Sedimentary Geology: Steven G. Banham, Nigel P. Mountney

Sedimentary Geology 296 (2013) 142–166
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Sedimentary Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo
Invited review
Evolution of fluvial systems in salt-walled mini-basins:

A review and new insights
Steven G. Banham ⁎, Nigel P. Mountney
Fluvial & Eolian Research Group, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The preserved sedimentary expression of fluvial successions accumulated in salt-walled mini-basins records the
Received 5 June 2013 complex history of basin subsidence, the style of sediment supply, and the pattern of sediment distribution in re-
Received in revised form 16 August 2013 sponse to a range of fluvial processes throughout the evolution of such basins. Temporal and spatial variations in
Accepted 17 August 2013
the rate of basin subsidence govern the generation of accommodation space, whereas the rate and style of sedi-
Available online 28 August 2013
ment supply govern how available accommodation is filled; together these parameters act as principal controls
Editor: J. Knight that dictate the gross-scale pattern of fluvial sedimentation. Additional factors that influence fluvial stratigraphic
architecture in salt-walled mini-basins are: (i) the trend and form of inherited basement lineations and faults
Keywords: that control the geometry, orientation and spacing of salt walls that develop in response to halokinesis;
Fluvial (ii) salt thickness and composition that dictate both the maximum potential basin-fill thickness within a devel-
Salt wall oping mini-basin and the rate of evacuation (migration) of salt from beneath evolving mini-basins, leading to the
Mini-basin growth of confining salt walls, uplift of which may generate surface topographic expression that influences fluvial
Architecture drainage patterns; (iii) climate that dictates fluvial style and the processes by which sediment is distributed; and
Stratigraphy
(iv) the inherited direction of drainage relative to the trend of elongate salt walls and locus of sediment supply
Halokinesis
that dictates how sediments are distributed both within a single mini-basin and between adjacent basins.
Examples of fluvial sedimentary architectures preserved in salt-walled mini-basins from a number of geographic
regions are used to illustrate and document the primary controls that influence patterns of fluvial sediment ac-
cumulation. The distribution of fluvial architectural elements preserved within mini-basins follows a predictable
pattern, both within individual basin depocentres and between adjoining basins: drainage pathways preferen-
tially migrate to topographic lows within basins, such as developing rim-synclines, and away from topographic
highs, such as uplifting salt walls or developing turtle-back structures.
This paper demonstrates a range of fluvial–halokinetic interactions through consideration of a series of case stud-
ies, which demonstrate the current understanding of fluvial response to salt-walled mini-basin evolution and
which highlight gaps in the current understanding.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction et al., 1979; Kneller and McCaffrey, 1995; Byrd et al., 2004; Kane et al.,
2012); in shallow-marine environments, enhanced rates of subsidence
Globally, there exist in excess of 120 provinces in which evaporite can locally increase sediment accumulation rates (Dyson, 2004;
basins are known to have been influenced by salt deformation (Hudec Kernen et al., 2012); and in aeolian environments, surface topography
and Jackson, 2007; Fig. 1). Numerous studies have been previously arising from salt-wall growth can encourage dune-field construction,
conducted to demonstrate how various sedimentary environments are accumulation and preservation by shielding such environments from
influenced by coeval halokinesis that results in high rates of basin reworking by fluvial processes (Venus, 2013). Of these and other stud-
subsidence (e.g., Prather et al., 1998), diversion of sediment transport ies, only a modest number have attempted to document and account
pathways by uplifting topography (e.g., Kneller and McCaffrey, 1995; for the style of accumulation of fluvial successions in salt-walled mini-
Banham and Mountney, 2013a), and reworking of uplifted sediments basins and show how fluvial systems can be diverted by salt-wall-
or diapir-derived detritus (e.g., Lawton and Buck, 2006). Studies show generated topography. Despite having hitherto been the attention of
how the effects of these phenomena are expressed in the preserved only relatively few studies, understanding the detailed sedimentology
stratigraphic record: in deep-water environments, turbidity currents and stratigraphy of fluvial successions preserved in salt-walled mini-
can be deflected, diverted or reflected by uplifting salt topography basins is important since such successions act as economically impor-
resulting in a complex arrangement of turbidite deposits (Kelling tant hydrocarbon reservoirs in several salt-basin provinces globally
(Smith et al., 1993; Barde et al., 2002a,b; Newell et al., 2012).
