Chapter 4: Human Development “Meaning of Development, Growth and Maturation Development refers to the pattern of continue throughout life. Development terms but they are not the same. Predictable changes that begin at conception and » growth and maturation are very closely related Growth refers to an increase in the size of the bods 2 s ly parts or the organism as a whole. It can be measured, e.g. increase in height or weight. Maturation refers to changes that are largely dictated by our genetic blueprint and follow an orderly sequence. Lifespan Perspective on Development 1, Development is lifelong: Development starts from conception and goes on till old age. It includes both gains as well as losses, which interact with each other throughout life. 2. Development is wholistic: If there is problem in one area, all other areas are also affected, eg. if we have any physical disability, then it results in many problems that affect our } socio-emotional life as well. 3. Development is multidirectional: It is possible that some dimensions of development increase while others are decreasing at the same time, e.g. with the increase in age, our wisdom may grow but physical strength may decrease. 4. Development is highly plastic: It means skills and abilities can be improved and modified at any age. 5. Development is influenced by the historical conditions: Historical conditions also | directly influence the development of an individual. For example, political instability may affect the development of a child such that the development of a child in Ethiopia, Taliban, Iraq or USA will be different. ; 6. Development is influenced by life events: Major upheavals like parent’s death, accident, etc, can also affect the development of an individual. - ; 7. Dev i ied by various disciplines: Different disciplines like sociology, | Eee ailcpone ais BR all concerned with development. Each discipline tries to | provide answers to development according to their area of study. 85ore HEE eyctology Factors influencing Development Development, like other things, is a product of nature and nurture, i.e, heredity an environment. The two factors that influence development are as follows 1. Genetic transmission: Our characteristics are a result of our genes to some extent, Genotype refers to the entire set of a person's inherited genes and phenotype refers tor the set of inherited genes which can be distinctly identified. They both play a role in = development. 2. Environment: I! development and vice versa. f the environment is positive and enriched, then it has positive effect on Context of Development : Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development gives importance to the role of environment in development. He emphasises on five levels which are as follows: ‘The Microsystem: It refers to the immediate environment in which an individual lives and has direct contacts with social agents like family, peers, teachers and neighbours. ‘The Mesosystem: It consists of the relations between these contexts. For example, relationship between parents and teachers or parents and friends. 3. The Exosystem: It refers to social events that may not directly involve the child but may influence his immediate experience. For example, transfer of parents or facilities available to the child. 4, The Macrosystem: It includes the culture in which an individual lives. For example, Asian culture and Western culture provides different kinds of environment and value Th systems. 5. The Chronosystem: It includes major events in a person’s life or socio-cultural circumstances like accident, divorce of parents, political unrest, etc. that affect his/her development. Events like these can naturally act as a setback for the normal course of development of an individual. Thus, Bronfenbrenner believed that an impoverished context hampers development while an enriched environment enhances and supports our development. On the other hand, Durganand Sinha believes that the ecology of a child can be divided into two layers: (a) The Upper, Visible Layer: It includes family, friends, school, etc. In this layer, the ao important ecological factors that influence the development of children are 9 basis ies G rec space, facilities like toys or books, etc. (ii) schooling in nature and quality of exposure, and (iii iti iends i of their activities and nature of eta So SERS wae a gees ne (b) The Surroundi: il i ea ae Invisible Layer: It consists of geographical environment |, pollution, etc. It also includes institutional settings like social class, casteChapter 4: Human Development [RAM et an the general facilities available to the child, Their influence is not clearly visible but we a shaped by our experiences in relation to both these layers. ‘Thus, according to Durganand Sinha, both the upper, visible layer and the surrounding, jnvisible layer interact to influence the development - Poe races in relation to both these layers, pment of a child who is shaped by his Developmental Stages and Developmental Tasks: iuman life proceeds through different stages like childhood, adulthood, etc. These stages are temporary and are often characterised by a dominant feature that makes the stage unique. Certain patterns of behaviour and skills are learned much more easily and successfully during certain stages. These are known as developmental tasks. Major Development Stages So Prental Stage Infancy Childhood Adolescence += Adulthood «(Old Age. Prenatal Stage Prenatal stage is the period from conception to birth. The factors influencing prenatal development are as follows: 1. Mother’s Age: The ideal age for childbirth is 23 to 29 years. If the mother is very young or very old, it can affect the development of the foetus. 