Environmental Page │ 1

Sources of water and water demand

Engineering
Infiltration galleries:
Sources of water
This are the horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow
Surface Sources Underground Sources depth i.e. 3 to 5m, along the bank of river through the
water bearing strata.
eg. Rivers, Ponds, Lakes, eg. Wells, Tube wells,
Storage reservoirs etc. Infilteration gallery etc,

Sources of water:

There are two sources of water:

i. Surface sources:

The sources in which the water is flowing on the

surface of earth is known as surface sources. E.g.: Rivers,
Ponds, Lakes, Storage reservoirs (Like Dam, etc.) etc.
Water demand:
ii. Underground sources:

The sources in which the water is flowing very deep

inside the earth is known as ground sources. E.g.: Wells,
Tube wells, Springs, Infiltration Gallery etc. Domestic
Water demand

Springs:
Industrial
The natural outflow of ground water at the earth’s
surface is said to form a spring.
Public

Institutional

Fire

Losses and theft

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Environmental Page │ 2

1. Domestic water demand: i. Kuichling’s formula:

Engineering
It is the amount of water required to satisfy domestic 𝐐 = 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟐√𝐏
needs like drinking, cooking, washing, bathing etc. for
a city having full flushing system it varies between 135
ii. Freeman formula:
to 225 lpcd. Normally taken to be 200 lpcd. Although it
can be reduced to 135 lpcd for economically weaker
𝐏
sections and LIG colonies. 𝐐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟔 ( + 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎

Use Consumption iii. Buston’s formula:

Drinking 5 lpcd
Cooking 5 lpcd
𝐐 = 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟑 √𝐏
Bathing 55 lpcd
Washing of clothes 20 lpcd
Washing of utensils 10 lpcd iv. National board formula:
Washing and cleaning of
10 lpcd
house and residencies i. When population ≤ 2 lakh.
Flushing of water closets etc. 30 lpcd
Total 135 lpcd 𝐐 = 𝟒𝟔𝟑𝟕√𝐏[𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏√𝐏]

2. Industrial water demand: ii. When population > 2 lakhs.

It is the amount of water required to satisfy the A provision for 54600 lit/min may be made for 1st fire
industrial needs. It varies between 50 to 450 lpcd. with an extra additional provision of 9100 to 36400
lit/min for a second fire.
3. Institutional water demand:
Where,
It is the amount of water required to satisfy the needs
of different institutes in a particular locality like school, Q = Amount of water req. in lit/min
hospitals etc. It varies between 20 to 50 lpcd.
P = Population in thousands.

4. Water for public use:

Conversions:
It is the amount of water required for public utility 1
purpose like washing of roads, gardening etc. It varies 1 l min−1 = 60000 m3 s−1
between 10 to 20 lpcd.

5. Fire demand:

The quantity of water required for extinguishing fire is

not very large, the total amount of water consumption
for a city of 50 lakh population hardly amounts to 1
lpcd.

Rate of fire demand is determined by the following

formula.

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Numerical: Per capita demand (q):

Engineering
Q1. Computer the fire demand for a city having It is the annual average amount of daily water
population 140000 using various formulas. required by one person (in lit) and includes the
domestic use, Industrial, commercial, Public use,
Solution: wastes, theft etc.

According to the question, 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐕) 𝐥𝐢𝐭
𝐪=
𝟑𝟔𝟓 × 𝐃𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐏)
P = 140000 = 140 thousand.
Numerical:
According to Kuichling’s formula,
Q2. If in a city of population 10 crores the total water
3182√140
Q=
60×1000
m3 s−1 = 0.6275 m3 s−1 supplied in a year is 10 ML then determine the per
capita demand in liter.
According to Freeman formula,
Solution:
140
1136( +10)
Q= 10
60×1000
m3 s−1 = 0.4544 m3 s−1 According to the question,

According to Buston’s formula, P = 10 crore = 108

Q=
5663√140
m3 s−1 = 1.11676 m3 s−1 V = 10 ML,
60×1000

10×106
According to national board formula, ∴ q = 365×108 LPCD = 2.74 × 10−4 LPCD

∵ P = 140000 < 2 lakh Answer:

∴Q=
4637√140[1−0.01√140]
𝑚3 𝑠 −1 = 0.806 𝑚3 𝑠 −1 The per capita demand is 2.75×10-4 LPCD.
60×1000

Q3. For a city of population 7.3 crores: i) Find fire

Answer:
demand in cumecs by Kuichling’s formula. Ii) If per
capita demand is 240lit/day. What should be the
The fire demand according to Kuichling’s formula is
volume required for storage(in lit) per day?
0.625 m3s-1, Freeman formula is 0.4544 m3s-1, Buston’s
formula 1.11676 m3s-1, national board formula is 0.806
Solution:
m3s-1.

According to the question,

6. Water demand for losses and theft:
P = 7.3 crores = 73000 thousand, q = 240 L/day.
This may be as high as 15% of total demand.
3182√73000
Fire demand, Q = m3 s−1 = 14.328 m3 s−1
Note:
60×1000

∴ water required = q × P = 240 × 7.3 × 107 L. day −1

Domestic water demand = 135 LPCD
= 1.752 × 1010 L. day −1
Total water demand = 270 LPCD
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Environmental Page │ 4

Answer: Total draft:

Engineering
i) the fire demand in cumecs is 14382,
For general community purpose, the total draft is not
ii) The water required per day is 1.752×1010 L.
taken as the sum of maximum hourly demand and fire
demand but is taken as sum of maximum daily demand
Factors effecting the water demand: and fire demand or the maximum hourly demand,
whichever is more. This is known as total draft.
1. Size of city,
2. Climatic condition, Numerical:
3. Quality of water,
4. Cost of water,
Q4. A water supply scheme has to be designed for a
5. Pressure in the distribution system,
city having a population of 1,00.000. Determine the total
6. Industrial and commercial activities,
draft for an average water consumption of 250 lpcd.
7. Habits of people,
8. Development of sewage facilities,
Solution:
9. Facility of metering and method of charging,
According to the question,
Note:
P = 100000, Average water consumption = 250 lpcd.
1) In intermittent supply system water is generally
stored by consumers in tanks, drums etc. for non-supply ∴ Average daily demand = 250 ×100000 L/day
periods. This water is thrown away by then even if
unutilized as soon as the fresh supply is restored. This = 25 MLD
increase the wastage and losses considerably.
2) Cost of water is inversely proportional to ∴ Max. daily demand = 1.8 × 25 MLD = 45 MLD
consumption of water.
3) The loss of wastes due to leakage are
∴ Fire demand = 3182√100 L/min = 45.82 MLD
considerably increased if pressure is high.
∴ Max. hourly demand = 2.7 × 25 MLD = 67.5 MLD
Variation in the demand:
∵ Max. daily demand + fire demand = 45 +45.82 MLD
1. Max. daily demand = 1.8 × Avg. daily demand
2. Max. weekly demand = 1.48 × Avg. weekly = 90.82 MLD
demand
3. Max. monthly demand = 1.28 × Avg. monthly Which is greater than max. hourly demand..
demand
4. Max. hourly demand = 1.5 × Max. daily demand ∴ Total draft = 90.82MLD
= 2.7 × Avg. daily demand
= 2.7 × Avg. hourly demand Answer:
q′
( )
24
max.demand The total draft is 90.82MLD.
5. Good rich form = Avg.demand
= 180t −0.10
6. Coincidental draft = Sum of max. daily demand
and fire demand

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EngineeringPopulation forecasting
Generally, design period of stricture in water supply Simple graphical method:
engineering is 20 to 30 years. Following methods are
used to determine the Population,
55000

1. Arithmetic method,
2. Incremental increase method, 50000

3. Geometric increase method,

Popoulation
4. Decreasing rate of growth method, 45000

5. Simple graphical method.

40000

Arithmetic method:
35000

This method is used for old cities.

30000
𝐏𝐧 = 𝐏𝟎 + 𝐧𝐱̅
25000

Incremental increase method:

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980
Years
This method is used when city and method is not
given.
Where,
𝐧(𝐧 + 𝟏)𝐲̅
𝐏𝐧 = (𝐏𝟎 + 𝐧𝐱̅) + 𝐏𝐧 = Population after 𝐧 decades,
𝟐

𝐏𝟎 = Last known population given in question,

Geometric rate method:
𝐧 = No. of decades,
This method is used for new cities.
𝐱̅ = Average increase in population per decades,
r 𝐧
𝐏𝐧 = 𝐏𝟎 [𝟏 + ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐲̅ = Incremental increase,

Decreasing rate of growth method: 𝐫 = Increase in population in percent,

(𝐫𝟎 − 𝐫𝟏 ) 𝐫𝟎 = Last known percentage decrease in population,

𝐏𝟏 = 𝐏𝟎 + { × 𝐏𝟎 }
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐫𝟏 = Average percentage decrease in population.
(𝐫𝟎 − 𝐫𝟏 ) − 𝐫𝟏
𝐏𝟐 = 𝐏𝟏 + { × 𝐏𝟎 }
𝟏𝟎𝟎

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Numerical:
(3000+2000−3000)
̅
Y= = 666.66̇
Engineering
Q5. The population of 5 decades from 1930 to 1970 are As we know,
3

given below. Find out the population after one, two and
three decades beyond the last known decade. Pn = (P0 + nx̅) +
n(n+1)y
̅
2

Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

∴ Population in 1980,
Population 25000 28000 34000 42000 47000
1(1+1)
𝑃1 = {4700 + (1 × 5500)} + { × 666.66̇}
Solution: 2

Increase in Increment rate of = 53167

decrease in
Year Population population in increase increase
growth rate
(x) (Y) (r)
1930 25000 ∴ Population in 1990,
3000 12
1940 28000 3000 -9.428 2(2+1)
𝑃2 = {4700 + (2 × 5500)} + { 2
× 666.66̇}
6000 21.428
1950 34000 2000 -2.1
8000 23.529 = 60001
1960 42000 -3000 11.624
5000 11.904
1970 47000
∴ Population in 2000,

3(3+1)
According to the question, 𝑃3 = {4700 + (3 × 5500)} + { 2
× 666.66̇}

P0 = 47000 = 67502

By using arithmetic method, By using geometric increase method,

(3000+6000+8000+5000) 12+21.43+23.53+11.9
x̅ = = 5500 r= = 17.215
4 4

As we know, As we know that,

n
Pn = P0 + nx̅ 0
Pn = P0 [1 + 100
r
]

∴ Population in 1980, P1 = 47000 + (1 × 5500) 17.215 1

∴ Population in 1980, P1 = 47000 [1 + ]
100
= 52500
= 55091
∴ Population in 1990, P2 = 47000 + (2 × 5500)
17.215 2
∴ Population in 1990, P2 = 47000 [1 + ]
= 58000 100

∴ Population in 2000, P3 = 47000 + (3 × 5500) = 64575

17.215 3
= 63500 ∴ Population in 2000, P3 = 47000 [1 + 100
]

By using Incremental increase method, = 75691

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By using decreasing rate of growth method, Q6. The population of 4 decades are given below. Find

Engineering
r1 =
−9.43−2.1+11.63
3
= 0.03
out the population after one decade beyond the last
known decade.

r0 = 11.9 Year 1970 1980 1990 2000

Population 40000 50000 53000 58000
As we know that,
Solution:
(r0 −r1 )
P1 = P0 + { × P0 }
100
Year Population Increase in population (x)
(r0 −r1 )−r1 1970 40000
P2 = P1 + { × P0 }
100 10000
1980 50000
(11.9−0.03)
∴ Population in 1980, P1 = 47000 + { × 47000} 3000
100
1990 53000
5000
= 52579
2000 58000

∴ Population in 1990,
According to the question,
{11.9−(2×0.03)}
P1 = 52579 + [ × 52579] P0 = 58000,
100

= 58804 𝑥̅ =
10000+3000+5000
= 6000,
3

∴ Population in 2000,
∴ population in 2010, P1 = 58000 + (1 × 6000)
{11.9−(3×0.03)}
P1 = 58804 + [ × 58804] = 64000
100

= 65749 Answer:

Answer: The population after one decade is 64000.

As per arithmetic increase method, Q7. The population of a city in the year 2000 was 82300.
If the average percentage increase in population per
P1980 = 52500, P1990 = 58000, P2000 = 63500, decade is 35%. The population of the city in the year
2020 estimated geometrical increase will nearly be.
As per Incremental increase method,
Solution:
P1980 = 53167, P1990 = 60001, P2000 = 67502,
According to the question,
As per geometric increase method,
𝑃0 = 82300, 𝑟 = 35%,
P1980 = 55091, P1990 = 64575, P2000 = 75691,
35 2
∴ Population in 2020, P2 = 82300 [1 + ]
100
As per decrease rate of growth method,
= 149991.75
𝑃1980 = 52579, 𝑃1990 = 58804, P2000 = 65749,

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≈ 1.5 lakh Answer:

Engineering
Answer: After 10 years the plant will reach the design
capacity.
The population in 2020 will be 1.5 lakh approximately.

Q8. The present population of a community is 25000

with an average water consumption of 5000 m3/day.
The design capacity of an existing water treatment
plant is 6000 m3/day. During the next 20 year it is
expected that population will increase up to 35000.
Assuming an arithmetic rate of population growth, the
number of years from now when the plant will reach its
design capacity will be.

Solution:

According to the question,

P0 = 25000,

Present water consumption = 5000 m3/day

Design capacity of the water treatment plant,

= 6000 m3/day

Population growth in next 20 years, P2 = 35000

As we know,

Pn = P0 + nx̅

∴ Average increase in population in one decade,

35000−25000
𝑥̅ = 2
= 5000

Let the plant will reach the design capacity in ‘n’

decades,

Pn = 25000 + (n × 5000)

5000 6000
∴ per capita demand, q = 25000 = 25000+(n×5000)

or, n = 1

∴ No. of years = 10 years.

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Quality control of water supply

Engineering
Characteristic of water: Numerical:

Characteristics of water Q9. 30 ml of raw odourful water is diluted with 200 ml of

distilled water, then what will be TON?
Physical Chemical Biological
Solution:

Physical characteristic: According to the question,

Physical characteristic A = 30 ml, B = 200 ml.

(30+200)
Colour Taste Odour Temperature Turbidity ∴ TON = 30
= 7.66̇

Answer:
Colour:
The TON is 7.66̇.
Unit for Colour in water is Hazen unit. It is also known
as True Colour unit (TCU). It is measured by Tintometer.
Q10. 60 ml of raw odourful sample is diluted to 420 ml,
For drinking purpose, limit of water for drinking is 5 Hazen
then what will be the TON?
unit and for other use, it is useful up to 15 Hazen Unit.

Solution:
1 Hazen unit = 1 mg of platinum-cobalt ions dissolve
in 1L of distilled water.
According to the question,

Taste: A = 60 ml, (A+B)= 420 ml,

Permissible limit: It should be unobjectionable. ∴ TON =

420
=7
60

Odour: Answer:

Permissible limit: should be unobjectionable for other The TON is 7.

use, but for drinking purpose, it should lie in between 1-
3 TON. It is generally measured by an instrument known
Temperature:
as Osmoscope. Unit for odour in water is Threshold
odour number (TON).
It effects the chemical and biological reactions. An
𝐀+𝐁 increase of 10° c in temperature doubles the biological
𝐓𝐎𝐍 =
𝐀 activity. Hence for water supply, temperature
measurement standard thermometer is used. For
Where, drinking purpose desirable limit is 8° - 12° c and
permissible limit is ≤ 20° c and for conveyance we can
A = Vol. of odour water (in ml), use water of temp. ≤ 35° c.

B = Vol. of distilled water (in ml).

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Turbidity:
Engineering
It is the measure of extent to which light is either
absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water.

In order to measure the turbidity, the graduated

aluminum rod is lowered in water and the depth at
which the platinum needle ceases to be seen under
standard light condition is noted which directly gives
the turbidity.

Note:

Turbidity greater than 5 unit (5 mg/l) can be easily

In natural water bodies turbidity interferes with light detected by naked eye.
penetration and hence with photosynthetic reaction.
The following matters may be available in water bodies b) Jackson’s turbidity meter:
which interferes with turbidity,
The turbidity can be measured in the laboratory with
1. Settleable matter (G > 1)
the help of instrument called turbidity meter. In general,
2. Floating matter (G < 1)
a turbidity meter works on the principle of absorption of
3. Suspended matter (G = 1)
light. It can measure the turbidity more than 25 unit
(hence this method is not used for detection of turbidity
The following instrument is used to determine the of water supplies). This method is generally used to
turbidity of water, measure the turbidity of natural water bodies.

a) Turbidity Rod: In this method, metallic container having glass

bottom is used which is placed over the fluorescent
The turbidity can be easily measured in the field with lamp. The level of water is increased in the metallic
the help of a turbidity rod. It is based on the principle of container at the height at which lamp ceases to be
absorption of light. It gives the desired reading in JTU seen is noted which is further calibrated to give the
(Jackson’s turbidity unit). turbidity of the water sample in JTU (Jackson’s turbidity
unit).

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Environmental Page │ 11

the other is filled with standard water solution (of known

Engineering
Graduated
glass tube turbidity). The electric bulb is lighted and the Colour in
both the tubes is observed from the top of the
Metal instrument. If the Colour of both the tubes differ, the
container standard solution tubes are replaced by another
standard tube of different turbidity. The process is
continued till a matching is obtained in the Colours of
both the tubes. The turbidity of standard solution will
Metal stand
then correspond to the turbidity of the sample of water.
Baylis turbidity meter can precisely record low turbidities
(of the order of 0 – 2 ppm_ easily.
Light bulb

d) Nephelometer:

Note:

1. In both the above method principle involved in

calculation of turbidity is same i.e. Light absorption
principal.
2. Larger the length of the path travelled by the light,
lesser will be the turbidity.

c) Baylis turbidity meter:

The basic diff. between the Baylis turbidity meter and

Nephelometer is that, in Baylis turbidity meter the light
was seen or measured after the same passed straight
through the turbid water while in Nephelometer, the
light intensity is measured at right angles to the incident
light such an instrument therefore uses a photometer to
measure the intensity of light passing through the
turbidity water, after the same is scattered at right
angles to the incident light.

Note:

Baylis turbidity meter is based on light absorption

principle.

It consists of a closed galvanized iron box , on one Nephelometer is based on light scattering principle.
side of which two glass tubes can be held vertically side
by side. On the other side, in front of the tubes, an
In the nephelometer the turbidity is expressed in NTU
electric bulb is located with a reflector, so as to throw
(Nephelometric turbidity unit) or FTU (Formazine
light on the tubes. One of the glass tube is filled with
turbidity unit).
water sample (whose turbidity is to be measured) and

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1 JTU = Standard unit which is obtained by adding 1 𝐩𝐎𝐇 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 [𝐎𝐇− ]

Engineering
mg of silica in finely divided form as silica oxide (SiO2) in
1 lit of pure water. 𝐩𝐇 + 𝐩𝐎𝐇 = 𝟏𝟒

1 NTU = Standard unit which is obtained by adding 1 Where,

mg of formazine (HexaMethylene tetraamine) in 1 lit of
pure water. 1 mg/L = 3 NTU. Unit of [H+ ] and [OH − ] are moles/lit.

The is no relationship exist between JTU and NTU. Acceptable limit for pH is 6.5 - 8.5.