⁎ Corresponding author. The aim of this paper is to review the current state of literature
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.G. Banham). regarding controls on the style of accumulation of fluvial successions
0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2013.08.010
S.G. Banham, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 296 (2013) 142–166 143
SB
60°N
NS G PC
NB
Px
30°N 30°N
LP
0° 0°
30°S 30°S
15 12
0° 0°
30°
°
30°
0° 0°
60
0°
90
°
90 12 15
60
60°S
°
Fig. 1. Overview of halokinetic provinces world-wide. Light grey indicates halokinetic provinces not covered in this study. Dark grey denotes province mentioned in this study. G: German
case studies; LP: La Popa Basin; NB: New Brunswick; NS: North Sea; PC: Precaspian Basin; Px: Paradox Basin; SB: Sverdrup Basin.
Modified after Hudec and Jackson (2007).
in salt-walled mini-basins and to highlight gaps in the current under- generated variable accommodation; for example, a rim syncline struc-
standing. Specific objectives are as follows: (i) to establish a standard ture (R) will locally increase accommodation, whereas accommodation
set of terminology for the description of various attributes associated will be less above a turtle-back structure (Tb).
with the spatial and temporal evolution of salt-walled mini-basins; Maximum basin-fill thickness (M) describes the maximum potential
(ii) to highlight the numerous ways in which halokinetic and sedimen- thickness of fill that can be accommodated by continued subsidence
tary processes can interact; (iii) to illustrate how these different styles and accumulation within a mini-basin. This is governed by both
of interaction are known to be expressed through examination of a se-
ries of reviewed case studies; (iv) to present a series of summary
tectono-stratigraphic models with which to relate preserved fluvial
stratigraphic architecture present in mini-basins to the principal U W
halokinetic and sedimentary controls; (v) to show how such models F2

can be used as predictive tools; and (vi) to discuss potential approaches T S M
to future research which will address issues that currently remain F1
unresolved in this field of research.
P
This work is of broad appeal for the following reasons: (i) the termi-
nology describing the attributes and style of infill of salt-walled mini-
basins is currently poorly defined and this study provides clarification
and discussion through development of a generic classification frame- F2’’ h
F2’ S TR1 T
Tb
T
R2
work; (ii) this work identifies and discusses a series of controls that op- S
v
erate to determine the style of evolution of salt-walled mini-basins and M’ F1’’

F1’ M’’
the manner by which these basins become filled by fluvial successions;
and (iii) this work distills our current understanding into a series of ge-
P’’
P’
neric models that describe the influence of key controls on fluvial sedi-
mentation for a variety of types of basin fill.
2. Terminology Fig. 2. Description of basin-fill attributes defining basin-fill thickness, fill style, pre-existing
basin fill, and remaining subsidence potential of the basin. These parameters can vary both
between mini-basins and within a single mini-basin. T = Basin-fill thickness, which can
The terminology required for the description of basin subsidence, vary within a single basin, e.g., features such as turtle-back structures & rim synclines.
gross-style of basin fill and basin-fill state at any given time during the F =Fill inheritance, which records the state of basin-fill at the onset of a subsequent epi-
evolution of a series of salt-walled mini-basins is inherently complex sode of deposition and which can vary spatially across a mini-basin due to variations in dif-
ferential subsidence rate or existing basin fill-thickness. M = Maximum basin-fill level
because many dependent and independent variables are known to
(fill potential) is determined by the original thickness of salt and can vary due to the pres-
interact during the evolution of such systems. To resolve this issue, ter- ence of a dipping basement or the presence of pre-salt basement structures. P = Remnant
minology describing the primary variables that govern mini-basin evo- basin-fill potential, describes the salt remaining beneath an evolving mini-basin and can
lution and their fill states is defined here in an attempt to standardise vary across a basin due to differential subsidence or due to sub-salt basement geometries.
descriptions of basin attributes (Fig. 2). S = Basin-fill style is a general concept describing the overall nature of the sediment
fill (e.g. sand-prone or sand-poor). Sh = horizontal fill style; Sv = vertical fill style.
