Nuclear

Physics
 Nuclear Models
 Liquid drop Model
 Semi Empirical Mass
Formula
 Shell Model
 Concept of Magic number
 Nuclear Models
 Why is the binding energy per nucleon almost constant?
 Why do certain nuclei emit α- and β-particles through
these particles do not exist inside the nucleus?
 Why are the nuclei containing 2,8,20,28,50,82 nucleons
most
stable?
 Like any other quantum mechanical system, a nucleus
also exist in its excited states. The most stable state
is the ground state in which the nuclei are generally
found.

Different models:

1.Liquid drop model

2.Shell model
3.Collective model
 Nuclear
models:
1. the “water-drop”
model
2. the “shell” model
Models describe
aspects of the
structure of nuclei
and how they behave.
The water-drop
model
Or Liquid drop
model
 Assumptio
ns of all elements are considered to be behave like a
1. The nuclei
liquid drop of incompressible liquid of very high density.

2. In an equilibrium state the nuclei of atoms remain spherically

symmetric under the action of strong attractive nuclear
forces just like the drop of a liquid which is spherical due to
surface tension.

3. The density of a nucleus is independent of its size just like

the
density of liquid which is also independent of its size.

4. The nucleons of the nucleus move about within a spherical

enclosure called the nuclear potential barrier just like the
movement of the molecules of a liquid within a spherical
drop of liquid.
 As a first approximation, we can
Volume think of each nucleon in a nucleus
Energy as interacting solely with its nearest
neighbors.
Energy associated with each
nucleon- nucleon bond = U

Because each bond energy is

shared by two nucleons therefore
each has a binding energy of ½ U.

When an assembly of spheres of

the same size is packed together
into the smallest volume, each
interior sphere has 12 other
spheres
In contact with it
 Volume
Energy
Hence each interior nucleon in a nucleus has a binding
energy of
=12(1/2U) = 6U.

If all A nucleons in a nucleus were in the interior, the total

binding Energy would be
E
OrV= 6AU E =a A
V 1
Volume energy

Also we know that if nucleus is spherical

then
4
R 3
A
3
 Surface
Energy
Actually, of course, some nucleons are on the surface of
every Nucleus and therefore have fewer than 12
neighbors.
Surface energysurface area

4πR2

If R = R0 A1/3 then
Surface 4πR0
energy Or A2/3
Surface energy= - a2
A2/3
Surface A2/3
energy
It is important for lighter nuclei since a greater fraction of their
nucleons are on the surface.

Coulomb
The Energy
repulsion between each pair of protons in a
nucleus also contribute toward decreasing its binding
energy.
The coulomb energy EC of a nucleus is the work that must be
done To bring together Z protons from infinity into a
spherical aggregate The size of the nucleus.
V e 2

4 0r

Since there are Z(Z-1)/2 pairs of

protons,
Z (Z 1) Z (Z 1)e2 1
EC V
2 8 0 r av
 1
Wher is the value of 1/r averaged over all proton
r
e av
pairs.
If the protons are uniformly distributed throughout a
radius R,of1 is proportional to 1/R and hence 1/
nucleus
r av 1/3
A
Therefor Z (Z 1)
e EC a3 1

A3
The Coulomb energy is negative because it arises from an
effect that opposes nuclear stability.
The total binding energy Eb of a
nucleus Surface
energies
2
Z (Z 1)
E b E v E S E C a1 A a2 A3 a3 1

A
3

Volume Coulomb
energies energies
The binding energy per
nucleon is
EBE a1 a2 Z (Z 1)
a 3 4
A A 1/