For drinking purpose turbidity should be less than 5 If pH < 6.5 it will lead to Corrosion,
NTU according to GOI manual and any case ≤ 25 NTU.
And if pH > 9.2 it will lead to Incrustation.
Chemical characteristics:
𝐆𝐈𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 =
𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜/𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫/𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Total solids:
Atom Molecule Ion
The total amount of solids (suspended as well as Na = 23 gm NaOH = 40 gm H+ = 1 gm
dissolved solids) present in water can be determined by
Ca = 40 gm CO2 = 44 gm OH- =17 gm
evaporating a sample of water and weighing the dry
O = 16 gm NO2 = 46 gm HCO3- = 61 gm
residue left (A). The suspended solids can be found by
Cl = 35.5 gm HCl = 36.5 gm CO32- = (60/2) gm
filtering the water sample and weighing the residue left
H = 1 gm H2O = 18 gm = 30 gm
on the filter paper (B). The difference between total
Mg = 24 gm Mg(OH)2 = 58 Ca2+ = (40/2) gm
solids (A) and suspended solids (B) will then represent
Al = 27 gm gm = 20 gm
nothing but the dissolved solids.
N = 14 gm Mg2+ = (24/2) gm
C = 12 gm = 12 gm
Another approximate method of determining the
Al3+ = (27/3) gm
total dissolved solids is electrical conductivity test. In this
=9 gm
test, di-ionic testers are used to measure electrical
conductivity in µmho/cm at 25°C.
Numerical:
𝐓𝐃𝐒 = 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
Q11. What will be the no. of moles for 100 gm of
𝐓𝐃𝐒 = 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 Glucose?

Total dissolve solids, desirable limit is 500 mg/l, and Solution:

permissible limit is 2000 mg/l.
As we know the molecular weight of glucose
Total suspended solids, permissible limit is 30 mg/l as (C6 H12 O6) = 180 gm.
per Environment Protection Agency (EPA).
100
∴ 100 gm of glucose = mole
180
pH:
= 0.556
It is an indicator to measure acidity of the water
sample. Answer:

𝐩𝐇 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎[𝐇+ ] The 100 gm glucose is 0.556 mole.

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Q12. What will be the no. of moles for 240 gm of Ca2+? Answer:

Engineering
Solution: The [OH− ] is 10-7.8.

As we know that the ionic weight of Ca2+ = 20 gm. Q15. pH of sample 1 is 3.5, pH of sample 2 is 7.5. How
many times sample 1 is more acidic than sample 2?
240
∴ 240 gm of Ca2+ = mole
20
Solution:
= 12 mole
For sample 1,
Answer:
pH = 3.5
240 gm of Ca2+ is 12 mole.
∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−3.5
Q13. What will be the pH of water sample [H +] = 10-8.4
For sample 2,
moles/lit?

Solution: pH = 7.5

∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−7.5

As we know,
[H+ ] 10−3.5
pH = − log10 [H+ ] ∴ [H+ ]1 =
10−7.5
= 104
2

∴ pH o the water sample = − log10 10−8.4 Answer:

= 8.4 Sample 1 is 104 times more acidic than sample 2.

Answer: Q16. If pH of a sample is decreased to 3.2 from 3.5 then

percentage increase in acidity will be.
pH of the water sample is 8.4.
Solution:
Q14. What will be the [𝐎𝐇− ] for a water sample having
pH = 6.2? According to the question,

Solution: Initial pH = 3.5,

As we know, Final pH = 3.2,

pH + pOH = 14, ∴ Initial [H+ ] = 10−3.5

or, 6.2 + pOH = 14 ∴ Final [H+ ] = 10−3.2

or, pOH = 14 − 6.2 = 7.8 10−3.2 −10−3.5

∴% increase in acidity = 10−3.5
× 100%
and, pOH = − log10[OH− ]
10−3.2 −10−3.5
= × 100%
10−3.5
∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−7.8

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= 99.5% ∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−8.7 mole/lilt

Engineering
Answer: = 10−8.7 × 17 × 103 mg/L

Percentage increase in acidity is 99.5 %. = 3.39 × 10−5 mg/L

Q17. pH of sample 1 is 4.6, pH of sample 2 is 6.6. What Answer:

will be the ratio of basicity?
The [OH− ] is 3.39 × 10−5 mg/L.
Solution:
Q19. If [OH-]= 10-12 mmoles/L then what will be the
For sample 1, concentration of [H+] ions in mg/L?

According to the question, Solution:

pH = 4.6 According to the question,

pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 4.6 = 9.4 [OH− ] = 10−12 mmoles/L

∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−9.4 = 10−15 moles/L

For sample 2, ∴ pOH = − log10 10−15 = 15

According to the question, As we know,

pH = 6.6 pH + pOH = 14

pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 6.6 = 7.4 ∴ pH = 14 − 15 = −1 (it isn’t possible)

∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−7.4 Answer:

[OH− ] 10−9.4
∴ Ratio of basicity = [OH− ]1 = 10−7.4 = 0.01 The problem can’t be solved.
2

Q20. Solve the previous question if [OH-]= 10-10

Answer:
mmoles/lit.
The ratio of basicity is 0.01.
Solution:
Q18. If pH of a sample is 5.3 then [OH-] in mg/lit will be.
According to the question,
Solution:
[OH− ] = 10−10 mmoles/L
According to the question,
= 10−13 moles/L
pH = 5.3,
∴ pOH = − log10 10−13 = 13
∴ pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 5.3 = 8.7
As we know,

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∴ pH = 14 − pOH = 14 − 13 = 1 Answer:

Engineering
∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−1 moles/L The [OH− ]B is 2.92 × 10−5 kg/day.

= 10−1 × 1 g/L Q22. In a water treatment plant, the pH value of

incoming and outgoing waters is 7.2 and 8.4
= 10−1 × 103 mg/L respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH with
time, determine the average pH value of water.
= 102 mg/L
Solution:
Answer:
According to the question,
Concentration of H+ ion is 100 mg/L.
pHi = 7.2,pHo = 8.4
Q21. If pH of sample A is 3.6 and sample B is 100 times
less acidic then sample A. Then [OH-] ion concentration [H+ ]i = 10−pHi = 10−7.2 mole/L
in Kg/day for a discharge of 0.005 cumecs will be.
[H+ ]o = 10−pHo = 10−8.4 mole/L
Solution:
[H+ ]i +[H+ ]o
[H+ ]average = mole/L
According to the question, 2

10−7.2 +10−8.4
pHA = 3.6 = mole/L
2

∴ [H+ ]A = 10−pHA = 10−3.6 mole/L = 3.35 × 10−8 mole/L

10−3.6
∴ [H+ ]B = = 10−5.6 mole/L pHaverage = − log10 3.35 × 10−8
100

∴ [pHB ] = − log10 10−5.6 = 5.6 = 7.474955

∴ pOHB = 14 − pHB = 14 − 5.6 = 8.4 Answer:

∴ [OH− ]B = 10−pOHB = 10−8.4 mole/L The average pH is 7.474955.

= 10−8.4 × 17 g/L Hardness:

= 17 × 10−11.4 kg/L Hardness is the measure of concentration of
multivalent cation (Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+, Fe2+,Sr2+, Mn2+) in the
Discharge = 0.005 cumecs water sample. All these cation imparts hardness.

= 0.005 × 1000 × 24 × 60 × 60 L/day Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+ are major constituents of hardness.

= 432000 L/day Fe2+,Sr2+, Mn2+ are minor constituents of hardness.

∴ [OH− ]B = 17 × 10−11.4 × 432000 kg/day Hardness is of two types,

= 2.92 × 10−5 kg/day

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1) Carbonate hardness: Sources of alkalinity are the minerals present in water

Engineering
CO32- and HCO3- of all the multivalent cations
and atmospheric CO2.

𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐂𝐎𝟐 ⇌ 𝐇𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑 ⇌ 𝐇+ + 𝐇𝐂𝐎−

(Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+) is known as carbonate hardness. This 𝟑

hardness is also known as temporary hardness and can

𝐇𝐂𝐎− + 𝟐−
𝟑 ⇌ 𝐇 + 𝐂𝐎𝟑
be removed by simple boiling or addition of lime.

∆ When pH is between 8-11 then,

𝐂𝐚(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓

∆
𝐂𝐎𝟐− −
𝟑 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 ⇌ 𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐎𝐇
−

𝐌𝐠(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 → 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
𝐚𝐥𝐠𝐚𝐞
𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐
𝐇𝐂𝐎−
𝟑 → 𝐎𝐇−
𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 → 𝐌𝐠(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 + 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓
Determination of hardness:
2) Non-carbonate hardness:
Hardness of water sample is calculated in lab by
Hardness due to Cl-,andSO42- of NO3- Ca2+,Mg2+, Al 3+ EDTA solution (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid),
is known as non-carbonate hardness. It is also known as using Eriochrome black T as the indicator. The end point
Permanent hardness and it can be removed by Zeolite of the titration is indicated by change of the Colour of
(ion exchange) method or Lime soda process. water from wine red to black blue.

Note: Desirable limit of hardness of drinking water is 200

mg/l, permissible limit is 600 mg/l.
By zeolite method 100% hardness can be removed.
Note:

Impacts: Hardness is always determined in terms of CaCO 3.

1) Hardness leads to lesser formation of foam there

by increases the consumption of soap. Formulae:
2) Mg hardness of SO42- induces laxative effect if
greater than 50 mg/l. Total hardness as CaCO3,
3) Hardness leads to corrosion and incrustation.
4) Hardness leads to scaling in boilers which leads to 50 50
= (Ca2+ × 20) + (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Al3+ ×
50
) mg/L
9
bad economy.
Alkalinity as CaCO3,
Alkalinity:
50 50 50
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) mg/L
= (CO2− − −

It is the number of ions present on water which are

capable of neutralizing [H+ ] ions in water. Alkalinity
Carbonate hardness,
occurs because of presence of CO32- ions, HCO3- ions
and slightly because of [OH− ] ions. On the basis of that
= Alkalinity or Total hardness whichever is less.
alkalinity is divided into three categories,

Noncarbonate hardness,
i. Carbonate,
ii. Bicarbonate,
= Total hardness – Carbonate hardness.
iii. Caustic.

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Relation between hardness and Note:

Engineering
alkalinity:
Carbonate hardness will always be equal to total
hardness, generally in case of highly alkaline water for
At pH 8.3 OH- ion and half of CO32- are neutralized,
which noncarbonate hardness will always be negligible
at pH 4.5 the HCO3- ion and left half of CO32- are
or zero.
neutralized i.e. whole alkalinity is neutralized.

Hardness as CaCO3
Degree of hardness
pH mg/L
0-55 soft
OH- + half of 56-100 Moderately soft
CO32- 101-200 Hard
> 200 Very hard
8.3
HCO3- + half of
CO32- Sodium aluminate:
4.5
It reacts with Ca and Mg present in water,
OH- + HCO3- + CO32-

P M Na 2Al2 O4 + Ca(HCO3 )2 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +Na 2CO3 + CO2 +

H2 O
ml of titrant

Na 2Al2 O4 + CaCl2 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +2NaCl

Conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate is
essentially completed at pH of 8,3 after this Na 2Al2 O4 + CaSO4 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +Na 2 SO4
bicarbonate still requires hydronium ion for its complete
neutralization. Hence it can be stated that half of the It also reduces temporary and permanent hardness,
carbonate alkalinity is neutralized at pH of 8.3.
Neutralization of hydroxide ion is also completed at pH It is costlier than alum,
of 8.3. Hence at pH of 8.3, total alkalinity neutralized is
of half carbonate and caustic alkalinity. Volume of acid Its pH range is 6 – 8.5.
use to neutralize this alkalinity is “P” ml. At pH of 4.5
bicarbonate alkalinity originally present in this system
and converted from carbonate is neutralized. Total Numerical:
volume of acid used for complete neutralization is “M”
ml. Q23. Find the total hardness of water sample in mg/L as
CaCO3 if,
If pH is 2.8 to 4.4, methyl orange is used as an
indicator which changes its Colour from red to yellow. Cation Concentration (mg/L)
If pH is 8.6 to 10.3, Phenolphthalein is used as an Na+ 40
indicator which changes its Colour from yellow to red. Mg2+ 10
If P = M, only caustic alkalinity is present, Ca2+ 55
If P = M/2, only carbonate alkalinity is present, K+ 2
If P = 0, only bicarbonate alkalinity is present,
If P > M/2, caustic and carbonate alkalinity is present Solution:
in major amount,
If P < M/2, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity is As we know,
present in major amount.

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TH = (Mg 2+ ×
50
) + (Ca2+ ×
50
) + (Al3+ ×
50
) = 17 × 10-7 g/L

Engineering 50
12

50
= (10 × 12) + (55 × 20) + 0
20 9

= 17 × 10-4 mg/L

50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × ) + (Ca2+ × ) + (Al3+ × )
= 179.16 mg/L 12 20 9

50 50 50
Answer: = (30 × 12) + (40 × 20) + (3 × 9
)

The total hardness as CaCO3 is 179.16 mg/L. = 241.67 mg/L

Q24. Find Total hardness if concentration of Ca2+ = 160 Alkalinity = (CO2− −50 −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17)
50 50

mg/l and Mg2+ = 40 mg/l .

50 50 50
= (0 × ) + (190 × ) + (17 × 10−4 × )
Solution: 30 61 17

As we know, = 155.74 mg/L

50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ ×
50
) CH = 155.74 mg/L
9

50 50
NCH = TH – CH
= (40 × 20) + (160 × 12) + 0
= 241.67 – 155.74 mg/L
= 566.67 mg/L
= 85.93 mg/L
Answer:
Answer:
The total hardness is 566.67 mg/L.
The noncarbonate hardness of water is 85.93 mg/L.
Q25. Find the noncarbonate hardness of water sample
in mg/L as CaCO3 if, pH is 7 and, Q26. Determine the NCH if pH = 12 and,

Cation Concentration (mg/L) Cation Concentration (mg/L)

Na+ 70
Na+ 56
Mg2+ 15
Mg2+ 30
Ca2+ 40
Ca2+ 40
Fe3+ 200
Al3+ 3
HCO3- 55
HCO3- 190
Cl- 250
Cl- 165
SO42- 76
Solution:
Solution:
As, pH = 7
As, pH = 12

∴ pOH = 14 - 7 = 7
∴ pOH = 14 - 12 = 2

[OH-] = 10-7 mole/L

[OH-] = 10-2 mole/L

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= 17 × 10-2 g/L = 200 mg/L

Engineering = 17 × 10 mg/L Answer:

TH = (Mg 2+ ×
50
) + (Ca2+ ×
50
) + (Al3+ ×
50
) The noncarbonate hardness is 200 mg/L.
12 20 9

50 50 50 Q28. Ground water has pH = 7.0, concentration of HCO3-

= (15 × 12) + (40 × 20) + (0 × )
9 = 122 mg/l. Calculate Alkalinity in CaCO3.

= 162.5 mg/L Solution:

50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2− − −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) As, pH = 7

50 50 50 ∴ pOH = 14 - 7 = 7
= (0 × ) + (55 × ) + (17 × 10 × )
30 61 17

[OH-] = 10-7 mole/L

= 545.08 mg/L
= 17 × 10-7 g/L
CH = 162.5 mg/L
= 17 × 10-4 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH
50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2−
3 × ) + (HCO−
3 × ) + (OH− × )
= 162.5 – 162.5 mg/L 30 61 17

50 50 50
= 0 mg/L = (0 × 30) + (122 × 61) + (17 × 10−4 × 17)

Answer: = 100.005 mg/L

The noncarbonate hardness of water is 0 mg/L. Answer:

Q27. If total hardness and alkalinity are 300mg/l and The alkalinity as CaCO3 is 100.005 mg/L.
100mg/l then carbonate and non-carbonate hardness
will be Q29. pH of tomato juice= 4.1, Find the concentration of
H+ ion in moles/lit.
Solution:
Solution:
According to the question,
As, pH = 4.1
TH = 300 mg/L,
∴ [H+] = 10-4.1 mole/L
Alkalinity = 100 mg/L,
= 7.943 × 10-5 mole/L
∴ CH = 100 mg/L,
Answer:
∴ NCH = TH – CH
The concentration is 7.943 × 10-5 mole/L.
= 300 – 100 mg/L

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Environmental Page │ 20

Q30. Find out the NCH as CaCO3 if pH = 8.5 and, Solution:

Engineering Cation
Concentration The NCH as CaCO3 is 0 mg/L.
(milliequivalent/L)
Cl- 15 Q31. Find the NCH if,
SO42- 15
CO32- 5 0 3.5 7

HCO3- 30
Ca2+ Mg2+
Ca2+ 12
Mg2+ 18 HCO3- Cl-

0 5.2 7
Solution:

As, pH = 8.5 Solution:

50 50 50
∴ pOH = 14 – 8.5 = 5.5 TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ × )
9

[OH-] = 10-5.5 mole/L = (3.5 × 50) + (3.5 × 50) + (0 × 50)

= 17 × 10-5.5 g/L = 350 mg/L

= 17 × 10-2.5 mg/L Alkalinity = (CO2−

50
− −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17)
50 50

= 10-2.5 milliequivalent/L 50
= (0 × 50) + (5.2 × 50) + (0 × 17)
50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ × )
9
= 260 mg/L

= (18 × 50) + (12 × 50) + (0 × 50)

CH = 260 mg/L

= 1500 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH = 350 – 260 mg/L = 90 mg/L
50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2− − −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) Solution:

= (5 × 50) + (30 × 50) + (10−2.5 ×

50
) The NCH as CaCO3 is 90 mg/L.
17

= 1750 mg/L Q32. Find the NCH if,

0 4 5 7
CH = 1500 mg/L
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+

NCH = TH – CH
HCO3- SO42-

= 1500 – 1500 mg/L 0 3.5 7

= 0 mg/L Solution:

50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × ) + (Ca2+ × ) + (Al3+ × )
12 20 9

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Environmental Page │ 21

= (1 × 50) + (4 × 50) + (0 × 50) According to the question, pH = 10

Engineering
= 250 mg/L ∴ pOH = 14 – 10 = 4

Alkalinity = (CO2−
3 ×
50
) + (HCO−
3 ×
50
) + (OH− ×
50
) ∴ [OH− ] = 10−4 mole/L
30 61 17

50 = 17 × 10−4 g/L
= (0 × 50) + (3.5 × 50) + (0 × )
17

= 1.7 mg/L
= 175 mg/L
1.7
∴ [OH− ] as CaCO3 = × 50 mg/L
CH = 175 mg/L 17

= 5 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH = 250 – 175 mg/L = 75 mg/L
1
3 + OH = 55 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO 3
∵ 2 CO−2 −
Solution:

The NCH as CaCO3 is 75 mg/L. 3 as CaCO3 = ( 55 – 5 ) × 2 mg/L

∴ CO−2

Q33. A 200 ml of sample of water has initial pH 10. 30 ml = 100 mg/L

of 0.02 N H2SO4 is require titrating the sample to pH of
4.5 and 11 ml of 0.02 N H 2SO4 is require titrating the 3 + HCO3 + OH = 150 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO 3
∵ CO−2 − −

sample to pH of 8.3. Calculate the total alkalinity of

water in mg/L as CaCO3. Also calculate the 3 as CaCO3 = 150 – 100 – 5 mg/L
∴ HCO−
concentration of alkaline species in mg/L as CaCO3.
= 45 mg/L
Solution:
Answer:
In 200 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize
1
3 , OH alkalinity = 11 ml
CO−2 − The total alkalinity as CaCO3 is 150 mg/L, [OH− ] as
2
CaCO3 is 5 mg/L, [HCO− 3 ] as CaCO3 is 45 mg/L and [CO3 ]
−2

In 1000 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize as CaCO3 is 100 mg/L.

