portions of the flux which are shaded and unshaded by this loop and the currents they induce in the disc result a small driving torque whose value can be adjusted by lateral movement of the loop. The tests for correct adjustment are freedom from serious errors at light Toads and the value of the load necessary to start the meter. Other arrangements of non-symmetrical shading loops are also used. 275 Groep In somie meters a slow but continuous rotation is. obtained even when there is no current flowing through the current coil and only pressure coil is energized. This is called creeping. The major cause for creeping is over-compensation for friction. If the friction compensating device is adjusted to give a driving torque to compensate for starting friction which is bigger than the running friction there is a tendency for the disc to run even when there is no current through the current coils because the friction compensating torque is independent of the load current as the “compensating device is voltage actuated. The other causes of creeping are excessive voltage across the potential cdil (which is responsible for production of excessive torque by the friction compensating device), vibrations, and stray magnetic fields. In order to prevent this creeping two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in the disc ;the disc will come to rest with one of the holes under the edge of a pole of the shunt magnet the rotation being thus limited to a maximum of half a revolution. The action may be understood by reference to Fig. 12.11. If a hole is under the edge of a pole, the circular eddy-current paths in the disc will be distorted as shown. The effective centre of the eddy-current paths Permanent ‘magnet pole ef \ Eady Holein currents . dise : drilling holes in disc. "Figs 12.41. Prevention of creep DY is then at A’ and this point is the central point of the equivalent magnetic pole produced by the currents. Examination of polarities shows that there is a resulting force on the disc, tending to move A’ away from the pole axis A, Thus the disc may creep until the hole reaches a position near the edge of a pole, but further movement is opposed by the torque produced in the manner just described, The magnitude of this torque is not sufficient to affect the action of the meter on load. In some cases a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc. The force of attraction exerted by the Brake magnet on the iron piece is sufficient to prevent creeping of disc. 12.7.6 Over-Load Compensation The disc revolves continuously in the field of the series magnet under load conditions and, therefore, there is a dynamically induced emf in the disc because of this rotation. This emf causes eddy currents w! interact with the field of the series magnet to produce a braking torque. T braking torque is obviously Proportional to the square of the load current and it assumes increasing importance as the load rises, Thus at high values of load current the registration tends to be lower than the actual. i In order to minimize the self-braking action, the full load speed of the disc is kept as low as possible. ‘This speed is nearly 40 rpm, The current coil flux, is, made small as compared pressure with coil flux &,. ‘Thus the dynamically induced emf (which causes the biaking torque) is very small as compared with statically induced emf which is produced by flux alterations at the rate of 50 Hz and which is responsible for production of driving torque. Itis customary to add an overload compensating device. This usually takes the form of a magnetic shunt for the series magnet core as shown in Fig. 12.12. ‘The magnetic shunt approaches saturation and so its permeability decreases at overloads. Thus at large currents the magnetic shunt diverts less of series ‘magnet flux so that a larger portion of the flu appears in the disc air gap and contributes to driving.torque, Magnet shunt - Series ‘magnet Fig. 12.12 Overload compensation device. ~ eddy'current paths in the Meosurement of Energy and Industrial Metering 12.7.7 Voltage Compensation A certain amount of variation is permitted in the declared voltage of supply. Therefore, energy meters must be compensated for this variation. Voltage variations cause errors owing to two reasons : (i) The relationship between shunt magnet flux and the supply voltage is not linear owing to saturation in iron parts : (i) The shunt magnet flux @, produces a dynamically induced emf in the dise which in turn results in a self-braking torque which is proportional to. square of the supply voltage. Compensation for voltage variations is provided \ by using a saturable magnetic shunt which diverts a greater proportion of the flux into the active path ‘When_the voltage rises. The compensation can be conveniently provided by increasing the reluctance of the side limbs of the shunt magnet. This is done by providing holes in the side limbs shown in Fig. 12.2. 12.7.8 Temperature Compenss An increase in temperature is accompanied by a rise in resistance of all copper and aluminium parts and results in () A small decrease in the potential coil flux and a reduction in angle of lag between V and ®, 3 ‘A decrease in torques produced by all shading bands, ‘An increase in the resistance of the eddy current paths, and ‘A decrease in the angle of lag ‘a’ of the eddy currents. If we examine the above effects we find that the errors introduced by variations of temperature of an induction meter are usually small since the various “ lfects produced tend to neutralize each other. An increase in temperature increases the resistance of the Pressure coil so that it takes less current resulting in “reduced:flux of the shunt magnet. This reduces the ~ driving torque. But the flux of the braking magnet is also ‘decreased owing to increase in \temperature thereby reducing tbe braking torque. Again. 0 i tance of the increase in temperature increases the resis rt disc and this reduces both the driving and the braking torques. Henée — effects tend to neutralize each other. he ee a S noi ‘ors are certainly negli it low power ids but these errors are @ (iii) () igible’ wit quite serious at low Ps 387 ‘The effect of increase of temperature, in general, is {0 cause the meter to run fast and to register high. Therefore, the temperature effects canbe compensated for by simply using a temperature shunt on the brake magnet. Special magnetic materials, such 8 ‘Mutemp’ are available which show a considerable decrease in permeability with increase in temperature, 12.7.9. Errors in Single Phase Energy Meters ‘The errors caused by the driving system are : (i) Incorrect magnitude of fluxes. This may be due to abnormal values of current or voltage. The shunt magnet flux may be in error due to changes in resistance of coil or due to abnorma! frequencies. Incorrect phase angles. There may not be proper relationship between the various phasors. This may be due to improper lag adjustments, abnormal frequencies, change in resistance with temperature, etc. Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit. In case the magnetic circuit is not symunetrical, a driving torque is produced which makes the meter creep. ‘The errors caused by the braking system are (Changes in strength of brake magnet, (i) Changes in disc resistance, (iil). Self-braking effect of series magnet flux, and (io) Abnormal friction of moving parts. (i) (ii 12.7.10 Adjustments in Single Phase Energy Meters Some adjustments are carried out in energy meters so that they read correctly and their errors are within allowable limits. The sequence of these adjustments is : 1. Preliminary light load adjustment. The disc is 50 positioned that the holes are not underneath the electromagnets. Rated voltage is applied to the jotential coil with no current through the current coil. ‘The light load device is adjusted until the dise just fails to start 2. Full load unity factor adjustment. The pressure coil is connected across the rated supply voltage and fated full load current at unity power factor is passed through the current coils. The position of the a magnet is adjusted to vary the braking torque so 1 the meter revolves at the correct speed, withit requifed limits or errors. ; ; 3, Lag adjustment (low porwer factor ajusinen’- The eee ‘coil is connected across rated supply 12 388 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation voltage and rated full load current is passed through. the current coil at 0.5 p.f. lagging. The lag device is adjusted till the meter runs at correct speed. 4. With rated supply voltage, rated full load turrent and unity power factor, the speed of the meter is checked and full load unity p.. and low p.l adjustments are repeated until the desired accuracy limits are reached for both the conditions. 5. Light load adjustment, Rated supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil and a very low current (about 5 per cent of full load) is passed through the meter at unity power factor. The light load adjustment is done so that the meter runs at correct speed. 6. Full load-unity power factor and light load adjustments are again done until speed is correct for both loads i.e., full load as well as light load. 7. The performance is rechecked at 05 pf. lagging. 8. Creep adjustment. Asa final check on light load adjustment the pressure coil is excited by 110 per cent of rated voltage with zero load current. If the light load adjustment is correct the meter should not creep under these conditions. 12.8 POLYPHASE ENERGY METERS Energy in polyphase circuits can be measured by a group of single phase energy meters connected as required by Blondel’s Theorem. The total energy is the sum of the readings of all energy meters (a negative sign is used for the reading of any meter which runs backwards), However, in commercial measurements the above arrangement is not used but instead polyphase energy meters are used. Similar to the case of wattmeters for measurement of power in polyphase circuits the electrical energy in a ‘n’ conductor system requires (n—1) measuring ‘elements for measurement of total energy. Thus a 3 phase, 3 wire system requires a 2 element energy meter and a3 phase 4 wire system requires a 3 element energy meter. “In polyphase wattméters the elements are mounted on the same spindle which drives the isteri anism. Thus the registering ee Joe the net effect of all the elements. Polyphase wattmeters may be ‘multi-dise type’ or single disc type-In the multi-disc type each element = drives a separate disc. In the single disc type meter all elements drive the same disc. This discis slotted or ted in sectors to prevent interaction between dy currents produced by one element with the flux roduced by another elemerit. Xs x 12.8.1 Two Element Energy Meter Figure 12.13 shows a/2 element energy meter Which is used for 3 phase 3 wire systems. The meter shown in the diagram is provided with 2 discs one for cach clement. It is essential that the driving torque of the two elements be exactly equal for equal amounts of power passing through each. Thus in addition to normal compensating devices attached to each element an adjustable magnetic shunt is provided on fone or both the elements to balance the torques of the two. The necessary adjustment is made with the coils energized from a single phase supply. The pressure coils are connected in parallel and the current coils in series in such a manner that the torques produced by the two elements oppose each other. The magnetic shunt is adjusted to a position where the two torques are exactly equal and opposite and therefore there is no rotation of disc. This way the two elements are rendered exactly similar. Spindle Bearing Ay Fig. 12.13 Two element energy meter. The usual lag, light load and unity power factor adjustments are made independently for each element as explained earlier in Art. 12.739. 12.9 INDUSTRIAL METERING AND TARIFFS The rating of a power generating plant must be equal tothe simultaneous maximum demand ithss"® meet. This means that a fixed sum proportional 0 maximum demand to be met has to be spent fo" plant required. This type of expenses which a the cost of plant, buildings, transmission | distribution equipment, part of staff salaries = Meosurement of Energy and Industrial Metering sived Charges". In addition to above, expenses have to peincurred for fuel and also for maintaining the plant ‘These expenses are proportional to the number of units generated and are called “Running Char Thus if the total cost of electric supply is to be shared equitably by various consumers, every consumer should pay a fixed sum proportional to maximum demand in addition to a sum proportional to the energy consumed by him. Inac. systems the size of the plant is determined not only by the KW capacity required but also by the power factor at which the plant is required to work. Consumers should be encouraged to draw power at high power factors because a system working at low power factor has the following disadvantages = @ Cost of power station and distribution alee is more for low power factor loads. (Low power factor makes the regulation poor so that it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain the supply voltage within specified limits. (iii) The current drawn from the supply by low power factor loads is high. Therefore the loss in the cables, lines and other equipment will be higher at low power factors. Or if the losses are to be kept the same, the sizes of conductors and other equipment will have to be increased. Tariffs for industrial users should take the above factors into account. There are various types of tariffs which try to balance the costs incurred with the nature of the consumer's load. Some of the industrial tariffs are : & . 1 Kilo watt-hour tariff. The Straightforward but not the most usual form, is a charge per kilowatt-hour consumed. Thus the ‘consumer's bill is directly proportional to the energy sed. It is also known as “Flat Rate” charge. 