2. Mother’s Health: The mother should be healthy. If she has problems like HIV or German Measles, then the foetus can develop some abnormalities. 3, Mother’s Emotional State: The mother’s emotional condition is also important in the prenatal stage. Stressful life and anxiety do not help in the healthy development of the foetus. 4, Teratogens: They refer to the external environmental factors that can hamper development. For example, drugs, alcohol, radiation, etc. Infancy Newborns till the age of one month are called neonat known as an infant. ‘The following changes take place i is capable of giving many reflexes. Reflexes hhich are useful for survival, e.g. grasping, es and till two years of age, a baby is in newborns: 1, Motor Development: Just after birth, a baby are genetic, automatic, built-in responses w! blinking, etc. E Sensory Development: Most of the se Although vision takes time to develop, They are also colour-deficient. wnses are developed in newborns except vision. newborns can hear, smell, taste, feel and touch.y i derstand the world as we do. H. . f t: A child does not understand the do. He grad 3. Cognitive Dee eae ‘According to Piaget, a child’ understanding goes thro’ develops his un e.g. initially, a newborn can only concentrate on What i ‘lopment, , v different stages of develop 2 fs ane js visible and present. Things that he can’t see, don't exist for him. However, he g) iy Jearns that things do exist even if he is not able fo see them may é 4, Socio-emotional Development: Right from our birth, we are social beings. All newborns . like to be with familiar loving faces. They get attached to the caregiver, i.e. mostly Parents, Erikson believes that the first year of life is very important to develop the sense of trust ina child. Healthy relationships with parents, even at such an early stage, play a major role in shaping our future personalities. Childhood s This stage roughly spans from three years of age till puberty. Although the speed of development slows down a bit in this stage, various other changes take place that are as follows: 1. Physical Development: The physical development in a child takes place in two directions, namely: (a) Cephalocaudal Development: It proceeds from the cephalic or the head region to the caudal or the tail region. Children gain control of their upper bodies before the lower part of their bodies, e.g. an infant uses his arms first for crawling and then learns to use his legs. () Proxymodistal Development: It proceeds from the centre of the body to the extremities. Children first gain control over their torso before the extremities, eg. initially, children reach for an object by turning their entire body and then learn to stretch just their arms. 2. Motor Development: Fine motor skills, finger dexterity, eye coordination, hand preference, etc. are shown during early childhood. By three years of age, a child can jump, run and build blocks, by four years of age, he can climb with one foot and solve jigsaw puzzles and by the time he is five years of age, he enjoys racing and eye, hand and body coordination can be seen in things like dance, 3. Cognitive Development Piaget has given four stages of cognitive development. These are as follows: (a) Sensorimotor (0 to 2 Years): In this stage, the infant tries to understand the world only through senses and physical actions. (0) Preoperational (2 to 7 years): Object permanence and symbolic thought develop ina child during this stage. However, hi . si z 5 he/shi i 5 ae physical attributes of an Barc 1 cannot differentiate between differ: (c) Concrete Operational (7 to 11 Years): In this stage, the child can classify objectsChapters: Human Development EO into different sets, use logic in concrete situations and perform reversible mental operations. (@ Formal Operational (11 to 15 years): This is the stage in which adolescents can apply logic and abstract thinking, and develop hypothetical reasoning. Some of the major features of childhood are as follows: (# Egocentrism: It refers to self-focus or self-obsession of the child, ie. the child cannot understand other's points of view. (i) Animism: It refers to a child’s tendency to think of even inanimate objects as living beings. (iii) Centration: It refers to a child’ tendency to focus on only one characteristic of different objects and the failure to comprehend more than one aspect of the object at the same time. (iv) The ‘Why? Stage: Children also keep asking lots of questions in childhood like ‘Why is the sky blue?, Where do I come from?’ etc., which Piaget calls as ‘intuitive thought. 