1 1000
3 , OH alkalinity =
CO−2 × 11 ml = 55 ml
−
2 200
Nitrogen content:
1
∴ 55 ml 0.02 N H2SO4 req to neutralize CO−2
3 , OH
−
2
In water nitrogen is available in following forms,
alkalinity = 55 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3

In 200 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize 1. Free ammonia:

CO−2 −
3 , HCO3 , OH
−
alkalinity = 30 ml
It indicates recent pollution in the water.
In 1000 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize
1000 It can be calculated by simple boiling the water and
CO−2 HCO−3 , OH alkalinity = × 30 ml = 150 ml
−
3 , 200
measuring the amount of liberated ammonia gas by
simple distillation process.
∴ 150 ml 0.02 N H2SO4 req to neutralize CO−2 −
3 , HCO3 ,
OH− alkalinity = 150 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0.15 mg/l.

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2. Organic ammonia: Fluoride:

Engineering
It indicates the presence of nitrogen before the Its desirable limit is 1mg/l and permissible limit is 1.5
decomposition of organic matter is started. mg/l.

It can be calculated by boiling the already boiled To remove fluoride, we use defluoridation.
sample of water for testing of free ammonia by the Defluoridation is done by following technique,
addition of strong alkaline by agents like KMnO 4 and
calculating the quantity of ammonia gas liberated. i. Addition of calcium phosphate,
ii. Nalgonda technique.
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0.3 mg/l.
Effects:
Note:
< 1 mg/l, it helps to prevent dental cavities.
Free ammonia and Organic ammonia combinedly
called as KJELDAHL ammonia. Up to 1.5 - 2 mg/l, decolourization of teeth or
mottling of teeth occurs.
3. Nitrite:
> 5 mg/l, deformation of bone called bone fluorosis
or brittle bones occurs.
Nitrite indicates partially decomposed organic
matter. Nitrite is highly dangerous to human body
hence it has no relaxation in drinking water. Chloride:

It can be calculated by colour matching technique The presence of chloride in water indicates pollution
and colour is produced by combination of sulphonic due to sewage or industrial waste.
acid and napthamine (as indicator).
Its desirable limit is 200 – 250 mg/l, and permissible
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0 mg/l. limit is 1000 mg/l.

4. Nitrate: For the determination of chloride content, we add

Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution and titrate with Potassium
chromate (K2CrO4).
The presence of nitrate in water indicate complete
decomposition of organic matter.
Summary:
Excess of nitrate causes methemoglobinemia (blue
baby disease). Properties Desirable limit Permissible limit
Colour 5 TCU 15 TCU
Its desirable and permissible limit is 45 mg/l. Taste Unobjectionable Unobjectionable
Odour 1 – 3 TON Unobjectionable
It can be determined with the help of Colour Temperature 8 - 12° C < 20° C
matching technique and Colour is formed by phenol Turbidity ≤ 5 NTU ≤ 25 NTU
disulphonic acid and KOH. pH 6.5 mg/l 8.5 mg/l
Total dissolve
500 mg/l 2000 mg/l
solids
Suspended
30 mg/l 30 mg/l
solids

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Hardness 200 mg/l 600 mg/l Facultative bacteria:

Engineering
Free
ammonia
Organic
0.15 mg/l 0.15 mg/l
Bacteria which can survive both in the presence and
0.3 mg/l 0.3 mg/l absence of oxygen in known as facultative bacteria.
ammonia
Nitrite 0 mg/l 0 mg/l
Nitrate 45 mg/l 45 mg/l Coliform colony:
Fluoride 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Chloride 250 mg/l 1000 mg/l Coliform colony are of two types,
Sulfide 0.05 mg/l No relaxation
Sulphate 200 mg/l 400 mg/l
1. E. coli (Escherichia coli),
Cyanide 0.05 mg/l No relaxation
2. B. coli (bacillus coli).
Lead 0.01 mg/l No relaxation
Mercury 0.001 mg/l No relaxation
Arsenic 0.01 mg/l 0.05 mg/l E. coli (Escherichia coli):
Argon 0.01 mg/l No relaxation
Cadmium 0.003 mg/l No relaxation It isn’t a pathogenic bacteria, but it indicates
Chromium 0.05 mg/l No relaxation probable presence of pathogenic bacteria in water. It
Chloroform 0.21 mg/l No relaxation is found in intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is very
adaptive in nature and last longer.
Biological characteristics:
Determination of coliform:
Pathogenic bacteria:
We can determine the coliform by following
Bacteria which can causes harm to human body is techniques,
known as pathogenic bacteria.
1) Plate count test:
Nonpathogenic bacteria:
1 ml of sample water is diluted with 99 ml of distilled
Bacteria can’t cause harm to human body is known water. 1 ml of diluted water is mixed with 10 ml of agar
as nonpathogenic bacteria. of gelatin which serves as a medium for the bacteria’s
to ferment gas. The sample so obtained is supervised
under microscope and coliform colonies per 100 ml is
Aerobic bacteria: counted.

Bacteria which requires oxygen for their survival is

known as aerobic bacteria. The process which takes 2) Membrane filter technique:
place in the presence of oxygen is known as aerobic
process. In this method, bacteria’s are passed through sterile
membrane (i.e. porosity 80%, pore size 5 to 10 µm) on
which bacteria retained out. Under microscope
Anaerobic bacteria: coliform colonies are corrected. For both the above
test the glass slides for microscope are put in incubator
Bacteria which don’t require oxygen for their survival at 20° C for 48 hrs. or 35° C for 24 hrs. for the formation
is known as anaerobic bacteria and the process carries of gas.
out by them is known as anaerobic process.

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Environmental Page │ 24

3) Multiple fermentation tube test (MPN Numerical:

Engineering
test):
Q34. Out of 5,

Volume of sample +ve -ve

100 3 2
10 3 2
1 2 3
0.1 4 1
0.01 2 3

For 10 ml, 1 ml, 0.1 ml combination

Of +ve MPN
334 30
344 540
332 500
324 48
242 6
It is also known as Most probable number (MPN) test.
This test is discovered by Mc. Hardy. The MPN of the water sample will be.

Different dilution of 10 ml, 1ml and 0.1 ml test tubes Solution:

are prepared in this test. Lactose broth is placed in a
series of test tubes. 5 test tubes are mixed with 10 ml of Combinations,
water sample in each tube, another 5 test tubes are
mixed with 1 ml of water sample in each tubes and +ve 332 for (100, 10, 1 ml)
another 5 test tubes are mixed with 0.1 ml of water
sample in each tube. These tubes are finally incubated MPN =
500
= 50
10
at 37° C for 24 hrs. and formation of gas and colour
change in tubes is noticed.
+ve 324 for (10, 1, 0.1 ml)

Presence of gas and colour change will give a

MPN = 48
positive presumptive test of the presence of coliform
organism in the given tube. If no such gas is evolved it
+ve 242 for (100, 10, 1 ml)
will show a negative test there by showing the absence
of coliform bacteria in the test tube showing non-
evolution of gas. The combinations of positive results are MPN = 6 × 10 = 60
compared to Mc. Hardy’s chart for giving MPN.
So MPN is max(50, 45, 60) = 60
Drinking water must have MPN = 0
Answer:
i.e. 0 coliform colonies per 100 ml.
The MPN is 60.

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Q35. Out of 5, Water borne disease:

Engineering Volume of sample +ve -ve Bacteria (it gets nutrients from environment)
100 0 5
10 1 4
Typhoid (Salmonella typhi)
1 3 2
0.1 3 2
0.01 5 0 Cholera (Vibrio cholerae)

For 10 ml, 1 ml, 0.1 ml combination Bacillary dysentery (Sonne bacillus)

Of +ve MPN Virus (smaller than bacteria, live for very short time
003 500 outside other living cells)
501 235
013 550 Jaundice (Hepatitis virus)
333 56
133 49 Hepatitis (Hepatitis virus)
335 4.7
513 5 Polio (Poliomyelitis virus)
143 350
Protozoa (bigger than bacteria, contains nucleus
The MPN of the water sample will be. and other cell structure making them more like plant
and animal cells)
Solution:
Dysentery or Diarrhoea (Amoebic protozoa)
Combinations,

+ve 013 for (100, 10, 1 ml)

550
MPN = = 55
10

+ve 133 for (10, 1, 0.1 ml)

MPN = 49

+ve 335 for (100, 10, 1 ml)

MPN = 4.7 × 10 = 47

So MPN is max(55, 49, 47) = 55

Answer:

The MPN is 55.

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Engineering Treatment of water

Following operation are carried out in purification HL = Head loss,
of water,
V = velocity before screen,
Screening
U = velocity after screen.

Aeration
Note:
Plain sadimentation
Screening is generally applied for surface water.

Sedimentation aided with

coagulation and flocculation If inclination is provided then the efficiency of screen
gets increased, due to inclination provided to the
screen cleaning of screen gets much easier.
Filteration
If more and more impurities get deposited, H L
Disinfection increases and hence the quality of water passes
through screen gets reduced and hence cleaning of
screen is done.
Aeration (if not done before)

Softening Aeration:

In aeration water is brought in intimate contact with

Screening: air to remove the undesirable dissolved gasses like CO 2
and H2S. It is also done to add O2 in the water to carry
It is done to remove the heavier impurities from the out the oxidation of dissolved organic matter. It
water like plants, trees, stones, animals etc. Screening is improves the Colour, taste, and odour of the water.
of following three types,
Aeration is divided into following type,
i. Coarse or trash screen (ϕ = 25 mm) ( hole size is 20
– 100 mm) 1. Gravity aeration:
ii. Fine or mesh (hole size is <10mm)
It is done by successive rise and fall of water. In
gravity aeration water is made to pass through
Screen successive rise and fall due to which it gains oxygen
HL from the atmosphere.
V
U

30°-60°

𝐇𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟗(𝐔𝟐 − 𝐕 𝟐 )

Where,

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2. Fountain aeration:
Engineering
The water is detained in a pond from which it is
thrown at high pressure and during falling down of
discrete spherical water particles, it absorbs air.

Sedimentation:
3. Mechanical Aeration:

In mechanical aeration, water is stirred through a Baffle wall Effluent weir

VH
rotating mechanical stirrer due to which it sucks the V0 Outlet
Vs
atmospheric airline above and gets aerated. Conveyer
belt

H
withdrawal
Sludge

Sedimentation is the settling of particles in water due

to particle size specified gravity of particles, viscosity of
water and acceleration due to gravity.

We calculate the settling velocity of the particle by

using Stokes law (valid for particle size > 0.2 mm)

4. Diffused aeration: 𝛒𝐠𝐝𝟐 𝐠𝐝𝟐

𝐕𝐬 = (𝐆 − 𝟏) = (𝐆 − 𝟏)
𝟏𝟖𝛍 𝟏𝟖𝛎
In diffused aeration compressed air is blown inside
the aeration tank through an air compression machine.
If Vs depends on temperature,

If d < 0.1 mm,

𝟑𝐓 + 𝟏𝟎
𝐕𝐬 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖𝐝𝟐 ( ) (𝐆 − 𝟏)
𝟏𝟎𝟎

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If 0.1 mm < d < 1 mm, For coagulation 𝐕𝟎 = 1000 – 1250 l/hr/m2.

Engineering 𝐕𝐬 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖𝐝 (
𝟑𝐓 + 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
) (𝐆 − 𝟏) Efficiency, 𝛈 =
𝐕𝐬
𝐕𝟎
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

If d > 1 mm, Numerical:

𝐕𝐬 = 𝟏. 𝟖√𝐠𝐝(𝐆 − 𝟏) Q36. Discharge of sedimentation tank equals 2m³/min.
Now length, width and height are 30m, 10m and 6m.
Where, Find Detention time and Surface overflow rate.

𝐕𝐬 = Settling velocity of particle, Solution:

𝐝 = Dia of the particles, As we know,

V 30×10×6
𝛒 = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 Detention time, t = = min
Q 2

𝐠 = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 30×10×6

= 2×60
hr

𝛍 = Dynamic viscosity (N-sec m-2 or kg m-1 sec-1)

= 15 hr.
𝛎 = Kinematic viscosity (m2 sec-1)
Q
Surface overflow rate, v0 = L×B
As we know,
2×60×24
= m/day
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐋×𝐁×𝐇 30×10
𝐐= 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
= 𝐓
= 9.6 m/day
As “t” is same for v0 and vH ,
Answer:
𝐇 𝐋
∴𝐯 =𝐯
𝟎 𝐇
The detention time is 15 hr. and surface overflow rate
𝐇 𝐐 𝐐 are 9.6 m/day.
∴ 𝐕𝟎 = 𝐭
= 𝐋×𝐁 = 𝐒𝐀
Q37. Find the settling velocity if the diameter of particle
𝐋 𝐐
and 𝐕𝐇 = = is 0.05mm, specific gravity is 2.65 and dynamic viscosity
𝐭 𝐇×𝐁
is 10-3N-sec/m².
Where,
Solution:
𝐕𝟎 = Overflow rate, loading rate or superficial
velocity, As we know,

ρgd2
𝐕𝐇 = Horizontal or flow through velocity. Settling velocity, vs = (G − 1)
18μ

Note: 1000×9.81×(0.05×10−3 )
2
= × (2.65 − 1)
18×10−3
For plain sedimentation 𝐕𝟎 = 500 – 750 l/hr/m2,
= 2.24 × 10−3 m/s

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= 0.224 cm/s Q39. What will be the length of the sedimentation tank

Engineering
Answer:
if the discharge is 70MLD and settling is done for a
particle of diameter 0.1mm, specific gravity is 2.5,
kinematic viscosity is 2x10-2cm²/sec, if B=L/3 and all
The settling velocity is 0.224 cm/s. particles are desired to be removed.

Q38. Find the efficiency of the sedimentation tank if Solution:

diameter of particle is 0.1mm, specific gravity is 2.65,
density of water is 1000Kg/m³, Kinematic viscosity is According to the question,
2x10-2cm²/sec, discharge is 50MLD and surface area is
500m². B=3
L

Solution: And all particles are desired to be removed,

As we know, So, η = 100%

gd2
vs = 18ν (G − 1) ∴ vs = v0

2 gd2 Q
9.81×(0.1×10−3 ) or, 18ν (G − 1) = L×B
= 18×2×10−2×10−4 × (2.65 − 1)

2
9.81×(0.1×10−3) 70×106 ×10−3
= 4.49 × 10−3 m/s or, × (2.5 − 1) = L2
18×2×10−2×10−4 ×24×60×60
3
Q
v0 = SA
or, L = 24.38 m ≈ 24.4 m
50×106 ×10−3
= 500×24×60×60 m/s Answer:

= 1.157 × 10−3 m/s The length of the sedimentation tank is 24.4 m.

v
∴ η = v s × 100% Q40. In water three types of particles are present A,B
0
and C, Settling velocities 0.05cm/s, 0.03cm/s and
4.49×10−3
0.1cm/s. If discharge of the water is 2m³/s and surface
= 1.157×10−3 × 100% area of the tank is 3000m², then what percentage of
particles will be removed. Percentage composition of
= 388% A,B and C are 30%, 30% and 40% respectively.

Answer: Solution:

The efficiency is 388%. As we know,

Q
v0 = SA

2
= 300 m/s

= 0.067 cm/s

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= 0.016 mm

Engineering
Type of particles
Composition
A
30%
B
30%
C
40% Answer:
𝐯𝐨 0.067 0.067 0.067
𝐯𝐬 0.05 0.03 0.1 The dia. of the particle is 0.016 mm.
𝐯𝐬
𝛈 = ( ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 74.63 44.78 149.25 Q42. Find the diameter of the particle that can be
𝐯𝟎
removed with 90% efficiency having kinematic
𝛈𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 74.63 44.78 100.00
viscosity 1.10x10-6 m²/s, surface overflow rate 40
% removal 22.39 13.43 40.00 m³/day/m² and density of particle is 2650 Kg/m³.

Total removal = (23.29 + 13.43 + 40)% = 75.81% Solution:

Answer: As we know,

75.81% particles are removed. Specific gravity, G =

ρparticle
=
2650
= 2.65
ρstandard liquid 1000

Q41. Length=20m, Breadth=10m, Height=3m, Q=40MLD, v

µ=1.002x10-3NS/m², ρ=998.2Kg/m³, G=2.65, Determine ∵ η = v s × 100%
0
the, Surface overflow rate in m³/day/m², Minimum
diameter of particle which can be removed with 100% gd2
(G−1)
18ν
efficiency. or, 90 = 40 × 100
24×60×60

Solution: 9.81×d2
(2.65−1)
18×1.1×10−6
or, 0.9 = 40

As we know, 24×60×60

Q 𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = 2.2576 × 10−5 m

v0 = L×B
= 0.022576 mm
40×106 ×10−3
= 20×10×24×60×60 m/s
Answer:
= 2.314 × 10 −4
m/s
Dia of the particle is 0.022576 mm.
Let, particle with ‘d’ dia can be removed with 100%
efficiency,

So, for particle with ‘d’ dia.

v0 = vs

ρgd2
or, 2.314 × 10−4 = 18μ
(G − 1)

998.2×9.81×d2
or, 2.314 × 10−4 = 18×1.002×10−3 (2.65 − 1)

or, d = 1.607 × 10−5 m

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Sedimentation aided with coagulation i) Ionic layer compression:

Engineering
and flocculation:
A high ion concentration compresses the layer
composed predominantly of (+ve) charge ions towards
the surface of colloid. If this layer is sufficiently
compressed then attractive forces will be predominant.
Thus, the particle will grow in size. Thus, they will be
removed in the sedimentation tank.

ii) Adsorption and charge

neutralization:

Al3+ ion will react immediately with water to form

The efficiency of sedimentation tank is very less if various aqua metallic cations like Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)3 etc.
very fine suspended particles are present in water. To These cations surround the clouds of (-ve) charge and
increase the efficiency of the tank, coagulation and as they have an affinity for surface, they are adsorbed
flocculation process is adopted which generally takes on to the surface, there by neutralizing the surface
place in following three steps, charge once the charge is neutralized free contact
can occur. Thus, size increases and settling take place.
1. Coagulation (addition of coagulant with fast
mixing),
2. Flocculation (slow mixing),
iii) Sweep coagulation:
3. Sedimentation.
The aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) formed when
alum is added to water is an amorphous (shapeless)
1. Coagulation: and gelatinous. These are heavier than water is settles
down by gravity. Colloids may become entrapped in
It is the process in which certain chemicals (known the flocs and the flocs settle down. This process by
as coagulants) is added in water which neutralize the which colloids are swept away from the system is known
protective negative charge of the suspended as sweep coagulation.
impurities present in water.
iv) Inter particle bridging:
A certain minimum amount of energy known as
threshold energy is required for the neutralization of the
Larger molecules may be formed when alum or
charge which is provided by a rapid mixing of the water
ferric sulphate dissociate in water. Several colloids may
in coagulation tank.
become attached to one molecule or various
molecules resulting settleable mass.
Colloids → silt and clay → -ve charge

Coagulants → Alum → +ve charge Note:

Mechanism of coagulation, For plain sedimentation,

i) Ionic layer compression, 𝐕𝟎 = 500 to 750 l/m2/d

ii) Adsorption and charge neutralization,
iii) Sweep coagulation, Detention time (t) = 4 – 8 hrs.
iv) Inter-particle bridging.
For sedimentation with coagulation,

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𝐕𝟎 = 1000 to 1250 l/m2/d for Jar test is performed to find out most optimum

Engineering
Detention time (t) = 2 - 4 hrs.
dosage of alum as coagulant in water. Rapid mix is
done in order to spread the coagulant uniformly
throughout the mixture and slow mix is done for
𝐕𝐇 = 0.15 – 0.9 m/min, increasing no. of collisions between floc and colloidal
particles.
𝐁 = 10 – 12 m,
1. In 1 l turbid water add coagulants as 5 ml in 1st
𝐋 < 𝟒𝐁, beaker, 10 ml in 2nd and 30 ml in last beaker.
2. Now rotate other stirrer for 1 min at 100 RPM for
𝐇 = 3 m, rapid mix or flash mix (coagulation).
3. Now rotate the stirrer after 1 min at 20 - 30 RPM for
15 to 20 min for slow mixing (flocculation).
Sedimentation tank is designed for max. daily flow
4. Note turn off the stirrer and allow the particles to
max daily flow = 1.8 × average daily flow.
settle down for next 30 min.
5. Now note down the optimum dosage of
In circular sedimentation tank particle path will be
coagulant.
parabolic path,

This mixing follows following formulae,

Volume of circular tank, V = D2 (0.785H + 0.011D)

When lime is added in water to increase alkalinity 𝐏

𝐆=√
following reaction takes place, 𝛍𝐕

Al3 (SO4 )3 ∙ 18H2 O + 3Ca(OH)2 → 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + (Power input in mixing and flocculation is frequently
18H2 O
expressed in terms of temporal mean velocity gradient
G)
Jar test:
Where,
5 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml,
20ml, 25 ml, 30 ml G = Velocity gradient (in per second),

P = Power in watts,

1 ml alum + 1 L Distilled water μ = Dynamic viscosity of raw water (N-S/m2),

V = Volume of raw water (m3).