3 A 3
 Empirical binding
energy
per nucleon curve

theoretical binding energy

per nucleon curve (using
Liquid drop model
concept)
 Correction to the Asymmetry Energy
Correction formula
1: When the neutrons in a nucleus outnumber the
protons, which means that higher energy levels to be occupied
than would be the case if N and Z were equal.
•Neutrons and protons are spin ½ fermions obey
Pauli exclusion principle.
•If other factors were equal ground state would
have equal numbers of n & p.
Illustration
Neutron and proton states with same spacing ε.
Crosses represent initially occupied states in ground
state.
If three protons were turned into neutrons the extra energy required would be 3 3ε.
In general if there are N-Z excess neutrons over
protons the extra energy is
((Z-N)/2)2 ε. relative to Z = N.
 Correction to the
Correction formula
1: When the neutrons in a nucleus outnumber the
protons, which means that higher energy levels to be occupied
than would be the case if N and Z were equal.
ΔE=(number of new neutrons)(energy increase/new
neutron)
1 1 Because N=A-Z, (N-
E NZ N Z
2 2 Z)2=(A-2Z)2
2
2
NZ
8
The greater the number of nucleon
in a nucleus the smaller is the
energy level spacing ε, with ε
proportional to 1/A
Asymmetry energy due to
2
difference Between N and Z A 2Z
Ea E a4
A
Correction to the Pairing Term
formula
Note: The asymmetry energy is negative because it
reduces the binding energy of the nucleus
Correction 2:The correction term arises from the tendency of
proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. Even –even nuclei are
the most stable And hence have higher binding energies.
Therefore
12 C, 16 Onuclei such as 4 He,
6 8 etc. Appear as peak
2 on the empirical curve of
BE/A.
The pairing energy Ep is
positive for even-even
nuclei
The pairing energy Ep is
zero for odd-even and
even-odd nuclei
The pairing energy Epis
negative for odd-odd
Pairing Term

• Nuclei with even number of n

or even number of p more
tightly bound fig.
• Only 4 stable o-o nuclei cf 153 Nuclei Pairing
e-e. term
• p and n have different energy
levels small overlap of wave e-e +ive
functions. Two p(n) in same
level with opposite values of jz e-o 0
have AS spin state sym
spatial w.f. maximum overlap o-o -ive
maximum binding energy
because of short range
attraction.
 Correction to the ……
formula
The pairing energy Ep is
given by the relation

E P,0 a5
3/ 4
A
Semi Empirical Mass Formula (SEMF)
a1=14.1 MeV Surface a3=0.595 MeV Pairing
Term Term
Z (Z 1) ( A 2Z )2 a
Eb ( A, Z ) a1 a A a3
2/
2 3 a4
1
A ( ,0) A3/5
A
A
3 4

Coulomb Asymmetry
a2=13.0
Volume TermMeV Term a4=19.0 MeV Term a5=33.5 MeV
Numericals:

Numerical 1. The atomic mass of the zinc isotope

6
3 Zn
4
is
63.929 a.m.u. calculate its binding energy using semi-
0
empirical
mass formula and compare the results with direct
formula.
[Ans: 561.7 MeV]
 Numerical 2. Isobars are nuclides that have the same mass
number
A. Derive a formula for the atomic number of the most
stable isobar of a given A and use its to find the most
stable isobar of A=25
Solution: To find the value of Z for which the binding energy
Eb is a maximum which correspond to maximum stability, we
must Solve dEb/dZ = 0 for Z. From the liquid drop mass
formula dE a 4a
b 3 2Z 1 4 A 2Z 0
dZ 1
A
A3 1 1

a3 A 3
4a4 0.595A 3
76
Z 1 1
1 1
2a 3 A4 3
8a A 1.19A 152A 3

For A =25 this formula gives Z = 11.7, from which

we conclude that Z = 12 should be the atomic
number of The most stable isobar of A=25. This
Main Achievements of liquid
drop model (LDM)
1.It explains binding energy of large number of nuclei.

2.It explains the fusion and fission processes nicely.

3.Explains energies of radioactive decays, fission and

fusion.

Applications of the water-drop

model
1.Nuclear fission
(very large nuclei break up)
2.Nuclear fusion
Main drawbacks of liquid
drop model (LDM)

1. It is not able to explain the magic

numbers.

2. It is not able to explain excited states.

3. It is not able to calculate the nuclear

spin.
 Shell
The basic assumption of Model
the liquid drop model is that each
nucleon in a nucleus interact only with its nearest neighbors,
like a molecule in a liquid.

In shell model each nucleon interact chiefly with a general

force field produced by all the other nucleons.

The atoms with 2,10,18,36,54 and 86 electrons have all their

electron shell completely filled.