2.Maximum demand tariff. It is a two part tariff. The total charges are divided into two parts one being ‘simple charge per kilowatt-hour of energy consumed With another fixed charge which is based upon the jum demand. This maximum demand is the average over a predetermined period of s period is usually 15 to 30 minutes. factor tariffs. Power factor tariffs are séd to make a distinction between overall charge il6wattchour to be recovered from two types of most 389 consumers (i) Those having good power factors (who should be charged less) and (ii) Those having poor power factors (who should be charged more). Power factor Tariffs are two part type. There are three different types of power factor tariffs (@) KVA maximum demand tariffs. ‘The maximum demand is measured in kVA and a demand charge per kVA may be recovered in addition to the charges levelled for the energy consumption. (®) Average power factor tariffs. In this case, an average power factor say 0.8 lagging may be assumed as reference and’ a surcharge for each 0.01 by which the average pJ. falls below this figure (0.8 in our case) may be made. Also, if the average pf. is above this reference figure, a discount may be allowed in a similar manner. (©) kWhand kV Arh tariffs. In this type of tariff both kilowatt-hour (kWh) and reactive kilovolt-ampere-hour (kV Arh) are separately charged. 7 The above brief consideration of tariffs is sufficient to show that special meters like maximum demand indicators, reactive kilovolt-ampere hour meters and kilovolt-ampere hour meters have to be installed at industrial establishments in order to have balance between costs of power production with the money recovered from different types of consumers. 12.10 MAXIMUM DEMAND INDICATORS The chief requirement of these indicators is that they shall record the maximum power taken by a consumer during a particular period. The maximum, demand indicators shall be so designed. that any sudden momentary increase in loads such as due to short circuits on the system or due to high starting currents of motors are not taken into account. Therefore, a maximum demand indicator must be designed to record the average power over successive predetermined periods. These periods may be of 15 to 30 minutes duration. Maximum demand indicators are of four types (Recording demand indicators. (ii) Average demand indicators (Merz Price maximum demand indicator). (ii) Thermal type maximum demand indicators. (i) Digital maximum demand indicators. Only Merz Price Maximum Demand Indicator is described here. 390 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 12.10.1 Average Demand Indicator (Merz Price Maximum Demand Indicator) This type of demand indicator is not a separate instrument but is a fitting which can be attached as a unit with any type of energy meter. Thus the L, ‘maximum demand indicator together with the energy c meter registers the total energy consumption and the maximum value of the average power over equal ie intervals of time which may be of 15 or 30 minutes duration. Construction and operation. It consists of a special dial mechanism with a pointer driven forward by a gear train which is normally coupled to the energy meter spindle. This dial system is engaged to the meter spindle for a predetermined time interval say half an hour. After the expiry of this time interval, a reset device comes into operation which brings the mechanism back to zero position. The pointer, however, does not return to zero but is lightly held by a special friction device and continues indicating the energy consumed during the previous half hour. The pointer will not move forward unless the energy consumed in some subsequent time interval exceeds the one recorded by the pointer. In this way the maximum demand expressed in energy consumed per half hour for any given period of the time, is obtained. The reset device for returning the driving mechanism of the demand indicator to zero at the end of every half hour, is operated by a switch actuated by either a small synchronous motor of the electric clock-type or by an ordinary spring driven dock-mechanism. In some cases the spring of the clock fs wound electrically. Duration of the time intervals Fig. 42.14 Merz Price Maximum Demand Indicator. depends upon the setting of the switch which may be a : altered as desired. There ate a number of variations in details of Figure 1214 shows a Meri meximam magne ray anda ath may cam aoe i ard for lectromaj yan demand indicator. A pin drives the pointer ae during substituted for the bell crank reledsing device a period say half hour. The energy consum: ig t fe =] =] Pini Ball rank mechanism it this period is indicated on the dial. At the end of this ‘The avefage maximum demand can be calculated peed ‘a.cam controlled by a timing gear momentarily _ by the following simple formula : disengages the pinion (as indicated) by means of a bell Average maximum demand in kW crank. This allows the driving mechanism and the pin to return to zero position under the action of a spring, The pointer, however, remains at its position and ‘continues recording the energy consumed during the wevious half hour period. During the next half hour ; am the pin is again driven forward, but the pointer Maximum demand meters ofthis type can #50 er dif the energy consumed during used to measure the maximum demand in ferms T aay “exceeds that consumed during all KVAh or KVArh by attaching to a suitable ™ 50% ‘ 2 element which will measure such quantities. jous periods. \ maximum energy recorded over a time in interval kWh time interval in hours (1207) peosrement of Eneray and Industrial Metering 391 Advantages = ‘The instrument is more accurate than the thermal e, Its scale is also uniform, oP Disadvantages : () This meter is costly since it involves mechanisms of great complexity. (ji) The meter suffers from a serious disadvan- tage. If the maximum demand occurs some time after the start of one time interval and continues over only a part of the next interval the real maximum is not indicated since it is split up into two different time intervals. The thermal lagged meters whose indication does not depend upon preselected times but whose integration is continuous do not suffer from this disadvantage as they have a very long response time. 12.11 MEASUREMENT OF Vah AND VArh | For a circuit with a supply voltage V, load current | land power factor cos 4 we can write : (VI? = (Vicoso? +(VIsing)? Now if both sides of the above equation are multiplied by the quantity h°, where his the time in hours, we have : (Vih}? = (Vihcos 6)? + (VIsin 6)? or (VAh)* =(Wh)? +(VArh)* where VAh = volt-ampere hours, Wh = watt-hours, and VArh = volt-ampere hours reactive. on(12.18) (12.19) Expressing the above equation in the units encountered in big systems (kVAny = (KWhy? + (kVAthYy fe +-s(12.20) Equations 12.18, 12.19 and 12.20 hold good only for the condition that cos is maintained constant throughout the time period of h-hours. In practice this condition is usually not met. Let us consider a " Srouit where the power factor cos varies irregularly fiom time to time. If a graph is plotted with wt readings horizontally and reactive volt mpere vertically, the readings being taken at part Fintervals then at the end of several Kours the Reactive volt ampere ® Fig. 12.15 Relationships between Apparent, active reactive components of Power and Energy. At the end of first hour the energy in Wh is OE and ‘VAth is equal to AE and therefore the VAh, provided that pf. cos, has remained constant during first hour, is given by OA as : OA= y(OE*)+( AE?) At the end of 2nd hour the total Wh recorded is OF and the total VArh is BF. But the total Vah is not represented by line OB, since the pf. during second hour is cos 6,, which differs from cos 6,. The true VAh is given by (OA+ AB) which is, of course, greater than. OB. Thus over a period of four hours [as represented in Fig. 12.15()], the total Wh recorded is OH and the total VArhis DH. If we apply Eqn. 12.19, the total VAh is OD. But the true VAh is not OD but is (OA+ AB+ BC+ CD) which is larger than OD. It is clear that whatever be the shape of lines, between O and D its length can never be less than the straight line OD. Thus if the power factor varies from one instant to the next, even by a small amount the true total VAh is always greater than the value given by expression ah = (Wh) +(VArhy? 