4. Socio-emotional Development: Children develop a sense of identity in early childhood whereby gender identity is also established. Comparisons with other children start at this age, however, if parents give freedom, opportunities and support to the child, it helps to puild his/her confidence. In this age, the social world of children expands beyond home and family, and school life and friends start playing a crucial role. This shapes and adds on to their socio-emotional development. Moral Development: Initially, a child learns to differentiate between right and wrong in order to avoid punishment and get rewards. However, by late childhood, the sense of right and wrong is internalised. Thus, children develop a personal moral code. Adolescence ‘The word ‘adolescence’ is derived from the Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means to grow into maturity. It is a transitional stage accompanied by rapid changes. The factors which make development challenging during the period of adolescence are as follows: . Physical Development: Adolescence is the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty when sexual maturity is reached, It results in the appearance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair, change in voice, changes in body contours, etc. Accepting and adjusting to this rapid growth spurt becomes an important developmental task during adolescence. Adolescent Sexuality: During the period of adolescence, there are a number of Psychological changes that occur along with the physical changes. The gonads release sex hormones as a result of which an interest in the opposite sex develops. Increased attention to sexuality also leads to inner conflicts as it is often a taboo subject with xPsychology parents, teachers and adults. Information and communication can rather be poor during this stage and it may lead to major problems. 3. Cognitive Development: In this stage, an adolescent develops formal ©Perationay thought where abstract thinking, ideal standards and hypothetical-deductive reasoning, i.e. a systematic way of seeking solutions to a problem are developed. Special Egocentrism: Imaginary audience and personal fables are two importan, components of egocentrism. The desire to get noticed and to be a unique person Often, makes an adolescent stressed over minor issues. Seeking an Identity: It is at this stage that an adolescent tries to find out who he is, and what are his values, attitudes and beliefs. He tries to establish an identity of his own which is separate from his parents. He fluctuates between two phases, ie, he wants to be independent although he is still dependent on his parents. This stage involves searching for continuity and sameness in oneself. Adolescents who are not able to cope with identity crisis suffer from identity confusion. If negative identity is established in this stage, an adolescent may face major problems like delinquency. 6. Vocational Identity: Setting realistic and achievable goals is one of the important things which an adolescent has to do in today’s competitive world in order to form a vocational identity, > 2 x - Peer Group: The choice of peer group is very important in this age as acceptance by them helps an adolescent in his identity formation. 8. Major Concerns: Adolescence is a delicate and vulnerable period. The feelings of self- doubt, anxiety and uncertainty may lead to some problems like delinquency, substance abuse and eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia. (a) Substance Abuse: It refers to excessive intake of substances like alcohol, drugs, etc, Peer pressure can also play a role in the addiction of these substances which may seriously affect life. Juvenile Delinquency: It refers to anti-social acts or crimes committed by a person who is below 18 years of age. It is often related to low Parental support, indiscipline and family problems. ( (©) Eating Disorders: There are two eating disorders that are mainly seen in adolescents, anorexia nervosa and bulimia. In anorexia:nervosa, ‘a person) starwes dhiniselGlta reduce weight while bulimia is marked by the ‘binge and purge’ syndrome. Adulthood It refers to being responsible, self-supportin, developmental tasks in early adulthood are: ig and well-integrated into the society. Two major=e Chapter Human Development SET Jead us to successful careers. Entering work life is also challen 5 ging as it requires one: iompetence, ability to deal with competition, deadlines, et, | ttTes Ome 2, Marriage, Parenthood and Family: Marriage involves coping with each other’ lik Gislikes lifestyles, finances and families. If both the partners are working, adjustnenc, are required regarding sharing responsibilities, finances, etc. Parenthood Se cee dificult and stressful transition though it is accompanied by love for the baby. Middle Adulthood ‘This is the stage when careers are usually at the peak, however, the decline of physical health also begins at this stage such as loss of vision and hearing, changes in physical appearance, etc. Memory starts declining too. Old Age ‘There is no fixed age which can be a demarcation line/cut-off point for old age. Nowadays, the myth about old age being a lonely and unpleasant stage is slowly diminishing as people are realising that it is the attitude towards aging which will determine their lifestyles. 