Numerical:
1 L turbid water

Q43. What will be the power generated (in watts) if the

velocity gradient is 900/sec for water having kinematic
viscosity 2x10-2cm²/sec for a volume of 500litre.

Solution:

As we know,

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μ = ρν 2. Copperas (Ferrous sulphate : 𝐅𝐞𝐒𝐎𝟒 ):

Engineering
= 1000 × 2 × 10−2 × 10−4 N-s/m2
When a copperas is added in water it gets hydrated
and forms FeSO4 ∙ 7H2 O.
= 2 × 10−3 N-s/m2
It works in the pH range of 8.5 and above hence it is
P
G=√ always used with lime.
μV

Quantity used is 10 – 30 mg/l.

∴ p = G 2 μV

FeSO4 ∙ 7H2 O + Ca(OH)2 → Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2 O

= 9002 × 2 × 10−3 × 500 × 10−3 watt
O2
= 810 watt Fe(OH)2 → Fe(OH)3
⏟
Sticky gelatinous

Answer:
FeSO4 ∙ 7H2 O + Ca(HCO3 )2 → Fe(HCO3 )2 + CaSO4 + 7H2 O
810 watt power is generated. 2Ca(OH) 2
Fe(HCO3 )2 → Fe(OH)2
Coagulants:
3. Ferric sulphate (𝑭𝒆𝟐 (𝑺𝑶𝟒 )𝟑 ) and
1. Alum (Aluminium sulphate :
Ferric chloride (𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 ):
𝐀𝐥𝟐 (𝐒𝐎𝟒 )𝟑 ):
It is formed by the addition of Cl (chlorine) in
When alum is added in water it gets hydrated and copperas.
forms Al2 (SO4 )3 ∙ 18H2 O.
2FeCl3 + Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 42H2 O
6FeSO4 ∙ 7H2 O + 3Cl2 → ⏟
Alum requires alkaline medium for better efficiency Chlorinated copper
hence pH of water is maintained in between 6.5 to 8.5.
It reacts with the bicarbonate alkalinity present in the
When natural alkalinity is not present then lime is water to form the precipitate of ferric hydroxide.
added for increasing alkalinity. Soda (Na2 CO3) can also
be added. FeCl3 + Ca(HCO3 )2 → Fe(OH)3 ↓ +CaCl2

Quantity used is 10 to 30 mg/l. Fe(SO4 )3 + Ca(HCO3 )2 → Fe(OH)3 ↓ +CaSO4

Al2 (SO4) 3 ∙ 18H2 O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → ⏟

3CaSO4 + ⏟
2Al(OH)3 + ⏟
6CO2 + 18H2O
Permanent Floc Acidity
If FeCl3 is used independently it works in the pH range
3.5 – 6.5 and above 8.5.
hardness sticky leads to
gelatinous corrossion

Ca(OH)2
⏟ + 2CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2 If Fe2 (SO4 )3 is used independently it works in the pH
Slaked lime range of 4 – 7 and above 9.

CaO
⏟ + H2 O → Ca(OH)2
The working range of chlorinated copper is between
Quick lime
3.5 to 7 and greater than 8.5.

It works in a wide pH range.

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Lime: And 1 mole Ca(HCO3)2 requires 1 mole Ca(OH)2

Engineering
Lime is a unique coagulant in cases where
(Slaked lime)

∴ 1 mole alum requires 3 mole of Ca(OH)2

phosphorous removal is designed,

pH>9.5 ∴ 45 mole alum requires (3 × 45) moles of Ca(OH)2

10Ca2+ + 6PO4 3− + 2OH + ⇌ Ca10(PO4 )5 (OH)2 ↓
pH<9
= 3 × 45 × 74 gm of Ca(OH)2
Numerical:
[∵ 1 mole Ca(OH)2 = 74 gm Ca(OH)2]

Q44. Find the amount of Ca(HCO3)2 required for 1998Kg

= 9990 gm of Ca(OH)2
of Alum.

= 9.99 kg of Ca(OH)2
Solution:

Answer:
As we know,

Al2 (SO4) 3 ∙ 18H2 O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + 6CO2 + 18H2O Required slaked lime is 9.99 kg.

From the equation we observe that, Q46. Alum dosage required for raw water is 25mg/l.
Flow rate is given as 100MLD. Natural alkalinity present
1 mole alum requires 3 moles of Ca(HCO3)2 in raw water is 6mg/l as Ca(HCO3)2.Determine the Alum
required per year in Kg, Bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)
We know that, required per year in Kg, Additional Bicarbonate
(Ca(HCO3)2) required per year in Kg after natural,
1 mole alum = 666 gm alum Amount of Quick lime required per year in Kg.

1 mole Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 gm Ca(HCO3)2 Solution:

∴ 666 gm of alum requires (3 × 162) gm Ca(HCO3)2 According to the question,

3×162 Alum dose for raw water is 25 mg/L

∴ 1998 kg alum requires ( 666
× 1998) kg Ca(HCO3)2

Flow rate, Q = 100 MLD

= 1458 kg Ca(HCO3)2
Natural alkalinity = 6 mg/L
Answer:
∴ Alum dose req. = 25 × 10-6 × 100 × 106 kg/day
1998 kg alum requires 1458 kg of Ca(HCO3)2.
= 2500 × 365 kg/year
Q45. What will be the amount of slaked lime required for
45moles of alum? = 912500 kg/year

Solution: 3×162
∴ Bicarbonates req. = ( 666
× 912500) kg/year

We know that,
= 665878 kg/year
1 mole alum requires 3 mole of Ca(HCO3)2

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∵ Natural alkalinity = 6mg/L

Engineering = 6 × 10-6 × 100 × 106 × 365 kg/day

= 219000 kg/year

∴ Extra Ca(HCO3)2 req. = 665878 - 219000 kg/year

Bottom to top

= 446878 kg/year
2. Mechanical stirrer
∴ Quick lime required =
56
× 446878 kg/year i. Rapid mix
162 ii. Slow mix

= 154476 kg/year
Outlet
Answer:

912500 kg/year alum dose req., 665878 kg/year

bicarbonate req., 446878 kg/year extra bicarbonate
require and 154476 kg/year quicklime req.

2. Flocculation:
Inlet
In flocculation neutralized suspended impurities is
provided with sufficient time so as to interact with each 3. Secondary sedimentation:
other (agglomeration) and grow in size which are finally
removed in the following process.
Always sedimentation process is done after
coagulation and flocculation, but it is not necessary to
The rate of flocculation depends upon type and done flocculation and coagulation before
dose of the coagulant added, turbidity of water, G sedimentation.
(Temporal mean velocity gradient).

Flocculation is done through two types. Filtration:

1. Mixing baffle Screening and sedimentation remove a large

i. Around the wall percentage of the suspended solids and organic
matter present in raw supplies. The percentage of
removal of the fines colloidal matter increases when
coagulants are also used before sedimentation but
however the resultant water will not be pure and may
contain some very fine suspended particles and
1.2 to 1.5
m/min bacteria present in it. To remove or to reduce the
Around the wall remaining impurities still further and to produce
portable water, the water is filtered through the bed of
ii. Bottom to top fine granular material such as sands etc. The process of
passing the water through the beds of such granular
materials (called filters) is known as filtration. Filtration

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may help in removing Colour, odour, turbidity, and impurities around the sand grains (i.e. formation of

Engineering
pathogenic bacteria from the water. SCHMUTZDECKE) has taken place.

Following three types of filters are available, Effective size = D10 = 0.2 to 0.3 mm

D
1. Slow sand filter: Cu = D60 = 5
10

2. Rapid sand filter:

The treated water from primary sedimentation tank

is allowed to enter the inlet chamber and get
distributed uniformly over the filter bed. The water
percolates through the filter media and gets purified
during the process of filtration. The water now enters the When filter is in operation:
gravel layer and comes out as the filtered water. It gets
collected in the laterals through the open joints which
Valve 1 is first of all opened which leads the effluent
finally discharges into the filtered water well from which
of coagulation sedimentation tank to enter the inlet
it can be taken to the storage tank for supplies. It may
chamber of the filter. This water gets filter through the
also be noted that the water entering the slow sand
filter beds and the filtered water can be taken out from
filter shouldn’t be treated by coagulant. This is due to
the main drain by opening valve 4. This filtered water
the fact that the dirty skin formed by the floc and
can be taken to the disinfection unit. Thus, when filter is
carried to the filter considerably effects the economical
in working condition only this two valves (1 and 4) shall
working of the filter. The loss of head called filter head is
be kept open and all other valves kept closed.
generally limited to a maximum value of 90 cm. When
this limiting value is reached the filter must be put out of
service and the filter must be clean. The cleaning of Back washing:
slow sand filter is not done by back washing as is done
for rapid sand filter but is done by scraping and When sand becomes dirty as it is indicated by the
removing 1.5 – 3 cm top sand layer. The top surface is excessive loss of head the filter must be cleaned and
finally roughened, cleaned, washed with good water. washed. For cleaning the raw supplies as well as the
The amount of wash water required is generally small filtered water sent back upward through the filter beds
(0.2 - 0.6 % of the total water filtered). Cleaning is this forced upward movement of wash water and
repeated until the sand depth is reduced to about 60 compressed air will agitate the sand particles and thus
cm or so after each cleaning the filter is again used and removing the suspended impurities from it. The process
raw water is admitted into it, but the effluent that will be of washing the filter and removing the dirty water is
obtained in the beginning are not pure and are not generally continued for a period of 3 – 5 min. The entire
used for 24 -36 hrs. until the formation of film of arrested process of backwashing the filter and maintaining filter
supplies taken about 15 min and the filter unit remains

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out of operation for this much of time the amount of 3. Pressure filter:
Engineering
water required for washing a rapid sand filter may vary
from 2 – 5 % of the total amount of water filtered.
The unit is like a rapid sand filter with a difference that
D60
complete unit is inside a closed chamber. Flow of water
D10 = 0.45 – 0.7 mm, = 1.3 – 1.7 through sand is not under gravity. This implies that water
D10
inside the chamber is under pressure.
HL,max = 2.5 – 3 m
Diameter of the tank is 1.5 – 3 m, height of the tank is
3.5 – 8 m.
Operational troubles in rapid sand
filter:

1. Air binding:

Loss goes on increasing as more and more impurities

are trapped the bottom sand then acts like a vacuum.
Hence water gets sucked in filter media without getting
filtered. This making bubbles which sticks to sand grains,
there by seriously affecting the operation. This
phenomenon is called air binding.

2. Cracking of filter:

Due to pressure on sand layer shrinkage cracks

developed. The crack is widened by pressure applied
on filter. Thus, floc and other impurities penetrate deep It is operated like a rapid sand gravity filter except
into the filter there by reducing the efficiency. that raw water is neither flocculated nor sedimented
before it enters the filters rate of filtration is 6000 – 1500
3. Mud ball formation: l/m2/hr.

Mud from atmosphere gets deposited on the sand Difference between SSF and RSF:
surface and during inadequate washing the mud may
sink down in sand bed. This mud sticks to sand grains
and other impurities, thereby forming mud balls. The Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
mud balls go on increasing in size and may sink down in i. Particle size = 0.2 – 0.3 i. Particle size = 0.45 – 0.7
gravel layers. This interferes with upward movement of mm. mm.
water during back washing. Thus, improper washing
leads to accumulation of mud. Once mud ball ii. Discharge is slow. ii. Discharge is more.
formation starts it goes on increasing in numbers and
ultimately entire space is filled with them. To avoid it iii. Flexibility is less. iii. No. of units are more
surface wash, racking the surface and washing with hence flexibility is more.
caustic soda is adopted.
iv. Maintenance cost is iv. Maintenance cost is
low, but installation cost more but installation cost
is more. is less.

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v. Surface loading is v. Surface loading rate is Time for reaching terminal head loss
Engineering
around 100 – 200 l/m2/hr. around 3000 – 6000
l/m2/hr. (TH):

vi. Almost pure water is vi. Chlorination is

obtained in SSF with 98% compulsory.

3m
to 99% disinfection
hence no chlorination or
slight chlorination is
required.

vii. Generally done after vii. Generally done after

primary sedimentation secondary
tank. sedimentation tank i.e.
after coagulation and
flocculation. It is the time elapsed from the start of filter run till
head loss on the sand surface reaches 3 m.
viii. Method of cleaning viii. Methods of cleaning
by scraping of top 1.5 – 3 by back washing with air Factors TB TH
cm top layer of sand. or water. Surface overflow rate (V0) ↑ ↓ ↓
Influent turbidity (particle
↑ ↓ ↓
concentration)
Time for reaching particle Filter depth ↑ ↑ ↓
Porosity ↑ ↓ ↑
breakthrough (TB):
Numerical:

Q47. Design loading rate of filter = 200 m³/d/m²,

Discharge = 0.5 m³/sec, Surface area per filter box = 50
m², Find the Surface area required for RSF and number
of filters required.

Solution:
2.5 NTU
As we know,

It is the time elapsed form the start of filter run till Q

turbidity in water reaches 2.5 NTU. Total surface area of sand filter = v
0

0.5
= 200 m2
24×60×60

= 216 m2

216
∴ No. of filter req. =
50

= 4.32 ≈ 5 nos.

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Answer: Answer:

Engineering
Surface area req. for RSF is 216m2 and no. of filter req. The required surface area is 350 m2.
is 5 nos.
Q50. A water treatment plant having discharge 1
Q48. Discharge = 28800 m³/day, Density = 1000 Kg/m³, m³/sec has 14 filters. Each filter is having 50 m² area but
Kinematic viscosity = 10-6 m²/sec, Velocity gradient = due to backwashing 2 filters are non-operational.
900 /sec, Alum concentration = 35 mg/l, Detention time Calculate loading rate in m³/day/m².
= 2min, Find the Power input in watt.
Solution:
Solution:
As we know,
As we know,
Q
Loading rate, v0 = effective surface area
P
G=√
μV
1×24×60×60
= m3/day/m2
50×(14−2)
or, P = G 2μV
= 144 m3/day/m2
2
= 900 × (ν × ρ) × (Q × t)
Answer:
28800
= 900 × 2 (10−6 × 1000) × (24×60 × 2) watt
Loading rate is 144 m3/day/m2.
= 32400 watt
Q51. The discharge of a treatment plant is given as
35m³/min and alum dosage required is 25mg/l. Find the
Answer:
quantity of alum required for 30days in Kg.
The power input is 32400 watt.
Solution:
Q49. If the discharge is 4.2m³/min and flocculating
Alum dose req. = 25 × 10−6 × 35 × 103 × 24 × 60 kg/d
particles are to be produced by coagulation. Column
analysis indicated an overflow rate of 0.2mm/sec. The
= 1260 kg/d
required surface area will be ___________.

∴ Alum dose req. in 30 days = 1260 × 30 kg

Solution:

= 37800 kg
As we know,

Q Answer:
Total surface area of sand filter = v
0

The quantity of alum is 37800 kg.

4.2
= 0.2×10−3×60 m2
Disinfection of water:
= 350 m2
The chemicals or substances which are used for
killing the bacteria are known as disinfectants and the

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process of killing the bacteria is known as disinfection of 4. Treatment with Iodine and bromine:
Engineering
water.
The addition of iodine or bromine to water can help
The following are the methods of disinfection,
in killing the pathogenic bacteria and thereby
disinfecting the same. The quantity of these
1. Boiling of water: disinfectants may be limited to about 8 ppm and a
contact period of 5 minutes is generally enough. These
The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by disinfectants are now a days also available in the form
boiling it for a long time. It is an effective method of of pills and are thus very handy. They are not used for
disinfection, but it is not practically possible to boil huge treating any large-scale public supplies but may be
amounts of public water supplies. Moreover, it can only used for treating small water supplies.
kill the existing germs but can’t take care of the future
possible contaminations. 5. Disinfection by potassium
permanganate:
2. Treatment with excess lime:
This is the most common disinfectant used in the
Lime is usually used at the water purification plant for village for disinfection of dug well water, pond water or
reducing the hardness of water. The addition of excess private source of water. In addition to the killing of
lime in the water increase the pH value of the water. It bacteria it also reduces the organic matters by
has been noted that at pH value more than 9.5, all the oxidizing them.
bacteria’s are killed.
Due to its good oxidizing quality, it is sometimes
After killing the bacteria by using excessive lime, the added in small dose 0.05 to 0.1 mg/l in the chlorinated
next requirement is to reduce the pH value for making water also. In the rural areas it is common practice to
it fit for domestic purpose. dissolve a small amount of potassium permanganate in
a bucket of water and mix it with the water of the well
3. Treatment with Ozone: frequently, to kill the bacteria. After adding this in water
the colour of water should become light pink.
Ozone gas is a faintly blue gas of pungent odour and
is an excellent disinfectant. Ozone is produced by The usual dose of KMnO4 is 1 – 2 mg/l of water with
passing a high-tension electric current through a stream contact period of 4 – 6 hrs. its efficiency is only 98%.
of air is a close chamber.
6. Disinfection by ultra-violet ray:
Passing through
High electric arc voltage
3O2 → 2O3 In the laboratory they can be obtained by the ultra-
violet ray equipment, which essentially consist of
But as the ozone is highly unstable it breaks down in mercury vapours enclosed in quartz bulb and passing
the ordinary oxygen and liberates nascent oxygen current in it.
which can be shown by the following reaction.
These rays are highly effective in killing all types of
O3 → O2 + O bacteria, thus yielding a truly sterilized water. The water
(Nascent oxygen)
to be treated with ultra-violet rays should, however, be
The nascent oxygen is very powerful oxidizing agent less turbid and low in colour. Normally it should be
and it kills all the bacteria’s as well as oxidizes the colourless. And turbidity should not exceed 15 mg/l.
organic matter present in the water.