394 ‘Actually it is not very necessary to meter volt ampere hours since the information required is merely for the establishment of an acceptable power factor index for estimating the cost of energy supplied. The power factor does not normally remain constant and, therefore, the average power factor is taken asa power factor index. “Average power factor Wh cost, = yap a wh awn)? + (varhy? Thus for the arrangement of Fig. 12.18(a) _ reading of meter A '« “Teading of meter B ~ For the arrangement of Fig 12.18(b) reading of meter A cos, = -—_—_— ending oimeter A ____ “Treading of meter A)? + (reading of meter OF “Average power factor is also known as “average Electrical and Electronic Measu roments and Instrumentation meter. This meter measures kVAh 1, Trivector imum demand. The meter and also kVA of maxi is of a kWh meter and a reactive KVAh meter in immator mounted between con’ the case with a special sui them, Both the meters drive the summator through a complicated gearing which arranges for the summator to register KVAh correctly at all power factors. Actually five different gear systems are used : 1. Watt-hour meter driving alone’at normal speed. This corresponds to“unity power factor. 2, Watt-hour speed slightly reduced. Reactive meter speed considerably reduced. Corres- ponding to phase angle 22.5° and power factor 0.925. 3. Both speeds reduced by the same factor. Phase angle 45°, power factor 0.707. 4, Watthour speed considerably reduced, reactive meter speed slightly reduced. Phase-angle 67.5°, power-factor 0.38. 5, Reactive meter driving alone at normal energy factor”. speed. Power-factor zero. SCO) “ACCRECCO “COE col LZ a ltalaal NOE is | 30° 2 a yeosurement of Energy and Indusirial Metering 395 ‘The final drive from each gear system is taken toa ctcot-coupling linked to a common register shat. By this means the shaft is always driven by the planet wheel (or direct drive) which has the maximum speed, idle all four of the slower shafts merely idle on the Fiche. Ifthe power-factor changes by an appreciable “mount then the drive shifts to a different ratchet as a jaw shaft takes up the fastest running speed. This is gown by the speed/power-factor curves for the two component meters. For a given VI product the speed ofthe watt-hour meter varies as cos 4 consequently thecurve of ‘speed/phase-angle’ over a range of 0-90° lagging ‘takes the form (1) of Fig. 12.20 while the speed sariations of the reactive meter follow curve (6). Thus, ifonly the two ungeared drives were available, then the speed of the final spindle would follow curve (1) fora range of phase angle variation 0 - 45°, but would move to curve (5) for angles 45 - 90°. Now taking. conditions at the first differential gear the | fundamental speeds are reduced by means of suitable gears to give the curves @') and @") for the drive speeds from the two component meters. The plant ‘wheel speed is the sum of these two speed-curves (2), Similarly curve (3) applies to the second differential gear where the speed reduction ratios are equal, and auve (4) to the third differential where the speed ‘ntios are the same as for curve (2) but in the reverse adet. Continuing the resultant speed curves, and bearing in mind the fact that the register drive takes 1p the fastest ratchet speed, the overall curve (6) is obtained. If the gearing is modified a little to give slightly fast running at the peaks of the curve then the maximum effective error is not more than one or two per cent feurve 7] 2 VAR meter using bridge connected rectifiers. This meter utilizes a 3 phase bridge connected rectifier for summing up the 3 line currents. This meter, therefore, operates satisfactorily on unbalanced loads. The circuit is shown in Fig. 12.21 The three current transformers supply the bridge connected rectifier with currents proportional to the line currents The components of the direct current J, due to each of the currents , Ip and I, are each independent of the phase of the corresponding current so that the total current J, is a measure of the arithmetic sum of the fine currents of the system. This current is passed through the control winding of a transductor, and the alternating current J, in the output circuit of the transductor (fed from the auxiliary transformer) is proportional to I,. I, is passed through the current coil of a conventional induction meter ; the voltage circuit is fed from the lines, as shown. The phase angle between pressure coil current J, and current coil [, will be constant, so that the meter speed will be proportional to the product of line voltage and J, and hence to the product of line voltage and line current also summed by the rectifier, ‘Bridge connected reetifier ‘vah meter. Transductor e os (0) ct a aL (0) cT a —L— feet p000-° ae a}e Saher Ns 2. Pressure LA coil Current ail RLM ESI ETA UCLA BSS 396 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 12.14 TESTING OF ENERGY METERS ‘The term ‘testing’ includes the checking, of the actual registration of the meter as well as the adjust- ments done to bring the errors of the meter within the prescribed Ii A.C. Energy meters. Meters should be tested for the following conditions : 1. ALS per cent of marked current with unity power factor. 2, At 100 or 125 per cent of marked current with unity power factor. 3. At one intermediate load with unity power factor. 4. At marked current and 0.5 lagging power factor. In addition meters should be subjected to the following tests : 1. Creep test. With an applied voltage of 110 percent of its marked value and with the current circuit open, the meter should not revolve through more than one revolution. i,, it should not creep. 2 Starting test. At 0.5 per cent of marked value of current and with normal voltage the meter should start and run, Accuracy is not checked at this current. 