1. Retirement: Retirement from an active vocational life changes the lifestyle of an individual that has continued for many years. Hence, it naturally requires adjustments. If the attitude towards retirement is positive, it can be a relaxed phase of life. If an individual is ready to adapt to his/her new role, use his finances efficiently and make productive and creative use of his free time, then old age can be the best phase of life. Some of the concerns of old age are as follows: (a) Empty Nest Syndrome: Aged people can suffer from the empty nest syndrome when their children leave home as a feeling of loneliness can set in. (b) Death of Spouse: This can make the adjustment into old age all the more difficult. However, the elderly should try to be busy and enjoy the company of their grandchildren. Questions from NCERT Textbook . What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation? Ans. Development is a pattern of progressive, orderly and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life. It involves growth as well as decay. Developmental changes are varied in their pace and scope. Development, growth and maturation are very closely related terms but they are not same. Growth refers to increase in the size of the body parts or the organism as a whole. It can be quantified, e.g. increase in height or weight. Maturation refers to changes that are largely dictated by our genetic blueprint.BEE stoosy Ans. Ans. . Describe the main features 0! Ans. . ‘Environment of the child ys ce and give commonality to our groy ‘These changes follow an ase fosters i a by seven monthsloy ma es development. For examp! ae of age. No amount of extra training can speed y, with suppor by eight monty © ody ofthe infant is mature enough, changes or development, unless ly 4 ra f life-span perspective on development. Development refers to pattern of changes that nee Hi concer and coming throughout life. The study ‘of development according to life-span perspective : ne following characteristics: \ ae is lifelong: It takes place across all age groups, starting from conception till old age. It includes growth as well as decay. (ii) Development is wholistic or multi-levelled: It means that there are various processes of human development like biological, social, emotional, cognitive, etc. and they are all interrelated. If there is a problem in one area, all other areas) are also affected. | (ii?) Development is multidirectional: It is possible that some dimensions of development are increasing while others are decreasing at the same time. For example, the experience of a sportsman may increase but at the same time, his physical stamina may decline. (iv) Development is highly plastic: It means skills and abilities can be improved) throughout life. | (v) Development is influenced by historical conditions: For example, the, experience and choices made by a 20-year-old who lived through the freedom| struggle would be very different from the choices made by youth of today. (vi) Development is also influenced by our context: The life events in everyones life are not the same. Major upheavals like parents’ divorce or death, ae or business losses can affect one’s life and development. | (vii) Development is a concern of a number of disciplines: Different disciplines like psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, etc. try to provide answers to development according to their area of study, . th ang stang| P these. . What are developmental tasks? Give examples. ara Pattern of behaviour and skills are learnt much more easly and successfll a s ae eae stages. Since most people accomplish these behaviours Seen tect etna roca al tasks, e.g. getting married in adulth ood. h ( Support your answer with casita role in the development of the child?ERs ___ lives and has direct contacts with social agents like family, peers, teachers and neighbours. (ii) The Mesosystem: It consists of the relations between these contexts. For example, relationship between parents and teachers or parents and friends. (iii) The Exosystem: It refers to social events that may not directly involve the child but may influence his immediate experience. For example, transfer of parents or facilities available to the child. (iv) The Macrosystem: It includes the culture in which an individual lives. ! (y) The Chronosystem: It includes major events in a person's life or socio-cultural circumstances like accident, divorce of parents, political unrest, etc. that affect his/her development. ‘Thus, Bronfenbrenner believed that an impoverished context hampers development while an enriched environment enhances and supports our development. 5. How do socio-cultural factors influence development? Ans. Development refers to a pattern of changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life. There are various processes of human development like biological, social, emotional, cognitive, etc. They are all interrelated. If there is problem in one area, all other areas are also affected. Thus, the role of social and cultural influence becomes important, Development is also influenced by historical conditions. For example, the experiences and choices made by a 20-year-old who lived through the freedom struggle would be very different from the choices made by the youth of today. If our social environment is politically unstable like Kashmir, naturally, the prioritiesin life will also become different. Development is also influenced by our cultural context. If society has prejudice against certain class, colour and caste, then it can affect an individual’s life and development. Our social norms and customs also have a great impact on our development. 