In the same way, nuclei that have 2,8,20,28,50,82 and 126

neutrons and protons are more abundant than other nuclei of
similar mass numbers, suggesting their structures are more
stable.
 Shell Model ……

It has been observed that nuclei having either

the number of protons Z on number of
neutrons N =A
- Z equal to one of the numbers 2, 8, 20, 50,
82 and 126 are more stable than their
neighbours. These numbers are called magic
numbers
 Main ……
Assumptions
1.Nucleon forms subshells and shells with in the nucleus

1.The shell within the nucleus get closed with a suitable

number of nucleons

3.Each nucleon is supposed to possess a spin angular

momentum of ħ/2 and orbital angular momentum lħ.
4.This theory assumes that LS coupling holds only for the
very lightest nuclei in which the l values are necessarily
small in their normal configuration.

5.The heavier nuclei exhibit j-j coupling.

 Shell ……
model
It is assumed that the nucleons move in its orbit within the
nucleus, independently of all other nucleons.

The orbit is determined by a potential energy function V(r)

which represent the average effect of all interaction with other
nucleons, and is same for each particle.

Each nucleons is regarded as an independent particle and the

interaction between a nucleons is considered to be a small
perturbation On the interaction between a nucleon and the
potential field.

There is a direct analogy between the theoretical treatment of

a Nucleus and an electron in an atom.
……
 Problem: Using shell model calculate
the spin and parities of the following
1. 2 1 Al
7
nucleus
2. 3 3 Ar
3 1
3. 166
8 O
Where l is orbital quantum number
Parity:(-1)l If l is even parity is even, If l is odd parity is
odd
The parity of a wave function refer to its behaviour under
a simultaneous reflection of the space coordinates i.e. x
to –x, y to –y and z to –z.
Parity of a nucleus refers to the behaviour of the wave
function as a result of the inversion of the coordinates.
P (x, y, z) ( x, y, z)
P (x, y, z) Even
Electric quadrupole moment (Q): measure of how much nuclear
charge distribution depart from sphericity.

A spherical nucleus has no quadrupole moement, i.e. Q = 0 while

one shaped like a prolate - speroid or egg shaped Q is +ve
In an oblate or disc like spheroid (pumpkin shaped) have Q is –ve.
Nuclei of magic N and Z are found to have zero quadrupole
moment and hence are spherical in nature.

Shell model is an attempt to account for the existence of magic

numbers and certain other nuclear properties in terms of
nucleon behavior in a common force field

Neutron and protons occupy separate sets of sates in a nucleus

Because proton interact electrically as well as through the
specifically nuclear charge.
 Quadrupole
moment
2 2
Q zb 2
a
5

Sphere (b = a) Oblate (a >

Prolate (b >
b)
a)
Q is Spheroid
Spheroid
0 Q is -
Q is
ve
 Experimental Evidence of Nuclear
Magic Numbers
1.It has been experimentally observed that the nuclei for
which
N and Z are 2,8…….. 42He and 16
8 O are more stable then
neighbours.
their
2. Stability also related to the natural abundance. It has been
observed From the experimental data that the nuclei having
number of nucleons as magic number are in abundance as
compared to other nuclei in Nature.

For Example: 16 O8 (N, Z = 8),

4 Ca (N, Z = 20), All are abundant in nature
0 2
20 Pb 0 ( Z = 82,N=126)
68
2
 Experimental Evidence of Nuclear
Magic
Number ……
s
3.Sn (Z = 50) has 10 stable isotopes, more than any other
element , While Ca (Z = 20) has six isotopes. This indicates
that elements with Z=50 and Z=20 are more than usually
stable.

4.No more than 5 isotones occur in nature for any N except

N=50, where there are 6 and N = 82, where there are 7.
Neutron numbers of 82, 50 therefore, indicate particular
stability.
5. The doubly magic nuclei (N &Z both magic) 42He,8 16 40 Ca
20 O,
206
82Pb are particularly tightly bound.
and
6. The binding energy of the next neutron and proton after
magic number is very small.
 Main Achievements of Shell
model (SM)
1.It explains Magic numbers.

2.It explains the magnetic moment of some nuclei

nicely.

3.It explains successfully the ground state spin.

4.It explains the great stabilityand high binding energy

5.It explains the phenomenon of nuclear isomerism.

Note:Atoms having the same mass number but

different and same atomic number, are distinguish by
 Main Limitation of Shell Model
(SM) 2 6 Li,
1.It fail to explain the stability of four stable nuclei 1H, 3 5
14
10 N.
7B

2. It does not predict correct values of nuclear spin for certain

nuclei

3. The Quadrupole moment calculated using this model in

also not in
good agreement.

4. The magnetic moment is also shows some deviation from

observed values.