12.14.1 Phantom Loading When the current rating of a meter under test is high a test with actual loading arrangements would involve a considerable waste of power. In order to avoid this “Phantom” or “Fictitious” loading is done. Phantom loading consists of supplying the pressure circuit from a circuit of required normal voltage, and the current circuit from a separate low voltage supply. It is possible to circulate the rated current through the current circuit with a low voltage supply as the impedance of this circuit is very low. With this arrangement the total power supplied for the testis that due to the small pressure coil current at “normal Voltage, plus that due to the current circuit current supplied at low voltage. The total power, therefore, required for testing the meter with Phantom loading is comparatively very small. This point is illustrated by the following example. Example 12.1 A220 V, 5 A dc. energy meter is tested ‘at its marked ratings. The resistance of the pressure circuit is 8800. and that of current coil is 0.12. Calculate the power consumed when testing the meter with “ @ Direct loading arrangements. (i: Phantom loading with current circuit excited by a6 V battery. Solution. The two testing arrangements are shown in Fig 12.22. | cc. ' c. nel a “Waa (@ ) Fig. 12.22 Diagram of Example 12.1. ( Direct loading : Power consumed in pressure circuit = (220)? /8800 = 5.5 W Power consumed in current circuit =220x5 =1100 W. Total power consumed 5+1100 = 1105.5 W. (ii) Phantom loading : Power consumed in pressure circuit = (220)? /8800 =5.5 W. Power consumed in current circuit =6x5=30W. Total power consumed =55+30=35.5W This power consumption is considerably smaller than the one with direct loading. Testing methods. Three main methods of testing motor meters are given below. Method A. This method involves a long period Dial test. Long Period Dial Test. This test is called the “long, period dial test” and is performed to check the gearing and to ensure that the readings given by registration mechanism are correct. A rotating substandard meter is used to measure the amount of energy passing through the meter being tested in a given time. The current circuits of the two meters are connected in series and thus carry the same current while the voltage circuits are connected in parallel across the same supply. The meters are started and stopped simultaneously. The registrations of two meters are compared at the end of the test period (which is an hour or even more) and the error is calculated as below. yeosurement of Energy and Industrial Metern ing Let ,=registration of meter under test in kWh, p, = registration of sub-standard meter in aan D,-D, 7 4 Percentage error = "0s 199, These tests (as they extend over long periods) give an opportunity of discovering errors due to self eating. After the end of a long period dial test, a aoa fine estat full Ioad is done to detect the errors caused py heating. Method B. A rotating substandard meter is used. the current coils of the substandard meter and the reter under test are connected in series, and their sure coils are connected in parallel, Arrangements ae provided to start and stop the two meters simultaneously. This test extends over a short period and theréfore it is known as a short period test. For short periods test (a) either the revolutions of the test meter disc are ‘compared with those made by the disc of substandard neter during the same time. © or the speeds of the discs of test and substandard meters are directly compared Let K,= number of revolutions per kWh for the meter under test, = number of revolutions per: kWh for the substandard meter, number of revolutions made by the meter under test, R,= number of revolutions madi substandard meter during the tes N, = speed of disc of meter under test, = speed of disc of substandard meter, time interval in hours. le by the t interval, N, © (@ When revolutions are compared : __ Energy recorded by meter under ilerval test during test i =R,/Ky Energy recorded by substand 2, Stinterval lard meter during, Ks + Percentage error = (81K. BLK 200 RIK (6) When speeds are compared - 2 tags py meter under test = Nt Ke used for potential 397 Ei ‘nergy recorded by substandard meter under test \ SN EK, + Percentage error =| NeKe _ Rinen} 00. ae An additional requirement of method B is one ons Period dial test” extending over an hour at ful load. This is done in order to check the registering mechanism and also the effect of time. The meter is then again subjected to a short time test at full load to check for any effect due to heating, Method C. In this method precision grade indicating instruments are used as reference standard. ‘These indicating instruments are connected in the circuit of meters under test. The current and voltage are held constant during the test. The number of revolutions made by the meter disc during the test are recorded. The time taken is also measured. Energy recorded by meter under test =R,/K, kWh. Energy computed from the readings of the indicating instrument =kWxt where R, = number of revolutions made by dise of meter under test. K,= number of revolutions per kWh for meter under test, KW= power in kilowatt as computed from readings of indicating instruments, and time in hours. (RIK... 199 : r= _ Percentage erro on In addition to this test, a ‘long period dial test’ is required to check the registration ‘mechanism. of these tests on a watt + be connected to ¢ to enable the Before conducting any hour meter its potential circuit mus the supply for one hour in orde jelt-heating of the potential coil to stabilise. 12.14.2 Meter Testing Circuits circuits incorporate Therefore separate power supplies are fand current circuits. In addition for varying the phase of so that the meter can be actor. A simple circuit for mn type meters is shown in ‘These Phantom loading. arrangement provision must be made Fither current or voltage “ested at the desired power testing single phase inductio Fig. 12.23. ‘ 398 Variable resistor H | A) Substandard moter Equalizing, lead Input transformer Auto transformer Phase shifting ‘transformes Supply Fig. 12.23 Testing of a.c. meters by Phantom loading (Phase shitting device in the pressure circuit). Pressure circuit supply. The potential circuit is supplied with the help of an input transformer having an output voltage of 250 V. The primary side of this transformer is connected to an autotransformer which provides fine control of output voltage from 010250 V. Current circuit supply. ‘The current circuit is supplied separately through a transformer. The primary of this transformer is connected t0 the same Eupply to which the pressure circuit is connected, ‘The transformer has a tapped secondary and a switch is vised to select the tapping which gives the required current, Fine adjustments of current can be done Py a int circuit. variable resistor included in the curre Phase shifting arrangement. Two types of phase shifting arrangements are employed. () The potential circuit is supplied from the secondary of @ phase shifting transformer, ‘The primary of this phase shifting transformer is Pnmected to the same supply which feeds the current amauft The phase of the potential circuit can be varied by rotating the rotor of the phase shifting transformer through an. appropriate angle. ‘Arrangement of Fig, 12.23 uses a phase shifting transformer. Electrical an A ‘and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Gi) Two similar alternators are coupled together ara dven by a motor. One ofthe alternators