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7. Chlorination: Monochloramine will exist for pH > 7.5,

Engineering
Chlorine in its various form is invariably and almost
Dichloramine will exist for pH = 5 – 6.5,
universally used for disinfecting public water supplies. It
is cheap, reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable Trichloramine will exist for pH < 4.4.
and above all it is capable of providing residual
disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording Numerical:
complete protection against future recontamination of
water in the distribution system. Q52. What amount of HOCl will be required in grams for
forming NCl3 with 17gram of ammonia?
Its only disadvantage is that when used in greater
amounts, it imparts bitter and bad taste to the water Solution:
which may not be liked by certain sensitive tongued
consumers. To form trichloramine,

If pH > 5.0 then chlorination will work, 1 mole of NH3 = 3 mole of HOCl

Cl2 + H2 O → ⏟
HOCl + H+ + Cl− ∵ 1 mole of NH3 = 17 gm of NH3
Hypochlorous acid

pH>7 and 1 mole of HOCl = 52.5 gm of HOCl

HOCl ⇌ H+ + ⏟−
OCl
pH<7
Hypochlorite ions
∴ 17 gm of NH3 = 3 × 52.5 gm of HOCl

Both HOCl and OCl− are disinfectants, but HOCl is 80%

= 157.5 gm of HOCl
more stronger disinfectant than OCl− .

Answer:
HOCl will work when pH is between 5 – 7,

157.5 gm of HOCl req.

OCl− will work when pH > 7.

k Q53. What will be amount of HOCl in grams will be

HOCl → H+ + OCl− required for forming monochloramine with 34grams of
NH3?
Where, k = Reaction rate constant.
Solution:
[H + ][OCl− ]
k= [HOCl]
To form monochloramine.
Reaction of chlorine with ammonia,
1 mole of NH3 = 1 mole of HOCl
NH3 + HOCl → NH
⏟ 2 Cl + H2 O
Monochloramine ∵ 1 mole of NH3 = 17 gm of NH3

NH2 Cl + HOCl → NHCl

⏟ 2 + H2 O and 1 mole of HOCl = 52.5 gm of HOCl
Dichloramine

∴ 17 gm of NH3 = 52.5 gm of HOCl

NHCl2 + HOCl → NCl
⏟3 + H2 O
Trichloramine 52.5
∴ 34 gm of NH3 = × 34 gm of HOCl
17

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= 105 gm of HOCl Numerical:

Engineering
Answer:
Q55. Population of a city is 20000, per capita water
demand is 150 LPCD. If bleaching powder contains 30%
105 gm of HOCl req. of available residual chlorine, find amount of bleaching
powder required annually if chlorine dosage is 0.3
Q54. What will be amount of HOCl in grams will be mg/L,
required for forming dichloramine with 100grams of
NH3? Solution:

Solution: According to the question,

To form dichloramine. P = 20000,

1 mole of NH3 = 2 mole of HOCl q = 150 LPCD,

∵ 1 mole of NH3 = 17 gm of NH3 ∴ Total water consumption = 150 × 20000 L/day

and 1 mole of HOCl = 52.5 gm of HOCl = 3 MLD

∴ 17 gm of NH3 = 2 × 52.5 gm of HOCl ∵ chlorine dose required = 0.3 mg/L

52.5
∴ 100 gm of NH3 = 2 × × 100 gm of HOCl ∴ Total chlorine required = 0.3 × 10-6 × 3 × 106 kg/day
17

= 617.647 gm of HOCl = 9 kg/day

Answer: = 9 × 365 kg/year

617.647 gm of HOCl req. = 328.5 kg/year

Chlorine application: ∵ Bleaching powder contain 30% of the residual

chlorine,
Chlorine is applied into water in following ways,
∴ 0.3 kg chlorine comes from 1 kg bleaching powder
i. Chlorine gas, 1
ii. Chloramine, ∴ 328.5 kg chlorine comes from = ( × 328.5) kg
0.3
iii. Bleaching powder or Hypochlorite.
= 1095 kg
Ca(OCl)
⏟ 2 → Ca2+ + ⏟ −
2OCl
Bleaching powder Hypochlorite ion
Answer:

Chlorine available in bleaching powder is 30 -45 % Total 1095 kg of bleaching powder required per
and in hypochlorite is 60 -70 %. year.

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Types of chlorination: 5. Break point chlorination:

Engineering
Chlorination is divided into following forms,

1. Plain chlorination: 45°

Any addition of chlorine appearing

Residual chlorine (Mg/L)

equally as free residual chlorine.

It indicated that no other treatment has been Imaginary line which will appears when there is
no chlorine consumption. i.e. for pure water
carried out (sedimentation, filtration, screening etc.) Decomposition of
45° organic matter
and only chlorine treatment is given. This technique
may be used for treating relatively clearer water with
turbidities then 20 to 30 mg/L obtained from lakes, Break
point Break point
reservoirs etc. The dosage of chlorine should be such as
to leave a residual chlorine of about 0.5 mg/L or more.
Back killing

2. Pre-chlorination:
Applied chlorine Mg/L
It is the process of applying chlorine to the water
before filtration or rather before sedimentation,
It is chlorination done till breakpoint. Break point is
coagulation. It helps in improving coagulation and
the point after which any further addition of chlorine will
reduces the loads on the filters. The dosage of chlorine
appear in the form of residual chlorine.
should be such as to leave a residual chlorine of about
0.1 to 0.5 mg/L.
6. Super chlorination:
3. Post-chlorination:
It indicates chlorine treatment in huge amount
around 5 to 15 mg/L to the water. Generally done in
Post-chlorination or sometimes simply called
case of highly polluted waters or during epidemics
chlorination is the normal standard process of applying
without any exact dose calculation.
chlorine in the end when all other treatments have
been completed. The dosage of chlorine should be
such as to leave a residual chlorine of about 0.1 to 0.2 7. De-chlorination:
mg/L after a contact period of about 20 min.
De-chlorination means removing the chlorine from
4. Double chlorination: water. This is generally required when super chlorination
has been done.
The pre and post chlorination are generally used in
double chlorination. Orthotolidine test:

It is a test conducted to find amount of residual

chlorine in water. 10 ml of chlorinated water sample is
added with 0.1 ml Orthotolidine solution and yellow
Colour appeared is compared with standard Colour
chart to find amount of residual chlorine.

5 sec of yellow Colour ⟶ Free available chlorine

residual (HOCl, OCl− )

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5 min. of yellow Colour ⟶ Total chlorine residual n = dilution coefficient (generally 1 for chlorination)

Engineering
(Chloramines, HOCl, OCl−)
Note:
Chick’s law:
If the percentage of killing of bacteria is same, then
Consumption of chlorine in water follows 1st order Watson law can be used alone otherwise both chick’s
reaction i.e. rate of killing of bacteria is directly law as well as Watson law will be used.
proportional to initial present concentration of
bacteria. Numerical:
𝐝𝐍𝐭
∝ 𝐍𝐭 Q56. Find the amount of chlorine required for 99%
𝐝𝐭
disinfection in 8 min, if 30 mg/L of chlorine do 99% of
Where, disinfection in 5 min.

Nt = Microorganisms at time “t” remaining, Solution:

dNt According to the question,

∵ dt
∝ Nt

C1 = 30 mg/L, t1 = 5 min, and t2 = 8 min.

dNt
or, dt
= −kNt, (K = Rate decay constant)
As we know that,
N dN t
or, ∫N t N t = ∫0 −kdt
0 t C1 t1 = C2 t 2
N
or, [log e Nt ]Nt0 = −k[t]t0 or, 30 × 5 = C2 × 8

N
or, log e N t = −kt or, C2 = 18.75 mg/L
0

N Answer:
or, N t = e−kt
0

The amount of chlorine required is 18.75 mg/L.

or, Nt = N0 e−kt
Q57. If 99% of bacteria is killed with a rate decay
𝐍𝐭 = 𝐍𝟎 𝐞−𝐤𝐭 constant k = 0.145 /min, Then, what will be the volume
of disinfection tank for a discharge of 5 MLD.

Watson law (Dilution law): Solution:

𝐂 𝐧 𝐭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
According to the question,

or, 𝐂𝟏𝐧 𝐭 𝟏 = 𝐂𝟐𝐧 𝐭 𝟐 = 𝐂𝐦

𝐧
𝐭𝐦
K = 0.145 /min.

Where,
Q = 5 MLD,

C = concentration,
Let,

t = contact time,
N0 = 100,

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∴ Nt = 100 - 99 = 1 ∴ 𝑁𝑡 = (100 − 99) = 1,

Engineering
According to chick’s law, ∴ 1 = 100e−0.2878𝑡

∴ 1 = 100e−0.145t or, t = 16.001 min.

or, t = 31.75 min. Now,

∴ Volume, V = Qt C1 = 0.1 mg/L, t1 = 16.001 min, and C2 = 0.05 mg/L.

5×106
= 103×24×60 × 31.75 m3 As we know that,

C1 t1 = C2 t 2
= 110.24 m3
or, 0.1 × 16.001 = 0.05 × t 2
Answer:
or, t 2 = 32.002 mg/L
The volume of disinfection tank is 110.24.
Answer:
Q58. 90% of bacteria is killed by a chlorine dose of
0.1mg/L in 8 min. What time will be required for 99%
Total time required for killing 99% bacteria with
killing of bacteria at chlorine dose of 0.05 mg/L.
chlorine dose of 0.05mg/L is 32 min,

Solution:
Water softening:
According to the question,
Water is soften by following methods,
t1 = 8 min.
1. Lime-soda method:
∵ Nt = N0 e−kt
In this method lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda (Na2 CO3) is
When 90% bacteria were killed, used for softening. In this methods following reactions
takes place,
Let,
i) 𝐂𝐚(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 + 𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 → 𝟐𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓ +𝟐𝐇𝟐 𝐎
No = 100,
ii) 𝐌𝐠(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 + 𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 → 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓
∴ Nt = (100 − 90) = 10, 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓ +𝐌𝐠(𝐎𝐇)𝟐

∴ 10 = 100e−8k iii) 𝐌𝐠𝐒𝐎𝟒 + 𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 → 𝐂𝐚𝐒𝐎𝟒 + 𝐌𝐠(𝐎𝐇)𝟐

𝐂𝐚𝐒𝐎𝟒 + 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓ +𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒
or, k = 0.2878
iv) 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐥𝟐 + 𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐥𝟐 + 𝐌𝐠(𝐎𝐇)𝟐
When 99% bacteria were killed, 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐥𝟐 + 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓ +𝟐𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥

Let,

No = 100,

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2. Zeolite method (𝐍𝐚𝟐𝐎. 𝐀𝐥𝟐𝐎𝟑. 𝐱𝐒𝐢𝐎𝟐. 𝐲𝐇𝟐𝐎): Numerical:

Engineering
Zeolites are hydrated silicates of sodium and Q59. 2m³/sec of water having hardness 700mg/l must
aluminium. be treated to achieve 100mg/l of hardness, for this
purpose water is subjected to zeolite bed. What will be
Zeolites are crystal structures appears like bypass and zeolite flow rate.
gemstones, capable of removing hardness.
Solution:
(HCO3 )2 (HCO3 )2
Ca Ca
Na 2Z + { } { SO4 } → Na2 { SO4 } + { } {Z}
⏟ Mg ⏟Mg 2 m3/s
Sodium Cl2 ⏟ Cl2 Ca or Mg
Zeolite
Sodium saults zeolite
700 mg/L

The Ca or Mg zeolite can be regenerated into active

sodium zeolite by treating it with 5 – 10 percent solution
of sodium chloride. The exchange reacting that takes
place during regeneration can be represented as.

Zeolite bed
(2-Q) Q (Bypass no treatment)
0 mg/L 700 mg/L
Ca Ca
{ } {Z} + 2NaCl → Na2 Z + { } Cl2
⏟Mg Mg
Ca or Mg
zeolite

100 mg/L
Note:
2 m3/s

Water of zero hardness can be obtained through

zeolite process. As we know,

QZ HZ +QBP HBP
Hardness mixture =
QZ +QBP

{(2−𝑄)×0}+(𝑄×700)
or, 100 =
2

or, Q = 0.285 m3/S

∴ Zeolite flow = 2 - Q m3/S

= 2 - 0.285 m3/S

=1.715 m3/S

Answer:

The bypass and zeolite flow rate are 0.285 m3/s and
1.715 m3/s respectively.

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Q60. 3MLD of water having hardness 400ppm must be ∵ 10 kg of hardness is removed by 1 m3 zeolite

Engineering
treated to achieve 100ppm of hardness, for this purpose
water is subjected to zeolite bed. Find the area of zeolite ∴ 900 kg hardness will be removed by =
900
10
m3
bed of height 1.4m if 10kg of hardness can be removed
by 1m³ of zeolite. What will be the amount of brine
= 90 m3
solution in kg having 10% salt if regeneration of zeolite
requires 20Kg/m³ of zeolite by salt.
∵ Volume=Area × Height
Solution: 90
∴ Area of zeolite bed = m2
1.4

3 MLD
= 64.286 m2

400 ppm
∵ 1 m3 zeolite bed regeneration requires 20 kg salt

∴ 90 m3 zeolite bed regeneration requires,

= 90 × 20 kg salt
Zeolite bed

(3 - Q) Q (Bypass no treatment)
0 ppm 400 ppm
= 1800 kg

∵ Brine solution has 10% salt

100
100 ppm ∴ Brine solution required = 1800 × kg
10

3 MLD
= 18000 kg

As we know, Answer:

QZ HZ +QBP HBP
Hardness mixture = Area of zeolite is 64.286 m3, 18000 kg brine solution
QZ +QBP
required.
{(3−𝑄)×0}+(𝑄×400)
or, 100 =
3
Distribution system:
or, Q = 0.75 MLD
There are four types of distribution systems are used,
∴ Zeolite flow = 3 - Q MLD
1. Dead end system:
= 3 - 0.75 MLD
This is one main supply pipe from which originates a
= 2.25 MLD number of submain pipes. Each submain then divided
into several branch pipe called laterals.
∴ Total hardness removed by zeolite bed,

= 2.25 × 400 ×106 mg/day

= 900 kg/day

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Engineering

Advantages:
Suitability:
1. Lesser no. of cutoff valves required,
2. Cheap and economical, It is suitable for well-planned city.
3. Shorter pipe length,
4. Easier expansion.
Advantages:
Suitability: 1. Since water reaches from different directions, sizes
of pipes get reduced,
For old town and cities with irregular and unplanned 2. Very small area gets affected in case of repairs,
development. 3. Due to free circulation, water can’t be polluted,
4. More water can be diverted in case of fire break
Limitations: out.

1. Considerable area gets affected during repairs, Disadvantages:

2. Water stagnation at dead ends leads to pollution,
3. Water rate of supply can’t be increased in case of 1. More length of pipes and larger no. of valves,
fire break out, 2. Costlier,
4. Less successful in maintaining satisfactory 3. Design is difficult.
pressures in the remote parts.

3. Ring system:
2. Grid iron system:
A closed ring either circular or rectangular of main
Main, submains and branches are interconnected pipe is provided. It will improve pressure at various
with each other. Main line runs through the center of points. During fire break out, large quantity of water is
the area. available. The length of distribution main is much larger.

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Distribution system should not ordinarily be designed

Engineering for residual pressures exceeding 22 m. Multi storeyed

building needed higher pressure should be provided
with boosters

Minimum pipe sizes:

Town with population up to 50000, dia. of the pipe is

100 mm.

If population is more than 50000, the dia. of the pipe

is 150 mm.

Advantages and disadvantages are same as that of

grid iron system. System of supply:

1. Continuous,
4. Radial system:
2. Intermittent.

The area is divided into small distribution zones and

in the center of each zone a distribution reservoir is Detection of leakage in the distribution
provided. Water from these reservoirs is supplied radially popes:
laid distribution pipes running towards the periphery of
the zone. For detection of leakage in the distribution pipe we
use following methods,
Ensures high pressure and efficient water distribution.

Suitable for cities with radial roads.

1. Direct observation:

Observing a wet soft spot on the unpaved ground

we can detect the leakage. This is possible only in
clayey and loamy soils and is difficult in case of sandy
soils.