6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child. Ans. According to Piaget, cognitive development can be divided into four major stages: (i) Sensorimotor Stage: Till two years of age, an infant tries to understand the world mainly by using senses and physical actions, (ii) Preoperational Stage: This stage is seen during two to seven years of age when symbolic thought is developed and object permanence is established. However, in this stage, the child cannot differentiate between different physical aspects of an object. (ii) Concrete Operational Stage: ‘This stage is seen during seven to eleven years of age when the child can reason logically, can classify objects into different sets and perform reversible mental operations, (iv) Formal Operational Stage: This phase is seen during eleven to fifteen years of age when adolescents can apply logic and abstract thinking, and develop hypothetical thinking.EB ctor . Bs ponds formed during childhood years have long-term ef, y Ans. . The word ‘adolescence’ is derive " hment a i peeriee examples from daily life. Oras rane Baa, We, as babies, are social creatures by birth. Very early a life, we prefer loving faces. Our first attachment is with our caregivers, that is, our parents ami emotional bond that a child develops with them is called attachment, The , “os are talked to or are picked up, the happier we are, This attachment js Be: Ore ye satisfying our survival needs but also for emotional reasons. Erikson Tightly si t fo this initial secure attachment gives us a sense of trust and helps in the Garth 5 that cour personality. Demonstrative and sensitive parents give us that positive con unfortunately, if parents are insensitive, critical and compare us with others, iq. a sense of self-doubt and we fail to develop as warm, affectionate adults, Teates What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism. d from a Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means to ional stage that is accompanied by rapid chan, I, personal and sexual in nature, The desire toy is very strong in this age. This is the age when an individual is trying to find out who he is and what are his values, attitudes ang beliefs. He tries to establish an identity of his own that is separate from his parents, 4 salient feature of adolescence is egocentrism, that is, self-focus. It refers to adolescents viewing the world only in terms of their own selves and not being able to appreciate others’ points of view. Personal fables and imaginary audience are a part ofthe into maturity. It refers to a transiti ‘These changes are biological, social noticed and to be a unique person 1: egocentrism of adolescents. ‘What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support your answer with examples. ‘The word ‘adolescence’ is derived from a Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means to grow into maturity, It refers to a transitional stage that is accompanied by rapid changes. ‘These changes are biological, social, personal and sexual in nature. The desire to get noticed and to be a unique person is very strong in this age. This is the age when an individual is trying to find out who he is and what are his values, attitudes and beliefs. He tries to establish an identity of his own that is separate from his parents. A salient feature of adolescence is egocentrism, that is, self-focus. It refers to adolescents viewing the world only in terms of their own selves and not being able to appreciate others’ points of view. Personal fables and imaginary audience are a part of te egocentrism of adolescents. me adolescent fluctuates between two phases. He wants to be independent but is still wine siete rier bee . The choice of peer group is also very impo! in this age as acceptance by the peer group helps him in his identity formation If circumstances in life or the environment are not conducive, then it can harm thets. If parents are insensitive or the social norms somehow ; ‘one can have problems in forming their identity. A refugee, pambaybetson! with gender identity issues may face identity crisis at the time aa identity is established during this stage, he may face major re the challenges faced by an individual in adulthood? dult BS generally defined as someone who is responsible, mature, self-supporting ad well-integrated into the society. Two major developmental tasks in early adulthood are as follows: (®) Career: Earning a living and developing a career are important tasks for people in their twenties and thirties. Choices that are based on abilities, interests and personalities lead us to successful careers. Entering work life is challenging as it requires one’s competence, ability to deal with competition, deadlines, etc. (i) Marriage, Parenthood and Family: Marriage is not only about romance. It involves coping with each other's likes, dislikes and lifestyles. If both the partners are working, adjustments are required regarding sharing responsibilities, finances, etc. Parenthood can also be a difficult and stressful transition though it is accompanied by love for the baby. It can put the mother’s career on hold too. Additional Questions Section A: Learning Checks (1 mark each) 1. Development also involves decay. (True/False) 2, Development takes place only till adolescence. (True/False) 3, Growth is an interplay of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes. (True/False) 4, Development is son « (unidirectional/multi-directional) 5, Development is highly plastic. (True/False) 6. Historical conditions also influence development. (True/False) ion ... can be quantified. (Growth/Development) 8. = ... Tefers to an increase in the size of body parts of an organism. (Growth/Development) .. is a pattern of changes that begins at conception and continues throughout life. is a process of changes that is largely dictated by genetic blueprint. sees 2 ... Fefers to species-specific changes.