supplies the potential circuit and the other supplies the current Greil, On of the atematrs is mounted ona cradle ig wat its stator can be rocked around. Therefore, the Li epofie stator of this alternator can be changed a ference to the stator of the other alternator. ‘igure 12.24 shows an\arrangement for phase shiftin, of alternator supplying the current, the phase a current the current circuit can be altered with respect to phase of voltage across the pressure col circuit. The angle through which the alternator stator is moved gives a measure of the phase angle between current and voltage. The frequency of the two currents is the same as the two alternators are identical and are mounted on the same shaft. reer Fy (aternatoe Motor Rotating substandard PE meter Resistance Fig. 12.24 Testing of a.c, meters by Phantom loading (Phase shifting device in the current circuit). When Phantom loading is used an equalizing lead is necessary (Fig, 1224) in order to ensure that the potential difference between the current and the pressure coils of the meters is zero as itis when they are in service. ‘The meter constant of a 230 V, 10 A qpalthour meter 1 1800 revolutions per KWH. The mele” ested at half loa and rated voltage and unity poser Jao ‘The meter is found to make 8O revolutions in 138. Det ‘mine the meter error at half load. Solution. Actual energy con: during 69s. = Vicos$x tx 10 =230* 5 1x (138/3600) Example sumed at half load x10 = 44,0810 kWh. Measurement of Energy and Industrial Metering 399 Knergy recorded = number of revolutions made revolutions /KWh 80 44.4% 10 kWh weap 7410 kWh, Error = 08 09 0.817% f : ioe 817% fast. sample pevoliutic Au energy meter is designed to make 100 of dise for one unit of energy. Calculate the snmber of revolutions made by it aohen connected to foad carrying 40 A at 230 V and 04 power factor for an hour. If itactually makes 360 revolutions, find the percentage error. Solution. Energy actually consumed = Vicosox tx 10 =239 x 400.4110 68 kWh. ‘The meter makes 100 revolutions for one unit i., one kWh of energy consumed. ‘Number of revolutions made =368 x 100 = 368. In case the meter makes 360 revolutions, | error = 200-368 149 = 2.17% low. 308 Example 12.4 The constant for a three phase, 3 element legrating wattmeter is 0.12 revolution of disc per kWh. If the meter is normally used with a potential transformer of ratio 22,000/110 V and a current transformer of ratio 500/5 A ; {find the error expressed as a percentage of the correct reading ‘from the following test figures for the instrument only : Line Voltage =100 V; current =5.25 A ; power factor =1 Time to complete 40 revolutions = 61 s. Solution. Actual energy consumed during the test period. =V3x ratio of P.T. x ratio of C:1 x V,1,cosoxt 22000, 500, 13055.25% 1x x10 = BD BM 110% 5.25% 1 3505 =399 kWh. Energy recorded by meter during the test period “_ = number of revolutions made number of revolutions per kWh = 40. 2333.3 kWh, oz Percentage error Be, 100 = 1.68% low. Brample 12.5 A 230 V, single phase, walt hour meer Fis a constant Toad of 4A passing through it for 6 hours ahs 8 power ft. the meter dlc makes 2208 revolutions ring this period what i the meter constant in revolutions 7 Calculate the power factor of the load if the of revolutions mate by the meter are 1472 cohen ating at 230 V and 5A for 4 hours. Solution. Energy supplied Vicosqx tx 107 = 230% 4x 1x6 10 =5.52 kWh. Meter constant revolutions kWh 2208 =400 rev/kWh_ 552 Energy consumed when the meter makes 1472 revolutions =1472 / 400 Now energy consume .68 kWh Vicos xt 10° or 230 x 5x cosox 4x10 = 3.68. 2: Power factor, cos §= 08. imple 12.6 A correctly adjusted, single phase, 240 V induction watthour meter has a meter constant of 600 revolutions per kWh. Determine the speed of the disc, for a current of 10 A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. If the lag adjustment is altered so that the phase angle betioven voltage coil flux and applied voltage is 86°. Calculate the error introduced ut (u) unily pf. (W) 05 pf. lagging. Comment upon the resuits. Solution. Energy consumed in one minute with rated current and 0.8 pf. lagging. = 240% 100.8% (1/60) 10 = 0.032 kWh, ©. Revolutions made in one minute = 0.032 x 600 =19.2. «. Speed of disc 19.2 rpm. When lag adjustment is altered : Steady speed, N = KVIsin(A-@). If the lag adjustment is correctly done A =90°. Under this condition, steady speed N = KVIsin(90°— §) = KVIcos@ Error introduced because of incorrect lag. adjustment _Kvifsin(a-§)~cos 6] 100 KVIcos® sin(A-0)= 0054, 199 percent. cos We have, A=86°. (a) at unity pf o=0. sin(86°-0°)—1 ©. Error = 100 =~ 0.24%, (by ALO pA. lagging, ¢=60% sin(86°—60")=c0360°, 199 os60™ == 12.3%, ., Error = 12 400 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Comments. Thus it is evident that at low power factors the errors due to voltage flux not being in quadrature with applied voltage is very serious even though the phase displacement differs from 90° by a small value of 4°, Example 12.7 A single phase induction type energy ‘meter is adjusted fo read correctly at unity power factor it is observed that at 1/4 full load current at 0.5 lagging power {factor the effective voltage magnet flux lags behind the current ‘magnet flux by 27°, Will it introduce any error in the measurement ? Ifso, calculate the percentage error introduced. Solution. Power factor = cos =0.5 lagging. Phase angle, 6=602, Thus the phase angle between applied voltage and load current is 60°. Under ideal conditions, the voltage magnet flux © , should lag behind the applied voltage V by 90° and the current magnet flux ©, should be in phase with load current I. This is shown in Fig) 12.25(a). \ © Fig. 12.25 Phasor diagrams of Example 12.7. Energy registered = K{ Visin(A-d)dt | asin(A-) Now under ideal conditions A =90". . Energy registered under ideal conditions ‘a.sin(90°-4)o.cos $01c0s 60°. The phasor diagram for actual working conditions is shown in Fig. 12.25 (b). Now A=87°, - Energy registered under actual working conditions, asin(A-4)a.sin(87°-60°)asin27°. It is clear from the above that the energy | registered under actual working conditions (existing _ in the meter) is not the same as under ideal conditions. srefore, the meter does not read correctly. _[sin27°-cos60° Error = oe 0.454 -05 199 49.2%, 05 J..100 Example 12.8 On investigation a power company found that the polyphase meter through which an industrial plant was being served was incorréctly connected. The error resulted from incorrect polarity markings of one of the potential transformers. During two months the indicated demand had been 400 and 600 kW and the toatt hour meter had registered 17000 and 25000 kWh. A careful test showed that power factor was 72 percent most of the time, (a) By what factor should the demand meter and watthour meter readings be multiplied to obtain the actual readings ? ‘The demand charge was Rs. 40 per kW per month and the energy charged 50 paise per kWh. Calculate the loss suffered by the company because of the error. Solution. If the meters are correctly connected : Torque on element 1 = KVIcos(30% 6) and torque on element 2 a = 