2. By using sounding rod:

A sharp pointed metal rod is thrust into ground along

the pipeline and pulled up for inspection. Its moist or
muddy point will preliminarily indicate the presence of
leakage. The sound of escaping water can also be
heard by placing the ear on the top of the inserted rod.
Pressure in the distribution system:
3. By plotting the hydraulic gradient
No. of storey. Height of the water tank line:
1 7m
2 12 m
The pressure at various points along a suspected
3 17 m
pipeline are measured and the hydraulic gradient line

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is plotted. The appearance of the change in slope of Numerical:

Engineering
HGL will indicate the location of a leak in the pipeline.
Q61. Find the discharge through each pipe.
4. By using waste detection meters: B r=5 D
20 50

These meter measure any unusually high flow

passing through a water main during the period of low

r=1
r=2
consumption such as during night or early morning, this
unnatural excess flow from a portion of the pipe will
indicate the leakage of the water through that section 100
C
30
A r=4
of pipe. Solution:

Methods for the analysis of the pipe Let,

network: B D
r=5 50
20
i. Equivalent pipe method: 15

r=1
r=2
A complex system of pipes is replaced by a single 70 35

hydraulically equivalent pipe. The equivalent pipe is

one which will replace a given system of pipes with 30
100 30
equal head loss for a given flow. A r=4 C

By using following formula, we calculate the B +15

B D
dimensions of the equivalent pipe,

Leq L1 L2 L3
= + + -35
d5eq d15 d52 d53 +70

ii. Hardy cross method:

A - 30 C C

Following three laws are applicable, Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐 Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐
AB +2×702 2×2×70 BD +5×502 2×5×15
a. In each separate pipe or element comprising the BC +1×352 2×1×35 DC -1×352 2×1×35
system there will be a relation between the head loss in CA -4×302 2×4×30 CB -1×352 2×1×35
the element and the quantity of water flowing through Total 7425 590 Total -1325 290
it. −𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟓 +1325
∆𝐐 = = −𝟏𝟑 ∆Q = = +5
b. Ai each junction, the algebraic sum of the 𝟓𝟗𝟎 90

quantities of the water entering and leaving the

junction is zero. i.e. ∑Q=0. +15 + 5 = +20 D
B B
c. In any closed path or circuit, the algebraic sum of
the head loss in the individual element is zero. i.e. ∑hL=0.
+ 0 – 13 = +5

-35 + 5 = -30

− ∑ rQn
d. Modification in discharge,∆Q = ∑|nrQn−1|

A - 30 – 13 = - 43 C C

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Now,

Engineering 20
B r=5
20
D
50
B B +17 D

-33
+58

r=1
r=2

57 30

A -42 C C
43
100 30
A r=4 C Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐 Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐
AB +2×582 2×2×58 BD +5×172 2×5×17
BC +1×212 2×1×21 DC -1×332 2×1×33
B B +20 D
CA -4×422 2×4×42 CB -1×212 2×1×21
Total 113 604 Total -28 280
𝟏𝟏𝟑 −28
-30 ∆𝐐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟒 = 𝟎 ∆Q = =0
+57 280

As, ∆𝐐 = 0
A -43 C C

Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐 Pipe 𝐫𝐐𝟐 𝟐𝐫𝐐 So, flow through each pipe will be,
AB +2×572 2×2×57 BD +5×202 2×5×20
BC +1×172 2×1×17 DC -1×302 2×1×30 B r=5 D
50
20
CA -4×432 2×4×43 CB -1×172 2×1×17 17

Total -609 604 Total 811 294

r=1
r=2
𝟔𝟎𝟗 −811 58 33
∆𝐐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟒 = +𝟏 ∆Q = = −3
294

42
100 30
A r=4 C
B B + 20 – 3 = +1 D

Answer:
+57 + 1 = +58

-30 - 3 = -33

Discharge through each pipe is,

B r=5 D
20 50
A - 43 + 1 = - 42 C C 17

Now,
r=1
r=2

58 33

B r=5 D
20 50
17 42
100 30
A r=4 C
r=1
r=2

58 33

42
100 30
A r=4 C

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Apparatus in plumbing system: 3. Service pipe:

Engineering Water supply
to premisses
It is a galvanized iron pipe of nominal size (internal
dia.) less than 50mm. It is laid below ground level. It
Pavement
supplies water to individual buildings through the water
Service
main.
pipe
Water meter
Ferrule

Goose Stopcock
neck

Water main

Following apparatus is used during the distribution of

water,
4. Stop cock:
1. Ferrules: It is provided before the water meter (if the water
meter is provided) otherwise it is connected at the end
of the service pipe and close to the boundary wall of
the premises in an unaccessible position. It is housed in
a small masonry chamber with a removable cover for
stopping or opening the water supply to the premises.

It is right angled sleeve made of brass. It is joined to

the opening drilled in the water main with the plug. A
ferrule is used to connect the water main to the goose
neck.

2. Goose neck: 5. Water meter:

It is small curved flexible pipe for making connection These are connected after the stop cock to measure
between ferrule and service pipe. They are usually of the quantity of water supplied to a premises.
about 75 cm length and made of lead to provide
flexibility.

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Different types of valves: 3. Blow off valve or drain valve or scour

Engineering
1. Sluice valve or gate valve:
valve:

It is generally used to remove the sediments

It is generally used to regulate the flow of water in collected in the pipe. It is also used for inspection of
the distribution system. pipe.

4. Pressure relief valve:

Valve opens automatically as soon as pressure in a

pipe exceeds the limit. It is provided on the upstream of
2. Air relief valve: sluice valve. It is also used to reduce the water
hammering effect.
Air valve are required to release air when main pipe
is being filled and to admit air when main pipe is being
emptied.

The admission of air during emptying a pipe is

important because they will protect the pipe against
negative pressure which may be develop.

Balancing storage:

The quantity of water required to be stored in the

reservoir for balancing of equalizing the variable
demand of water against the constant rate of pumping
is known as balancing storage.

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Wastewater management
Engineering
Characteristics of wastewater: Physical characteristics:

Characteristics of wastewwater a. Turbidity:

Wastewater is normally turbid, containing wastes

from baths, feceal matter, pieces of paper, greases
Physical Chemical etc.

Turbidity Total solids, suspended b. Colour:

solids and dissolve solids
The colour of wastewater can normally be detected
Colour by the naked eye, and it refers to the age to
pH value
wastewater. Fresh wastewater is usually light brown,
Odour however an organic compounds are broken down by
Chloride content bacteria’s the dissolved oxygen in the wastewater is
reduced to zero and colour changes to black, this
Tremperature condition of wastewater is said to be septic stale.
Nitrogen content

c. Odour:
Dissolved oxygen
Odour in wastewater usually are caused by gases
produced by the decomposition of organic matter. The
Bio chemical oxygen demand
most characteristics odour of stale or septic wastewater
is that of H2S, which is produced by anaerobic
Chemical oxygen demand microorganisms that reduces sulphates to sulphides.

Total organic carbon

d. Temperature:

The average temperature of sewage in India is 20°C,

Throretical oxygen demand which is near about the ideal temperature for the
biological activities.

Relative staility
Chemical characteristics:
Popilation equivalent
a. Total solids, suspended solids, and
dissolve solids:

Same as water treatment.

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b. pH value: Nitrogenous demand starts only after 5 – 8 days

Engineering
Same as water treatment.
because the reproduction rate of nitrification is slow.
Nitrification bacteria are auto tropes. They derive
carbon for their growth from CO 2. Hence they have to
spend energy in reduction of CO2 to C. Thus, energy
c. Chloride content: available for reproduction is less, thus by growth rate is
less.
These are derived from the kitchen wastes, human
feces, and urinal discharge etc. The normal chloride On the other hand, Carbonaceous matter oxidizing
content of domestic wastewater is 120 mg/L. bacteria are hetero tropes. They derive carbon from
organic matter directly. Hence energy is not spent in
d. Nitrogen content: getting carbon. Thus, by their reproduction rated is
more.
Same as water treatment.
To determine the BOD we use following formulas,

e. Dissolved oxygen: Lt = L0 e−kt = L0 10−kD t

Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free oxygen yt = L0 − Lt

present in water. It is an important parameter in an
assessing water quality because of its influence on the yt = L0 − L0 e−kt = L0 − L0 10−kD t
organisms within a body of water.
k D = 0.434k
Note:
k T°C = k 20°C (1.047)T−20
At least 4ppm of dissolve oxygen is required for the
survival of aquatic life. BOD5 at 20°C = (DOi − DOf ) × Dilution ratio

Vol.of diluted sample

f. Biochemical oxygen demand: Dilution ratio = Vol.
of undiluted sewage

BOD is the oxygen demand exerted by bacteria in Where,

water for disintegration and decomposition of organic
matters present in water. It follows first order reaction. Lt = Remaining BOD,
Normal range of BOD for municipal sewage is 200 – 500
mg/L. L0 = Ultimate BOD,

yt = BOD at time ‘t’, consumed, satisfied or fulfilled.

k = Reaction rate constant,

k D = Deoxygenation constant.

Note:

BOD of water during 5 days at 20°C is generally taken

as standard demand and is about 68% of total
demand.

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Numerical: =191.8 mg/L

Engineering
Q62. If the ultimate BOD is 500 mg/l and reaction rate
Answer:
constant is 0.21 per day, then find the BOD remaining
after 7 days. The BOD after 9 days is 191.8 mg/L.

Solution: Q64. If 𝐋𝟕 =200 mg/l and K= 0.01 /hr, then find the BOD5.

As per question, Solution:

Y0 = 500 mg/L, According to the question,

k = 0.21 /day, L7=200 mg/L,

∴ Lt = L0 e−kt k = 0.01 /hr

𝑜𝑟, L7 = 500 × e−0.21×7 = 0.01× 24 /day

=114.96 mg/L = 0.24 /day

Answer: ∵ Lt = L0 e−kt

The remaining BOD is 114.96 mg/L. or, 200 = L0 e−0.24×7

Q63. If the 5 days BOD is 150mg/l and reaction rate ∴ L0 = 1073.11 mg/L
constant is 0.23 per day, then find the BOD after 9 days.
Now,
Solution:
∵ Yt = L0 (1 − e−kt )
As per question,
∴ Y5 = 1073.11(1 − e−0.24×5 )
Y5 = 150 mg/L,
= 749.896 mg/L
k = 0.23 /day,
Answer:
−kt )
∵ Yt = L0 (1 − e
The BOD5 will be 749.896 mg/L.
Yt
∴ L0 = (1−e−kt )
Q65. BOD5 at 20°c=500mg/l and K= 0.21/day then find
BOD5 at 35°c.
150
𝑜𝑟, L0 = (1−e−0.23×5)
Solution:
=219.5 mg/L
As we know,
−kt )
∴ Yt = L0 (1 − e
k T°C = k 20°C (1.047)T−20
or, Y9 = 219.5 × (1 − e−9×0.23 )

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k 35°C = k 20°C (1.047)35−20 Q67. Find the BOD5 of the sample,

Engineering = 0.418 /day

Sl. DOi DOf
Volume of Volume of the
the sewage distilled water
no. mg/L mg/L
∵ L0 =
Yt ml ml
(1−e−kt )
1 20 6 100 500
2 30 3 200 500
200
∴ L0 = (1−e−0.21×5) 3 23 0 150 500
4 40 11 200 500
= 769.157 mg/L
Solution:
−kt )
∵ Yt = L0 (1 − e

Consumed
∴ Y5 at 35°C = 769.157(1 − e−0.418×5 ) Sl.

DO
DOi DOf Vs Vdw Vsol DR BOD5
no.
= 674.02 mg/L

Answer: 1 20 6 14 100 500 600 6.0 84.0

2 30 3 27 200 500 700 3.5 94.5
3 23 0 23 150 500 650 4.3 99.7
The BOD5 at 35°C is 674.02 mg/L.
4 40 11 29 200 500 700 3.5 101.5
Q66. A sample is diluted to 8times. Find BOD5, if DO
In sample no. 3 DOf = 0,
consumed is 5mg/l.

So, we can’t get BOD5 for sample no. 3.

Solution:
84+94.5+101.5
∴ BOD5 = = 93.33
According to the question, 3

DO consumed = 5 mg/L, Answer:

Dilution ratio = 8. The BOD5 is 93.33 mg/L.

∴ BOD5 = 5 × 8 mg/L Q68. BOD of sample at 20°c after 7days was 200mg/l.
At what temperature the BOD of the sample will be
= 40 mg/L exactly same in 3days.

Answer: Solution:

The BOD5 is 40 mg/L. According to the question,

Y7 at 20°C = L0 (1 − e−7k20°𝐶 ) = 200 mg/L

Let, at ‘t’ temperature the BOD3 is 200 mg/L

k T°C = k 20°C (1.047)T−20

Y3 at T°C = L0 (1 − e−3kT°C )

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= L0 {1 − e−3k20°C (1.047)
T−20
} = 200 mg/L or, Y0 = 68.76 mg/L

Engineering
7k 20°𝐶 = 3k 20°C (1.047)T−20 ∴ BOD after 6.08 day =68.76{1 − e−(5+1.08)×0.21 } mg/L

∴ T = 38.448°C = 49.58 mg/L

Answer: Answer:

At temperature 38.448°C BOD will become same. BOD after 10 km is 49.58 mg/L.

Q69. Discharge of sewage water=0.5m³/sec, Discharge g. Chemical oxygen demand:

of river water=8m³/sec, BOD5 of sewage= 600mg/l,
BOD5 of river= 10mg/l. Find BOD5 of the mixture. The BOD test takes a minimum of 5 day time, and
due to this it is not useful in the control of treatment
Solution: processes. An alternative test is the COD test, which
can be used to measure content of organic matter of
As we know, both wastewater as well as natural water, COD can be
determined only in 3 hours in contrast to 5 days of BOD
(Bmix × Qmix ) = (Briver × Qriver ) + (Bsewage × Qsewage ) test.

(Briver ×Qriver )+(Bsewage ×Qsewage ) COD = Biodegradable organic matter + Non-

Or, Bmix =
(Qriver +Qsewage ) Biodegradable organic matter,

(10×8)+(600×0.5)
Or, Bmix = = 44.7 mg/L BOD = Biodegradable organic matter,
(8+0.5)

COD ≥ BOD
Answer:
COD BOD
The BOD5 of the mixture is 44.7 mg/L. ≥ 1, ≤ 1.
BOD COD

Q70. What will the BOD of the mixture at a distance of h. Total organic carbon (TOC):
10KM from the mixing point in the direction of the river if
area of the river is 80m², K=0.21/day and BOD5 of the
This test is applicable to small concentrations of
mixture water at mixing point will be 44.7 mg/l, Q = 8.5
organic matter. The TOC test consists of acidification of
m3/s.
wastewater to convert organic carbon to CO2. Test is
rapid (2 min) and accurate. The measured total
Solution: organic carbon is slightly less than present actual
amount.
As we know,

Q 8.5 m
In TOC test 100 ml of sample is taken in a test tube
v=
A
=
80
= 9180
day
= 9.18km/day and added with few drops of methylene blue after
which amount of H2S gas produce is analyzed by a
d 10 carbonaceous analyzer and total organic carbon is
t = v = 9.18 = 1.08 day
concluded.

∴ BOD5 = Y0 (1 − e−5k )

or, 44.7 = Y0 (1 − e−5×0.21 )

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i. Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD): SR = 100[1 − (0.630)t37°C ]

Engineering
It is the theoretical method of oxygen demand. If
t 20 and t 37 represent time in days at 20°C and 37°C
incubation respectively.
chemical formula is known ThOD can be easily
computed.
k. Population equivalent:
C + O2 = CO2
Industrial wastewater is generally compared with per
1 mole C = 1 mole O2 capita normal wastewater so as to rationally charge
the industries for the pollution caused by them.
12 gm of C = 32 gm of O2
BOD5 of industry (kg⁄d)
32 Population equivalent =
1 gm of C = gm of O2 BOD5 by a person (kg/c⁄d)
12

= 2.67 gm of O2 Wastewater treatment:

Numerical: 1. Preliminary and primary treatment also called

physical or 1° treatment is to remove solid material from
the incoming wastewater.
Q71. Find theoretical oxygen demand of 180 mg of
2. Secondary treatment (Biological treatment) also
Glucose.
called 2° treatment usually consists of biological
conversion of dissolved and colloidal organics into
Solution:
biomass that can subsequently be removed by
sedimentation.
As we know,
3. Tertiary treatment (chemical treatment) also
called 3° treatment most often involves further removal
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2 O
of suspended solids and the removal of nutrients.

So, 1 mole glucose = 6 mole O2

Pre treatment

Sedimentation

Final Effluent
Raw water

treatment

Secondary
treatment

treatment
Primary

Tertiary
180 gm glucose = 6 × 32 gm of O2

∴ 180 mg of glucose = 192 mg of O2

 Screening  Flocculation  Activated sludge
 Grit removal  Sedimentation  Trickling filter
Answer:  Oil removal 

Anaerobic lagoons
Aerated lagoons
 Stabilization pond

The theoretical oxygen demand of 180 gm of

glucose is 192 mg. Disposal Sludge digestion

j. Relative stability: Primary treatment of wastewater:

It is defined as the ration of available oxygen in
i. Screening:
sewage to the required oxygen for satisfying 1st stage
BOD. The available oxygen will include dissolved
The screen is a device with openings generally
oxygen as well as present as nitrite or nitrate.
uniform in size placed across the flow, to retain floating
coarse solids.
SR = 100[1 − (0.794)t20°C ]

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It helps to reduce the loads on subsequent iii. Oil and grease tank (skimming
Engineering
treatment unit.
tank):
Coarse screen = 20 to 100 mm spacing,
Skimming tanks are employed for removing oils and
Fine screen = Less than 10 mm opening size. grease from the sewage and placed before the
sedimentation tanks they are therefore used where
sewage contains too much of grease or oils.
ii. Grit chamber or detritus tank:
Oils and grease have to remove from sewage else it
Grit removal basins such as grit chamber or grit will delay the biological treatment by microorganisms.
channels or detritus tanks are the sedimentation basins A detention period of about 3 – 5 minutes is usually
placed in front of the wastewater treatment plant to sufficient, and the amount of compressed air required
remove the inorganic particles (G = 2.65) such as sand, is about 300 – 6000 m3 per million liters of sewage.
gravel, grit, egg shells, bones and other materials that
may clog channels or damage pumps.

Generally, grit chambers are designed to remove all

particles of higher specific gravity of 2.65 or so with a
nominal diameter of 0.2 mm and more having settling
velocity of about 25 cm/sec. It is not at all desirable to
remove any organic matter in the grit chambers,
because no further treatment of removed grit is
provided. The grit channels must be designed to iv. Sedimentation tank:
remove the heavier grit particles.
Same as water treatment.
Detritus tank are nothing but rectangular grit
chamber, design to flow with a smaller flow velocity L H Q
vH = t , v0 = = SA
(0.09 m/s) and longer detention period about 3 – 4 min t

so as to separate out not only the larger grit etc. but v

also to separate out very fine sand particles. η = v s × 100
0

In grit chamber detention time is 30 – 90 sec, velocity

Numerical:
of flow is to be maintained 0.15 – 0.35 m/s, general
length is 15 – 20 m, width and depth is 1 - 1.5 m.
Q72. Data for the grit chamber are, length of grit
chamber is 7.5 m, flow through velocity is 0.3 m/s, Depth
Settling velocity of grit is,
of wastewater is 0.9 m, Specific Gravity if grit is 2.5 and
ρgd2
viscosity is 1.002×10-3 N-s/m2. Find the diameter of
vs = (G − 1), for d < 0.1 mm (Stokes law) particle that will be remove with 100% efficiency.
18μ

vs = √3.33g(G − 1)d, d > 1 mm (Newton’s law) Solution:

(3T+70) As we know,
vs = 60.6(G − 1)d 100
, d = 0.1 – 1 mm (Hazen’s
modified equation) vH d 0.3×0.9
v0 = l
= 7.5
= 0.036 m/s

ρgd2
vs = (G − 1)
18μ

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1000×9.81×d2 ≈ 0.02 mm

Engineering
= 18×1.002×10−3 × (2.5 − 1)

Answer:
= 815868.26d2

The min size of particle is 0.02 mm.

As, η = 100%

∴ vs = v0 Biological treatment:
or, 815868.26d2 = 0.036 1. Trickling filter:
or, d = 0.21mm

Answer:

The size of the particle that can be removed with

100% efficiency is 0.21 mm dia.

Q73. Overflow rate of wastewater is 30 m3/d/m2,

specific gravity of particle is 2.65 and viscosity is 0.001
N-s m-2. Min. size that will be completely removed will
be.