18 Kcos(30°-4) The resultant torque is thus T, = KVI[cos(30°+ 6) + cos(30°-4)] = V8 KVIcosé where K =a constant. In case one of the P-Ts. is wrongly connected (ie, with its polarity reserved) the torque on that element is reserved. Let us consider that the connections on P.T. feeding element 1 are reversed. Therefore, deflecting torques are : on element 1 = K[-Vicos(30°+ 4] on element 2 = KVIcos(30°-¢) Therefore, the resultant torque on the meter, Ty = KVI[-cos(30°+6) + cos(30°-6)] KVIsing From above it is clear that if one of the P.Ts. is connected with reserved polarity, the meter reads corresponding to a power VI sin @ instead of <3 VIcosé. True reading = V3 £5. indicated reading sing = V3 cotdx indicated reading, Hence in order to get true readings the readings of the meter must be multiplied by a factor v3 cot \ @ Now cos = 0.72 or = 43.950 and cot ¢= 1.0375. ‘Thus the meter readings must be multiplied bya factor V3 x 1.0375 = 1.8 in order to get true readings. ; eosurement of Energy and Industrial Metering 401 Bill of the consumer for two months 50, = 40/400 +600] + Jo9 17000 +26000] = Rs. 56500. True bill = 18x 56500 = Loss suffered by company s. 101700 = 101700 —56500 = Rs 45200, prample 12.9 A large consumer has akVA demand and Example 123. fae SUVAK tariff measured by ‘sine’ and ‘cosine’ watthour type reters each equipped with a Merz Price demand indicator, The tariff is Rs. 40 per month per KVA of demand plus 30 pai por AVA, Determine the monthly bill for 30 days tased upon the following readings : sine” meter advances by 90,000, reactive kVAr demand aaicaor 150 KVAr, ‘cosine’ meter advances by 120,000 kWh, and demand indicator by 200 kW. What isthe erage monthly pouver factor ard the total cost per unit ? Solution. In a month, kVAth =90,000 | and kWh = 120,000. |x Total KVAh in a month = V(kWh)? +(kVArh)?=[(20,000)? + (90,000) = 150,000, \ kWh _ 12000 ins , een =05 verage Pi, 08 & = Van ~ 150,000 50 =200 Now, maximum kVAr demand maximum kW demand Maximum demand in kVA = ew? + (kVAr? = 2007 +50" | #250 Monthly bill =250 40+ 30 150,000 =Rs, 55000 55000 2 +. Cost it = ———— x 100 = 46 paise. Si Perea” 30000 is and Example 12.10 The following readings are obtained for |e moth of 30 days : kVAhr meter = 38,830, kWh meter = 151840, Demand indicator = 1400 kW. Frdout the average monthly load factor and power facto: Solution. Average Joad over a month __-units consumed in a month number ofhoursinamonth —, = 291940 = 405.5 kW. 30x28 J _ Average monthly load factor “5, averageload . _ 4055" 9 059, / maximum demand ~ 14000 Total kVAh in a month Vekewny? + evar)? = 29140 63890)? 303,737, kWh _ 291,940 KVAh 303,737 unple 12.11 A 240 V, 5 A, single phase energy meter has a registration constant of 1200 revolutions per kWh. It is tested by means of a 240 V, 5 A wattmeter having 500 seale divisions which can be read to 0.1 division and a stop ‘watch which can be read to 0.01 second and which has negligible error. When tested at full load, the meter makes 40 revolutions in 99.8 s. If the human error in timing be taken as + 0.05 s, estimate the limits within which the brror of the meter may lie. The wattmeter is accurate to within 0.05 percent of its full scale reading. Solution. Energy registered by the energy meter in 40 revolutions 40 /1200 kWh =(40 /1200)x 1000 x 3600 20x 10° Ws. Power registered by wattmeter at 240 V and 5 A =240x 5 =1200 W. Range of wattmeter = 1200 W Scale divisions = 500 : «. 1 scale division = 1200/50 = 2.4 W Observational error of wattmeter = £0.1x2.4=40.24W Constructional error of wattmeter 0.05 7 (Ge. 1200) Total error of wattmeter = +0.24 + 0.6 =+ 0.84 W. Wattmeter reading =1200 + 0.84 W. Observational error of stop watch Average p.f, cos, £06W. 0.05 s. ‘Constructional error of stop watch = +0.01 s. Total error of stop watch =+ 0.05 +0.01 = +0.06s. +. Reading of stop watch =99,8 + x0.06s. Energy obtained from readings of stop watch and wattmeter = (1200 +0.84)(99.8 +0.06)Ws. -. Limits of error of energy meter 120 10° — {(1200 +0.84)(99.8:+0.06)}. aah 120 10" Using the positive sign — Percentage error 10 10° — {(1200 -0.84)(99.8 -0.05)) . 199 - + 0.339%. 120% 10° + Using the negative sign — Percentage error 1204103 ~ (1200 +0.84)(99.8 + 0.06) 199 = 40.07%, is T 120x10° 100 a f23 402 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation | Review. Questions 1. Derive the expression for deflecting torque in single phase induction type meters. Show that the deflection is maximum when the phase angle between two fluxes is 90° and when the disc is purely non-inductive, 2, Describe the functions of the following in a single phase induction type energy meter : ( Shunt and series magnets (ji) Moving disc (iii) Permanent magnet (io) Registering mechanism (ei) Holes in the disc 3. Describe the constructional details of a single phase induction type energy meter. Explain, why the phase of shunt flux is made exactly in quad- rature with that of applied voltage so as to produce a deflecting torque exactly proportional to power. 4. Explain how the following adjustments are made ina single phase induction type energy meter : (0 Lag adjustment (i Adjustment for friction compensation (ii) Creep (io) Overload compensation (0) Temperature compensation (©) Shading bands 1. The declared constant of a 5 A, 220V d.c. watthour meter is 3275 revolutions per kWh. Calculate the speed of the disc at full load. Ina test run at half load, the meter takes 59.5 s to complete 30 revolutions, Calculate the error of the meter. [Ans. 1 rps, 0.84% fast] 2. A 50 A, 230 V meter on full load test makes 61 revolutions in 37 s. If the normal dise speed is 520 KWh, find the percentage error, er [Ans. 0.75% low] ‘A watthour meter is calibrafed to measure energy mn’ 250 V supply. On test a steady current of 15 A 5 passed through it for 5 hours at unity power faaor. If the meter readings before and after the fare 8234.21 KWh and 8253.13 kWh : tage error. ly, calculate the percentage REN \ 10. ll. 12. 13. 4. 15. —y Explain the sources of errors in single phase induction type Energy Meters. Describe the construction and working of a two element Induction type energy meter. Explain the different types of tariffs used. Explain the underlying principle for using different types of tariffs for different types of consumers, Describe the construction and working of a Merz Price Maximum Demand Indicator. Explain the different types of methods used for VAh metering. Describe in details the working of a Trivector meter. What is Phantom loading ? Explain with an example how is it more advantageous than testing with direct loading. Describe a circuit for testing of a single phase induction type energy meter at different loads and power factors. Describe a VAR meter using bridge type rectifiers. Enumerate the different types of tests that are cartied out on single phase Induction type watt- hour meters. Describe the Long Period Dial Test. Describe the crossed Phase Method for ‘measurement of VAth in 3 phase 3 wire circuits. If the spindle turns through 290 revolutions during, 5 minutes when a current of 20 A is passing, through the meter at 250 V and 0.87 power factor, calculate