Answer:

As we know,

v0 = 30 m3 /d/m2

30
= 24×60×60 m/s

= 3.47 × 10−4 m/s

Trickling filter is also called as Dip type filter or
ρgd2 percolating filter, consist of tanks of coarser filtering
vs = (G − 1) media, over which the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or
18μ
trickle down, by means of spray nozzles or rotary
=
1000×9.81×d2
× (2.65 − 1) distributors. The percolating sewage is collected at the
18×0.001
bottom of the tank through a well-designed under
drainage system.
= 899250d2
The decomposition of the organic matter and the
As, η = 100%
resultant purification of the sewage is brought about by
a population if microorganisms. Microorganisms and
∴ vs = v0
bacteria, which are naturally present in sewage, get
attached to the filter media organic matter from the
or, 899250d2 = 3.47 × 10−4
sewage influent is also adsorbed on the biological film
which is formed by microorganisms around the filtering
or, d = 0.0196 mm media particle. In the outer portions of this film of
biological mass or slime layer, the organic matter is

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degraded by the aerobic bacteria. As the or, V = 4545.45 m3

Engineering
microorganisms grow, the thickness of the slime layer
increases and the diffused oxygen is consumed by the ii. A = v
Q

upper portions of the slime layer, thereby creating an 0

anaerobic environment near the surface of the media 5×106

particles. = m2
2500

Slime layer loses strength and carried out with = 2000 m2

effluent water and the process is called sloughing of
slime layer. The effluent is further sent to SST where slime iii. ∵ V = A × ddepth
get settle down in the form of sludge. The process or
phenomenon is called as “attached growth process”. V 4545.45
∴ ddepth = A = 2000
= 2.27 m
𝐒𝐢 − 𝐒𝐞
𝛈= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 π
Again, A = d2dia = 2000
𝐒𝐢 4

Where, ∴ ddia = 50.46 m

𝐒𝐢 = Influent BOD, 100

iv. ∴ η = 1+0.44√0.165 %

𝐒𝐞 = Effluent BOD, = 84.83 %

National research council of USA (NRC) equation,

Answer:
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝛈= The volume of the filter is 4545.45 m3, depth of the
𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒√𝒖
filter 2.27 m, dia of the filter is 50.46 m and efficiency of
the filter is 84.83%.
Where,

u = Organic loading =
QSi
kg/m3/d
2. Activated sludge process:
Vol

Numerical:

Q74. If discharge is 5MLD, BOD influent is 150 mg/L,

Organic load is 165 gm/m3/d, surface loading is 2500
L/m2/d. Determine the volume of filter, depth of filter,
dia. of filter and efficiency of the filter.

Solution:
The activated sludge process provides an excellent
As we know, method of treating either raw sewage or more
QSi
generally the settled sewage. The sewage effluent from
i. u = V primary sedimentation tank which is thus normally
utilized in this process, is mixed with 20 – 30% of own
or, 165 =
5×103 ×150 volume activated sludge which contains a large
V concentration of highly active aerobic microorganisms.
The mixture enters an aeration tank where the

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microorganisms and the sewage are intimately mixed θ=X

XT×V

Engineering
together with a large quantity of air for about 4 – 8 hrs.
Under these conditions, the moving organisms will
Where,
E (Q−QW )+XRQW

oxidize the organic matter and the suspended and

colloidal matter tend to coagulate and form a
XT = Concentration of solids in the influent of the
precipitate, which settles down readily in the secondary
aeration tank called the MLSS i.e. mixed liquor
settling tank. The settled sludge called activated sludge
suspended solid in mg/L,
is then recycled to the head of the aeration tank to be
mixed again with the sewage is continuous being
produced by this process and a portion of it being XR = Concentration of solids in the returned sludge or
utilized and sent back to the aeration tank, whereas the in the wasted sludge,
excess portion is disposed of properly along with the
sludge collected during primary treatment, after XE = Concentration of solids in the effluent in mg/L,
digestion. The effluent obtained from a properly
operated activated sludge plant is of high quality V = Volume of the aerator,
usually having a lower BOD removal is up to 80-95% and
bacteria removal is up to 90-95%. QW = Volume of wasted sludge per day,

Aeration tank Q = Sewage inflow per day.

(reactor)
Secondary
Q = Inflow V = volume Q + QR clarifier
Q - QW

Food to microorganism ratio:

XT = concentration Effluent
Y0 = BOD Y = BOD YE = BOD
of MLSS
X = MLSS XE = MLSS
Y = BOD

QR + QW BOD applied to the aeration system = Y0 mg/L

QR = Returned sludge XR = Concentration
of solids in returned
XR = Concentration of solids in returned sludge sludge BOD load applied to the aeration system = F = QY 0

QW = wasted sludge
XR = Concentration of solids in returned sludge
The total microbial mass in the aeration system (M) is
computed by multiplying the average concentration of
solids in the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) with
Aeration period or Hydraulic retention the volume of the aeration tank (V).
time (HRT):
M = XT.V
Volume of tank
Detention period, t = Rate of sewage flow in the tank F DailyBOD load applied to the aerator system
∴ = /day
M Total microbial mass in the system
V
= day Q(Y0 −YE) QY0
Q
= XT V
≈X
TV
V
= Q × 24 hr.
Note:
Sludge age or mean cell residence Lower the F/M value, the higher will be the BOD
time (MCRT): F
removal in the plant. ( < 1) M

Average time for which biomass stays in system is F

If < 0.3, Then bulking of sludge takes place, i.e.
called sludge age or MCRT. M
growth of colony of bacteria.
Total biomass in system
θ = Biomass leaving per day

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Preferably, 0.3 < M < .06

F
Numerical:
Engineering
For the removal of bulking of sludge, we add Q75. If discharge is 1 MLD of activated sludge process,
chlorine for its disinfection and is known as chlorination. BOD5 of in fluent is 200 mg/L, Biomass concentration is
2000 mg/L, Total biomass leaving the system is 50 mg/L,
Vol. of aeration tank is 200 m3. What is the i) HRT, ii)
Sludge volume index: MCRT?

It represents the degree of concentration of the Solution:

sludge in the system, hence decides the rate of recycle
of sludge (QR) required to maintain the desired MLSS V
F HRT = Q × 24 hrs.
and M ratio in the aeration tank to achieve the desired
degree of purification. 200×103
= 106
× 24 hrs
SVI is defined as the volume occupied in “ml” by one
gm of solids in the mixed liquor after settling for 30 = 4.8 hrs.
minutes.
XT V
MCRT = X
Settled sludge vol. (ml/L) E (Q−QW )+XR QW
SVI = Suspended solid concentration (mg/L)
2000×200×103
=
Vob 50(106 −0)+0
=X ml/mg
ob

= 8 days
V
= Xob × 1000 ml/g
ob
Answer:
The usual adopted range of SVI is between 50 – 150
ml/gm and such a value indicate good settling sludge. The HRT is 4.8 hrs. and MCRT is 8 days.

Q76. Discharge of activated sludge system is 500 m3/hr,

Recirculation ratio (R): influent BOD is 150 mg/L, HRT is 8 hr, Effluent BOD is 10
mg/L, MCRT is 240 hr, Volume is 4000 m3, MLSS is 2000
𝐐𝐑 mg/L. Find the i) F/M ratio and ii) mass of solid wasted
𝐑=
𝐐 from the system in kg/day.

Organic loading: Solution:

𝐘𝟎𝐱 𝐐 As we know,
𝐎𝐫𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 =
𝐕
F Q(Y0 −YE)
=
M XT V

500×103 ×(150−10)
= 2000×4000×103
/day

= 0.21 /day

Now, we know,

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XT×V
θ=X 4. Aerated lagoons:
Engineering
or,
E (Q−QW )+XRQW

240
=
2000×4000×103 If oxygen is supplied to stabilization ponds by
0×(Q−QW )+XR QW
24
mechanical agitation they are termed as aerated
lagoons.
2000×10−6 ×4000×103 ×24
or, XR QW = 240
kg/day
5. Oxidation ditch:
= 800 kg/day
The oxidation ditch is a modified form of extended
Answer: aeration of activated sludge process. It has been
modified to eliminate the primary sedimentation tank
The F/M ratio is 0.21 /day and the mass of solid and sludge digestion tank in a process called extended
wasted from the system is 800 kg/day. aeration, which aims at providing an aeration tank with
a longer aeration time.
3. Oxidation pond:

Treated effluent
aeration time)
Aeration tank
Grit chamber

Settling tank
Wastewater

hr
Oxidation ponds are open flow through earthen

Screens
basins, specifically designed and constructed to treat

–
sewage and biodegradable industries wastewater.
Such pond provides comparatively long detention

returned sludge
periods, extending from a few days to several days,

Recycled
during which time the wastes get stabilized by the
action of natural forces.
Pump
In a total aerobic pond, the stabilization of wastes is
brought about by aerobic bacteria, which flourish in Drying bed
the presence of oxygen. The oxygen demand of such
bacteria in such a pond is met by the combined action
of algae and other microorganisms called algal
photosynthesis or algal symbiosis. In this symbiosis, the
Sludge digestion:
algae (which are microscopic plant) while growing in
the presence of sunlight, produces oxygen by the Wastewater sludge is a considerable hazard to
action of photosynthesis and this oxygen is utilized by environment and must be rendered prior to disposal.
the bacteria for oxidizing the waste organic matter. The The sludge from PST is called raw sludge or primary
end products of the process are carbon dioxide, sludge. Raw sludge is more objectionable. It contains
ammonia, and phosphates. Which are required by the about 95% moisture content. Sludge of SST contains 96-
algae to grow and continue to produce oxygen. 98% moisture. Sludge from PST has excess organic
matter and sludge from SST gave excess biomass. The
Properly operated ponds may be as effective as sludge digestion serves both to reduce the volume of
trickling filters in reducing the BOD of sewage. The BOD thickened sludge still further and to render the
removal is up to 95% and coliform removal is up to 99% remaining solids inert and relatively pathogen free. This
or so. Minimum depth if water to be kept in pond is goal can be achieved aerobically or anaerobically.
0.3m. Depth is 1 – 1.8 m, Detention time = 2 – 6 weeks.

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Sludge digestion process: If sludge is also allowed in septic tank, flow is taken
Engineering
When sludge is digested anaerobically the volume
as 90 - 150 LPCD.

Detention time 12 – 36 hr.

of original sludge is reduce to approximately 1/3 of the
original value. The sludge gets broken into,
Length / width ratio is 2 – 3.
i. Digested sludge,
ii. Supernatant liquior, Depth is 1.2 – 1.8 m.
iii. Gases of decomposition.
Cleaning period is 6 months to 1 year.
Of the total solids originally present 70% are volatile
and remains 30% are fixed (inorganic solids). Volatile Imhoff tank:
solids are measured by an equipment called muffle
furnace. Of the total gasses produced 65% are An Imhoff tank is an improvement over septic tank,
methane and 30% are CO2 and remaining are gases in which the incoming sewage is not allowed to get
like H2S, N2 etc. Heat content of methane is 8600 mixed up with the sludge produced and the outgoing
kcal/m3. Supernatant liquid had a high BOD of 1500 – effluent is not allowed to carry with it large amount of
3000 mg/L. Hence it should be retreated along with the organic load, as in the case of septic tank. They are
raw sewage. sometimes also known as two story digestion tanks. It
removes 60 – 65 % solids and 30 – 40 % BOD.
Septic tank:

Note:
It is designed as ordinary settling tank except that
detention time is 12 – 36 hr. with extra provision for L/B is 3 – 5 and L < 30m,
digestion of sludge by anaerobic bacteria. Directly raw
sewage is entered in the septic tank. The sludge settles
Total depth is 9 – 11 m,
at the bottom of tank and oil and greases rises to the
top surface as scum. The settled sewage is allowed to
Detention period is 2 – 4 hr.
remain in the tank for 6 – 12 months during which they
are digested anaerobically. The scum remaining in the
tank helps in holding back odour and acts as a sort of
heat insulation which aids the bacterial action.

Note:

Flow if sewage is taken as 40 – 70 LPCD,

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Manhole:
Engineering

ii. Q trap:

Fresh air from the atmosphere will enter through this

inlet into the manhole, and finally goes out through the
vent pipes provided in conjunction with soil or waste iii. S trap:
pipe. This air along with foul gases will finally escape out
from the cowl provided at the head of the vent pipe,
at least 2 m above the roof level. A mica flap valve is
provided at the head of the fresh air inlet, with slits for
admitting fresh air, which is so hinged at the top that it
easily opens inside to admit fresh air, but it closes with
the slightest back pressure of gases from the manhole
to avoid the escape of foul gases in the street or the
house courtyard.

Traps:

Traps are the fittings used to prevent the passage of Depending on their use traps may again be of three
foul gases from the pipes to the outside. This is possible types,
because traps do enclose or maintain water seal
between the pipe and the outside. This water seal i. Floor trap:
generally varies from 25 – 75 mm.
These traps are generally used to admit wastewater
(sullage) from the floors of the rooms, kitchen’s, baths
Types of traps: etc. into the said room drain (sullage pipe). A
commonly used patented name of such a trap is Nahni
Depending on their shapes the traps may be of three trap.
types,

i. P trap:

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carrying sullage from bathes etc. called sullage pipes

Engineering or waste pipes.

ii. Gully trap:

It is often provided at the junction of a room or roof

drain and the other drain coming from bath, kitchen
etc. The water seal is usually 50 mm to 75 mm deep.

2. One pipe system:

In this system instead of using two separate pipes,

only one main vertical pipe is provided, which collects
the night soil as well as the sullage water from their
iii. Interception tank: respective fixture through branch pipes. This main pipe
is ventilated in itself by providing cowl at its top and in
Provided at the junction of a house sewer and the addition to this a separate vent pipe is also provided.
municipal sewer so as to prevent the entry of the foul
gases of the municipal sewer into the house drainage
system. It has high depth of water seal about 100 mm.

System of plumbing:

1. Two pipe system: 3. Single stack system:

This system is a single pipe system without providing

This is the best and the most improved type of system
any separate ventilation pipe. Hence it uses only one
of plumbing. In this system two sets of vertical pipes are
pipe which carries the sewage as well as the sullage,
laid i.e. one for drawing night soil and the other one for
and is not provided with any separate vent pipe,
drawing sullage. The pipes of the first set carrying night
soil are called soil pipes and the pipes of the second set except that it itself is extended up to about 2 m higher

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than the roof level and provided with a cowl for 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

Engineering
removal of foul gases.

Where,
𝐯𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐟 =
𝐧
𝐑𝟔 [𝐤 𝐬 (𝐆𝐬 − 𝟏)𝐝𝐩 ]𝟐

𝐆𝐬 = Specific gravity of particle,

𝐝𝐩 = Particle size,

𝐤 𝐬 = const. (0.04 – 0.8),

𝐑 = Hydraulic radius of sewer,

𝐧 = Manning’s coefficient.

Generally, 𝐯𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐟 = 0.45 m/s.

It is assumed that almost 75 – 80% of accounted

4. Partially ventilated single stack or
water supply goes into sewage.
single pipe system:
Flow in sewer:
This is an improved form of single stack system in the
sense that in this system, the traps of the water closets
are separately ventilated by a separate vent pipe Manning’s formula:
called relief vent pipe.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐕= 𝐑𝟑 𝐒 𝟐
𝐧

Where,

𝐑 = Hydraulic mean radius,

𝐒 = Slope of sewer.

Hazen Williams formula:

𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟗𝐂𝐑𝟎.𝟔𝟑 𝐒𝟎.𝟓𝟒

Where,

𝐂 = Hazen William coefficient.

Design of sewer system:
Design of sewer:
Self-cleansing velocity:
Sanitary sewers are design to run partially full.
It is the velocity which causes both floating and
heavy solids to get transported easily.

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D α
Pipe size Design condition CD′ = sin
Engineering
D < 0.4 m
1
2
full at max. discharge
2 2

Depth at partial flow, d = OB − OD

2
0.4 ≤ D ≤ 0.9 m fill at max. discharge D D α
3 = − cos
2 2 2
3
D > 0.9 m 4
full at max discharge D α
= (1 − cos )
2 2

Max. hourly discharge = 3 × Average daily discharge (𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 )

𝛂
𝐝
Proportionate depth, 𝐃 = 𝟐
𝟐

Max. daily discharge = 2 × Average daily discharge

If P = length of ABC
1
Min. hourly discharge = × Average daily discharge
3
At 360°, P = πD
2
Min. daily discharge = × Average daily discharge πDα
3
At α, p = 360°

Hydraulic characteristics of circular 𝐩 𝜶

Proportionate perimeter, 𝐏 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎°
sewer:
πD2
At 360°, A =
4

πD2 α 1
At α, 𝑎 = [4×360° − (2 × AC × OD)]

πD2 α 1
O = [4×360° − (2 × 2 × CD × OD)]
D

πD2 α 1 D α D α
= [4×360° − (2 × 2 × 2 × sin 2 × 2 × cos 2)]

A D C d πD2 α D2
= 4×360° − sin α
8

B
πD2 α sin α
= ( − )
4 360° 2π
Depth of flow, d = OB – OD’
𝐚 𝛂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂
Proportionate area, 𝐀 = (𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝟐𝛑
)
D
OB =
2
a
∵r=p
In ∆OAD’ and ∆OD’C,
α sin α
A( − )
CD′ 360° 2π
α
sin = = 𝛂
P( )
2 OC 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

α OD′ α
−
sin α
cos = = 𝑅 [ 360° 𝛂 2π
]
2 OC
𝟑𝟔𝟎°

D α
OD′ = cos
2 2

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α
−
sin α
sewer, two such circular sewers are assumed to be

Engineering
r
Proportionate Hydraulic radius, = [ 360° 𝛂 2π
]
R
𝟑𝟔𝟎° combined and form egg shaped sewer in which smaller
circular portion will be effective during dry weather and
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 full section is effective during max. rainwater flow.
Velocity of flow, 𝐕 = 𝐧 𝐑𝟑 𝐒𝟐

2 Disposal of sewage effluent:

v r 3
Proportional velocity, V = (R)

2
Self-purification of river:
α sin α 3
−
360° 2π
=[ 𝛂 ] When sewage is disposed of in a river self-purification
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
by natural agent takes place. This self-purification
Discharge, Q = AV occurs by various mechanism. They are,

Proportional discharge,
q
Q
=( )×( )
A
a v
V
1. Physical forces:

α
−
2
sin α 3 i. Dilution and dispersion:
𝛂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂 360° 2π
= (𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝟐𝛑
)×[ 𝛂 ]
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
When the organic matter is discharged into a large
volume of water contained in the river stream, it gets
Note: rapidly dispersed and diluted. The action thus results in
diminishing the concentration of organic matter and
d
For max velocity of flow, D = 0.81 thus reduces the potential nuisance of sewage.

d 𝐂𝐒 𝐐𝐒 + 𝐂𝐑 𝐐𝐑 = 𝐂𝐦𝐢𝐱 (𝐐𝐒 + 𝐐𝐑 )
For max discharge, D = 0.95

Where,
Egg shaped sewer:
𝐂𝐒 = Concentration of material in sewage,

𝐂𝐑 = Concentration of same material in river,

𝐐𝐒 = Discharge of sewage,
D
𝐐𝐑 = Discharge of river.
1.5 D

ii. Sedimentation:
D
The settleable solids if present in sewage effluent will
settle down into the bed of the river, near the outfall of
sewage. Thus, helping in the self-purification process.

Circular sewer section is mostly used for separate

sewage system, but the advantage of circular sewer is
obtained when the section runs at least half full. When
the depth goes below half depth the velocity reduces
considerably. Thus, to take advantage of circular

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iii. Sunlight: 2. Zone of active decomposition:

Engineering
Due to sunlight in the process of photosynthesis, O2 is This zone is marked by heavy pollution. It is
released. This oxygen helps in oxidation of organic characterized by water becoming greyish and darker
matter there by forming a settleable product. than in the previous zone DO concentration falls down
to zero and anaerobic condition may set in with the
2. Biochemical forces: evolution of gases like CH4, CO2, H2S etc.

At the end of this zone DO level reach up to 40% of

iv. Oxidation: saturation level.

The oxidation of the organic matter present in

3. Zone of recovery:
sewage effluent, will start as soon as the sewage outfalls
into the river water containing dissolved oxygen. The
In this zone, river stream tries to recover from its
deficiency of oxygen so created will be filled up by the
degraded condition to its former appearance. the
atmospheric oxygen.
water becomes clearer, BOD falls down and DO
content rises above 40% of the saturation value.
v. Reduction:
4. Zone of clearer water:
Reduction occurs due to hydrolysis of organic matter
settled at the bottom either chemically or biologically.
In this zone the river attains its original condition with
Anaerobic bacteria will help in splitting the complex
DO up to the saturation value water becomes
organic constituents of sewage into liquids and gasses.
attractive in appearance and usual aquatic life
prevails.
Zone of pollution in river stream:
Oxygen deficit (D) = Saturation DO – Actual DO

= CS – C

Disposal of solid wastes:

Refuse:

All the solid and semisolid wastes of a community

except human excreta and sullage is known as refuse.

1. Zone of degradation or zone of a. Garbage:

pollution:
The garbage includes all parts of biodegradable
This zone is formed for a certain length just below the organic waste obtained from kitchens, hotels,
point where sewage is discharged into the river stream. restaurants etc.
This zone is characterized by water becoming dark and
turbid with formation of sludge deposits at the bottom. E.g. vegetable peelings, food articles, fruit peelings
DO is reduced to about 40% of the saturation value. etc.

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The density of garbage usually varies between 450 – Large size incinerators are called destructors. The

Engineering
900 kg/m3. minimum temp. in the combustible chamber should be
(> 670°C) sufficient so as to incinerate all organic matter
and oxidize foul smelling gases.
b. Ashes:

Ashes are incombustible waste products from 3. Barging it out into sea:
furnaces houses or industry. It usually varies between
700 – 850 kg/m3. Throwing refuse into the sea at reasonable distance
from the coast (16 – 20 km). The sea depth at disposal
c. Rubbish: point should not be less than 30 m or so.

The rubbish can include variety of materials which 4. Disposal of refuse by pulverization:
may either be combustible (such as paper, plastic,
textile etc.) or incombustible (such as broken glass, Refuse is pulverized in grinding machines so as to
metal etc.).the density of rubbish usually varies reduce its volume and to change its physical
between 50 – 400 kg/m3. character. the grounded or pulverized refuse becomes
practically odour less and unattractive to the insects. It
Disposal of refuse: has to be further disposed of by filling in trenches or
digested in closed digesters.

1. Sanitary land filling:

5. Composting:
In this method, the refuse is dumped and i. Indore method of composting:
compacted in layer of about 0.5 m thickness and the
day’s work when the depth of filling becomes about 1.5 Indore method of composting uses manual turning
m it is covered by good earth of about 15 cm thickness. of piled up mass (refuse + night soil) for its
This cover of good earth is called daily cover. Each decomposition under aerobic condition. In this method
layered structure is called cell. Each layer should be left refuse and night soil are alternatively piled in depth of
out for at least 7 days. [Insecticide like DDT, cresol etc.] about 7.5 cm to 10 cm each, to a total depth of about
should also sprayed on the layers to prevent breading 1.5 m in a trench or above the ground to form a mound
of mosquitoes and flies. A final cover of about 0.6 m of called a windrow. The composting waste is aerated by
earth is laid and compacted at the top of the filled up periodically turning the waste mix for 2 to 3 months. This
land. The land filling operation is essentially a biological compost mass is then left for another 1 – 1.5 month
method of waste treatment since the waste is stabilized without any turning. Thus, entire process takes 4 months
under aerobic and anaerobic process. The refuse gets (approximately).
stabilized generally within a period of 2 -12 month and
settles down by 20 – 40 % of its overall height.
ii. Bangalore method of composting:
2. Incineration: This method involves anaerobic decomposition of
wastes and doesn’t involve any turning or handling of
Burning of refuse at high temp. in furnaces. Only the mass and is hence clearer than the Indore method.
combustible matter is burnt, the left out ashes and This method is therefore widely adopted by municipal
clinkers along with nonrecycled in combustible material authorities throughout India. The refuse and night soil in
may be as much as 10 – 25 % which has to be disposed this method are therefore piled up in layers in an
by some other method. underground trench. This mass is covered at its top by
layer of earth of about 15 cm depth and is finally left
over for decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days of burial,

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intensive biological action starts taking place and Q78. 50g of CO2 and 25g of CH4 are produced from the

Engineering
organic matter begins to be destroyed. Considerable
heat gets evolved in the process which raises the
decomposition of municipal solid waste (MSW) with a
formula weight of 120g. What is the average per capita
temperature of the decomposing mass to about 75°C. greenhouse gas production in a city of 1 million people
This heat prevents the breading of flies by destroying with an MSW production rate of 500ton/day?
the larvae after about 4 – 5 months the refuse gets
stabilized and changes into a brown coloured Solution:
odourless powdery mass called humus.
Total greenhouse gas = 25 + 50 g = 75 g
Final compost contains 1% N, 1.1% P and 1.5% K and
is pathogen free and thus producing valuable nutrient As 120g MSW produce = 75g GHG
for the soil.
75
So, 500 ton MSW produce = 120 × 500 ton GHG
Numerical:
= 312.5 ton GHG
Q77. The composition of a certain MSW sample and
specific weights of its various components are given ∴ Per capita average production of greenhouse gas
below, = 310.5 ton/day

Specific weight Answer:

Component % by weight
Kg/m3
Food 50 300 Per capita average production of greenhouse gas
Dirt and ash 30 500 310.5 ton/day
Plastics 10 65
Wood and yard
10 125 Q79. A landfill is to be designed to serve a population
waste
of 200000 for a period of 25 years. The solid waste (SW)
generation is 2Kg/person/day. The density of the
Specific weight of the MSW sample is.
uncompacted SW is 100Kg/m³ and a compaction ratio
of 4 is suggested. The ratio of compacted fill (SW+
Solution:
cover) to compacted SW is 1.5. the landfill volume (in
million m³) required is.
As we know,

W 0.5W 0.3W 0.1W 0.1W

Solution:
= + + +
γMSW 300 500 65 125
Total solids waste produce per day = 2 × 2 × 105 kg/d
γMSW = 217.15 kg/m3
= 4 × 105 kg/d
Answer:
SW generated in 25 years = 4 × 105 × 365 × 25 kg
Specific weight of MSW is 217.15 kg/m3.
= 365 × 107 kg

W
Volume of uncompacted soil, Vun = ρ

365×107
= m3
100

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= 365 × 105 m3 Food waste 20 70 2500 6 500

Engineering
According to the question,
Paper

Cardboard
10

10
4

4
10000

8000
9.6

9.6
1000

800

Plastics 10 1 14000 9.9 1400

Compaction ratio = 4 Garden
40 60 3500 16 1400
trimmings
Wood 5 20 14000 4 700
Vun
or, =4 Tin cans 5 2 100 4.9 5
Vc
∑ = 60 ∑ = 5805
365×105
or, Vc = m3
4
∴ 60% dry mass discarded 5805 kJ
= 9125 × 10 m3 3
5805
∴ 100% dry mass discarded = × 100 kJ
60
VSW+ cover
Again, Vc
= 1.5
= 9675 KJ
or, VSW+ cover = 1.5 × 9125 × 103 m3
∴ Difference between the energy content of the
waste sample calculated on dry basis and as discarded
= 13.6875 × 106 m3
basis = 9675 – 5805 KJ = 3870 KJ

= 13.6875 Mm3
Answer:

Answer:
Difference between the energy content of the
waste sample calculated on dry basis and as discarded
The landfill volume is 13.6875 Mm3.
basis is 3870 KJ.

Q80. The composition of a municipal solid waste is

Q81. There are 20,000 vehicles operating in a city with
given below,
an average annual travel of 12000Km per vehicle. The
Nox emission rate is 2.0g/km per vehicle. The total
Energy content annual release of Nox will be _______.
% by Moisture
Composition (KJ/kg on as
mass content
discarded basis)
Solution:
Food waste 20 70 2500
Paper 10 4 10000
Cardboard 10 4 8000 Total distance traveled = 20000 × 12000 km
Plastics 10 1 14000
Garden = 24 × 107 km
40 60 3500
trimmings
Wood 5 20 14000 ∴ Total NOx emission = 24 × 107 × 2 gm
Tin cans 5 2 100
= 48 × 104 kg
The difference between the energy content of the
waste sample calculated on dry basis and as discarded Answer:
basis (in KJ/kg) would be.
Total 48 × 104 kg NOx release.
Solution:

Energy content Total Total energy

% by Moisture
Composition (KJ/kg on as dry discarded
mass content
discarded basis) mas (KJ)

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Q82. A waste activated sludge (WAS) is to be blended 6

∴ Sulphur content in ash = 315.36 × 100 ton
Engineering
with green waste (GW). The carbon (C) and nitrogen (N)
contents, per kg of WAS and GW on dry basis are given
= 18.9216 ton
in the table,
∴ Sulphur content in SO2 = 315.36 - 18.9216 ton
Parameter WAS GW
Carbon 54 360
= 296.4384 ton
Nitrogen 10 6

∵ 1 mole Sulphur = 1 mole SO2

The ratio of WAS and GW required (up to two decimal
places) to achieve a blended C:N ration of 20:1 on dry
∴ 32 gm Sulphur = 64 gm SO2
basis is.
64
Solution: ∴ 296.4384 ton Sulphur = × 296.4384 ton SO2
32

Let, = 592.8468 ton SO2

WAS
=x Answer:
GW

C Annual rate of SO2 is 592.8468 ton.

∴ N = 20

54x+360
or, = 20
10x+6

or, x = 1.6438

Answer:

The ratio is 1.6438.

Q83. A coal containing 2% sulphur is burned

completely to ash in a brick kiln at a rate of 30Kg/min.
The sulphur content in the ash was found to be 6% of the
initial amount of sulphur present in the coal fed to the
brick kiln. The molecular weights of S, H, and O are
32gm, 1gm and 16gm. The annual rate of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) emission from the kiln (in tonnes/year) is

Solution:

Total coal burnt = 30 × 60 × 24 × 365 kg

= 15768 ton

2
∴ Sulphur content in burnt coal = 15768 × 100 ton

= 315.36 ton

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Engineering Noise pollution

Noise can be defined as that unwanted sound λ

Sound pressure (P)

pollutant which produces undesirable physiological
and psychological effects in an individual, by A

interfering with one’s social activities like work, rest,

sleep etc. Noise of sufficient intensity and duration can Distance

induce health problems like temporary and sometimes

permanent hearing loss, besides causing several other
diseases like irritation, headaches, mental torture, high
blood pressure etc. Amplitude:

The amplitude (A) of the wave is the height of the

Characteristics of sound: peak sound measure above or below zero pressure line.
The equivalent pressure of such a sine wave is
Time period: represented by root mean equal pressure (prms).

The time between two successive peaks or troughs 1 T

Prms = √Pt2 or Prms = √T ∫0 Pt2 dt
of oscillation is called time period (T).

T Where, Pt = pressure at any time ‘t’.

Sound pressure (P)

A
Level of noise:
Time
The sound level (L) is represented as,

Q
L = log10 bels
Frequency (f): Q0

Where,
The no. of times peak arrives in one seconds is called
the frequency.
Q = Measure quantity of sound pressure or sound
𝟏 intensity,
𝐓=
𝐟
Q0 = Reference standard quantity of sound pressure,

Wavelength (λ): L = Sound levels in bells.

The distance between successive peaks or troughs is

When sound level is expressed n decibels,
called the wavelength (λ).
Q
c L = 10 log10 dB
λ= Q0
f

Where, C = Velocity of sound wave. The reference standard quantity Q0 in the above
equation is taken to be equal to 20 µPa when sound
pressure is measured.

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Note: Answer:

Engineering
The audible frequency of normal human ear is 20 Hz The average level is 63 dB.
to 20000 Hz.
Leq concept:
Averaging sound pressure levels:
Leq is defined as the constant noise level which over
The average values of the various recorded sound a given time expands the same amount of energy as is
pressure levels (Lp) at a particular place over a given expanded by the fluctuating levels over the same time.
period can’t be computed by simple averaging due to This value is expressed as,
log scale involved in their values on the other hand, the
i=n
following equation is used to compute average Li

pressure level. Leq = 10 log10 ∑ 1010 × t i

i=1

n=N
1 Ln
Where,
L̅P = 20 log ∑(10)20
N
n=1
n = Total no. of sound samples,
Where,
Li = The noise level of any ith sample,
L̅P = Average sound pressure level in dB,
Ti = Time duration of ith sample, expressed as fraction
N = No. of measurement reading, of total sample time.

Ln = nth sound pressure level in dB. Numerical:

Numerical: Q85. Using the Leq equation, find Leq value for fluctuating
noise level of 95 min indicated earliest (i.e. the one with
Q84. The average of 4 measurement reading recorded 80 dB lasting for 10 min, followed by sound of 60 dB for
as 40, 50, 62 and 72 dB is ______. 80 min and 100 dB for 5 min).

Solution: Solution:

As we know, As we know,

Ln Li
1
L̅P = 20 log N ∑n=N
n=1 (10) 20
Leq = 10 log10 ∑i=n
i=1 10 × t i
10

Li 80 60 100
Ln 40 50 62 72 10 80 5
∑n=N ∑i=n
i=1 10 × t i = [(10 × 95 ) + (10 × 95 ) + (10
10 10 10 10 × )]
n=1 (10) 20 = [1020 + 1020 + 1020 + 1020 ] = 5656.22 95

1 = 537.69 × 106
∴ L̅P = 20 log 10 (4 × 5656.22)

Leq = 10 log10(537.69 × 106 ) = 87.3 dB

= 63 dB
Answer:

The Leq is 87.3 dB.

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Engineering Air pollution

It is defined as the excessive concentration of 1. Primary air pollutants:
foreign matter in the air which adversely affects the
wellbeing of individual of causes damage to the
Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted
property. It also affects plants, animals, and buildings.
directly from the identifiable sources.

Sources of air pollution: e.g. Particulate Matter, Pollens, Sulphur compounds,

Nitrogen compounds, Carbon monoxide and dioxide,
1. Natural sources: Photochemical oxidant, Lead, Hydrocarbons,
Radioactive materials, Halogen compounds.
i. Products from atmospheric reactions (chemical
reactions like oxidation, combination, polymerization, 2. Secondary air pollutants:
photochemical reaction etc.
ii. Aerosols particles are finely divided solid or liquid These are those which are formed in the atmosphere
particles of microscopic size held suspended and as a result of interaction between two or more primary
dispersed in atmosphere. They cause visibility reduction, air pollutants or by reactions with the normal
soiling of surfaces, corrosion etc. (e.g. dust, smoke, fog, atmospheric constituents with or without photo
mist, haze, fumes etc.). activation and these are more harmful.
iii. Microorganisms that infect plant and animals.
iv. Pollens (the small grains from the anthers of e.g. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Ozone, Formaldehyde,
flowers) may cause allergic reactions. Peroxy-acetyl-nitrate (PAN), Photochemical smog.
v. Radioactive minerals.
vi. Volcanic ash and gasses.
vii. Gases and odour from swamps and marshy
Effects of air pollutants:
lands.
Compounds Sources and effects
Most important air pollutant and
2. Manmade sources: exist wherever fossil fuels are
SO2 burnt. Causes respiratory
i. Combustion of fuels which accumulates CO2, SO2, problems like bronchitis, asthma
NO2 etc. in the atmosphere. etc.
ii. Industries which emits undesirable gasses. Auto mobile exhaust. Causes
CO
iii. Thermal power plant (mainly emits SO 2). ASPHYXIA.
iv. Automobiles exhaust contains CO, CO 2 which are H-C Auto mobile exhaust.
the main sources of air pollution in congested cities. Auto mobile exhaust. Causes
Pb irritation of mucus membrane of
v. Agricultural activities (Crop spraying, field burning
nose, throat, and lungs.
etc.).
Second most abundant air
vi. Nuclear power plants which emits various Oxides of
pollutant. Causes asthma, eye,
radioactive substances. nitrogen
and nasal irritation.
Pollens Causes asthma.
Classification of air pollutants Radioactive Causes cancer, shortening of life
radiation span, generic defects.
Air pollutants can be classified into following
categories,

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Effects on physical features: iii. Effect on crop yield,

Engineering
1. Effect on visibility:
iv. Increase of skin cancer and eye ailments,
v. Shorter life of paints and plastics.

For protecting the ozone layer, the emission of CFC

Fog and photochemical smog reduce the visibility should be restricted.
considerable.
5. Acid rain:

The rainwater is slightly acidic. The acidity level

increases with SO2, NO2 etc. The acidity in rainwater is
caused due to the formation of secondary pollutants
such as Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, and Hydrochloric
acid due to the reaction of water vapors with these
gases.

It has been specified that when the pH of the

rainwater is less than or equal to 5 the rain is termed as
acid rain. 2⁄3rd of acid rains is due to SO2 which is
2. Effect on atmospheric constituents:
produced mainly by the burning of coal and oil in
industries. The SO2 pollutant leads to H2SO4 acidity.
Carbon dioxide is considered as a factor responsible
Another primary pollutant responsible for 1⁄3rd of acid
for rise in ambient temperature.
rain is NO2 which is produced mainly by the auto mobile
emissions. The NO2 pollutant leads to HNO 3 acidity.
3. Green-house effect: Acidic rains damage forest, crops, building,
monuments.
Gases like CO2, nitrogen oxide, Ozone and chemical
like CFC are responsible for greenhouse effect. CO2 is
the chief gas responsible for the green-house effect.
6. Global warming:

It causes appreciable rise in temperature. It is considered to be the outcome of the air pollution
caused by the man made sources. The global warming
may lead to burning of crops and may also cause forest
4. Ozone layer depletion: fire.

This ozone layer acts as an umbrella against the

Method of controlling air pollutions:
harmful ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth. When
chemical pollution such as chlorofluorocarbon emitted
form refrigeration and other industrial operators nitrous 1. Zoning
oxide pollute the atmosphere and some of the Ozone
is broken down and it results a decrease of ozone
concentration in the atmosphere. In consequence,
more ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth.

Which effects,

i. Damage in immune system,

ii. Disturbance in ecosystem,

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2. Scrubber or wet collector Lapse rate:

Engineering It is the decrease in temperature with increase in
height.

Environmental lapse rate:

Environmental lapse rate (ELR) The rate at which the

air temperature changes with height in the atmosphere
surrounding a cloud.

Adiabatic lapse rate:

The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the

temperature of an air parcel changes in response to
the compression or expansion associated with
3. Electrostatic precipitators elevation change, under the assumption that the
process is adiabatic, i.e., no heat exchange occurs
between the given air parcel and its surroundings.

Super-adiabatic lapse rate:

When ELR > ALR this phenomenon occurs. This is

unstable.

Sub-adiabatic lapse rate:

When ELR < ALR this takes place. This is stable.

Neutral lapse rate:

Dispersion of air pollutants into the
atmosphere: When ELR = ALR this is called as neutral lapse rate.

It causes disease, death to humans, damage to Inversion or negative lapse rate:

other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural
or built environment. If temp. increases with the increase in height, the
lapse rate is known as inversion or negative lapse rate.

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