the meter constant. [Ans. 0.9% high ; 800 revolutions/kWh] ‘The current and flux produced by series magnet of an induction watthour meter are in phase but there is an angular departure of 3° from quadrature between voltage and the shunt magnet flux. The speed of disc at full load and unity power factor is 40 rpm. Assuming the meter to register correctly under this condition, calculate its speed at 1/4 full load and 0.5 power factor lagging. Also find Cs percentage error. [Ans 4.51 rpm, 9.2%] ‘Two single phase watthour meters are coneted through current and potential transformers) 10 & three phase system. The ratios of the transform Measurement of Energy and Industrial Metering 403 may be considered to be correct, but the phase angle of potential transformer is 15° (leading) and {hat of current transformer 3° (leading). The power | factor of the system is 0.75 lagging. Determine the relative speeds of the disc. Ans. 32:1] | 6. A single phase induction watthour meter, tested at its full load rating of 240 V, 10 A, is 1% slow at \ unity power factor and correct at a power facior 0.5 lagging. Assuming that the friction error is compensated at all power factors, estimate the | error at rated VA when the power factor of the system is (i) 0.8 lagging and (ii) 0.8 leading. [Ans. 0.57% slow ; (if) 143% slow] Calculate the monthly bill in the case of a consumer whose maximum demand is 120 kW, average monthly load factor is 30 percent, and where tariff in use is Rs. 40 per kW of maximum demand and 30 paise per kWh consumed. _[Ans. Rs. 12576] A balanced, three-phase delta-connected load on a 400-V, 50-Hz supply has an impedance of 5+ j7OIplane. The current coil of watthour meter \ W, is connected in the line R and that of a watthour meter W, in line Y. The volt coils of the two instruments have a common conhection on line B,, but have their other terminals cross-connected, i.e, the volt coil of W, is connected to line Y and that of W, to line R. Show that the reactive kVAlr of the load may be determined from the reading of either watthour meter, and calculate the watthour meter reading and the total reactive KV-Ah if the time Tick (\) the most appropriate answer y braking torque provided by a permanent 7 SS Otte pase eneriy mete proportional tothe. : (a) Square of the flux of the permanent magnet () Speed of the meter (© Distance of the permanent magn: “centre of the revolving dise ‘ All the above. A EL agro « mare ~ritgnct in a single phase energy meter can changed by : (@) Providing @ ™at paon et from the ignetic shunt and changing its 9% 10. a apply to an unbalanced load ? [Ans. 26.22 kWh ; 454 KVAb] A rotating substandard energy meter is tested by 2 wattmeter of the same VA rating having 2 500 division scale which can be read to 0.1 divis and a stop watch having a negligible error with a scale which can be read to 0.01 s. The wattmeter is accurate to within 0.05 percent of its full scale reading of all parts of the scale, and the total error in starting and stopping the stop watch does not exceed 0.1 s. Determine the duration necessary for a test of the energy meter at 100 percent load to enable the measured accuracy of the meter to be guaranteed to within 0.1 percent. For test of the same duration at 10 percent load, calculate limits of accuracy of the determination. [Ans. 370 s ; 073%) A large consumer has a KVA demand and akVah (9 tariff measured by ‘sine’ and ‘cosine’ watthour type meters, each equipped with a Merz Price Demand Indicator. The tariff is Rs. 15 per kVA ~ Re O.1 per kVAh. Determine the consumer's mon: bill for 30 days based on the following reading sine meter registers 100 MVAth, demand indicatoz 125 KVAr and cosine meter registers 125 MWh and demand indicator 180 KW. What are the monthly power factor, load factor and average cost per [Ans. Rs, 19250, 0.781, 0.964, Re. 0.154) unit ? Objective Type Questions —_¥ (b) Changing the distance of the permanent magnet from the centre of the revolving diss (©) Both (a) and (6) (@) None of the above. In the single phase induction meter, in order to obtain true value of energy, the shunt magnet flux shduld lag behind the applied voltage by (2) 90° wo oa (@ None of the above. In an induction type of meter, maximum tongue is 4 produced when the phase angle, Between the (Wo “fluxes is: (a) eae ou ow 404 4, AG an induction type meter, maximum torque is obtained when the parameters of rotating disc are: (@ R=0 ()X=0 (Q R=X (a) None of the above. where R and X are respectively the resistance and reactance of eddy current paths in the dise. 6. Jna single phase induction type energy meter, the ai adjustment is done e% (a) To make the current coil flux to lag 90° behind the applied voltage () Tomake the pressure coil flux to lag 90° behind the applied voltage (©) Tobring the pressure coil flux in phase with the applied voltage None of the above. 4mm a circuit of a single phase induction energy meter, the pressure coil lags the voltage by 88°, the errors while measuring power in two circuits having power factors of unity and 0.5 lagging are a & : 0s respectively are : (@) — 0.061%, + 6.1% — (b) + 0.061%, - 6.1% = 0.061%, - 6.1% (d) - 6.1%, - 61%. ‘Phantom loading for testing of energy meters is used : we (a) To isolate the current and potential circuits (®) To reduce power loss during testing (c) For meters having low current ratings (@ To test meters having a large current rating for which loads may not be available in the labora- tory. This also reduces power losses during testing. an induction type energy meter, compensation for static feiction is provided by (@ Shading bands which are actuated by to provide a constant torque irrespective of load (©) Lag circuits (©) Drilling holes in the disc (@) None of the above. 1,5 2.0 © BO, 38, Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation (b) Reversing the load terminals (©) Opening the meter connections and reversing cither the potential coil terminals or current coil terminals (a) Opening the meter and reversing connections of both current and potential coil circuits, 11. If an induction type Energy meter runs fast, it CUZ slowed down by : (a) Lag adjustment (&) Light load adjustment (©) By adjusting the position of braking magnet and making it come closer to the centre of the disc (@ By adjusting the position of braking magnet and making it move away from the centre of the disc. 12,/Creeping in a single phase induction type energy meter may be due to : (2) Overcompensation for friction (b) Overvoltage (© Vibrations (@ All the above. 13,4 Merz Price Maximum Demand indicates : (@) Maximum demand (®) Average maximum demand over a specified period of time (©) Maximum energy consumption (d) All the above. 4. metering can be done by using : (@) A ball and dise friction gearing () Trivector meter (6) Bridge connected Rectifiers (@ Al the above. Light load adjustments for induction type enerey meters are usually done at (a) 10% of full load current (b) 5% of full load current i (©) 50% of full load current (@ 1% of full load current. Indicator 3 AAuauers cs @ . (0) Lhe 5.060". 7.0 &@ 9@ 10.0 15, 0),

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