Basin-fill thickness (T) describes the current total thickness of accu- U = Available accommodation (space remaining unfilled) and can be negative if the
mulated sediment within a subsiding mini-basin. This thickness may basin fill becomes elevated above a “baseline of erosion”. W = Salt-wall height above
vary across a single basin in cases where differential subsidence has “regional” elevation.
144 S.G. Banham, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 296 (2013) 142–166
basement geometry and the original thickness of salt present at the lo- rates in the salt tending to reduce with decreasing thickness of salt:
cation of mini-basin formation. Where a mini-basin grounds on pre-salt the conditions that dictate the timing of salt-weld formation vary and
basement strata, further subsidence is no longer possible and T = M, if are mainly dependent on the composition of the salt layers (Hudec
the effects of additional sediment compaction are ignored. and Jackson, 2007).
Remaining basin-fill potential (P) describes the remaining thickness
of salt beneath a subsiding mini-basin at a given point and the maxi- 3. Controls on the style of stratigraphic in-fill of salt-walled
mum remaining distance the mini-basin can subside before it grounds mini-basins
on the sub-salt basement. Where a basin or part thereof grounds on
the pre-salt basement, a salt weld is formed and remnant basin-fill 3.1. Initiation of salt-walled mini-basins
potential (potential accommodation space) for that location is theoret-
ically zero. The initiation of mini-basin subsidence requires a number of prereq-
Fill inheritance (F) describes the pre-existing basin-fill thickness at uisites: (i) the presence of a salt layer (or layers) of sufficient thickness
the onset of a new sequence of sediment delivery, where the inherited to allow halokinesis to occur (Trusheim, 1960; Hudec et al., 2009) and
fill state is described in relation to the onset of accumulation of a new (ii) a mechanism to initiate halokinesis (Fig. 3), such as extension
stratigraphic sequence. Differential rates of subsidence within a single (Hodgson et al., 1992), compression (Jackson and Talbot, 1986; Brun
mini-basin can lead to spatial variation in inherited basin-fill thickness
at the onset of accumulation of a later stratigraphic sequence. Such a sit-
uation might arise in response to the early grounding of one side of a a > S
O
mini-basin while the other side remains actively subsiding and able to
P1 < P2 surface
accumulate additional strata. This can result in the development of a
so-called “heel–toe” sediment-fill geometry (Kluth and Du Chene,
2009), a common style of architectural expression. The sum of all O
overburden
inherited basin-fill is equal to basin-fill thickness (T). h
Available unfilled accommodation space (U) refers to the vertical
thickness of accommodation within a mini-basin that remains unfilled
by sediment at a given point and for a specified time period, but
which could potentially be filled with sediment without additional P2 P1 P2
subsidence occurring. This can be a negative value if the basin-fill rises S salt
locally or temporarily above the regional base level.
basement
Basin-fill style (S) describes the nature of the basin-fill and the distri-
bution of fluvial elements in general, qualitative terms; for example,
whether the basin-fill is relatively sand-prone or sand-poor. The distri-
bution of fluvial elements may be heterogeneous at the scale of a mini- b < 2
1
basin, giving rise to variations in the style of accumulated strata, poten- P1 < P2 sea level
tially in orientations parallel or perpendicular to the trend of elongate
sand water
basins, or vertically within the overall fill of a mini-basin. For example,
2
the arrangement of stratal packages may exhibit heterogeneity such 1 shale
that groups of channel-fill elements might be clustered at certain strat-
igraphic intervals or at only one side of a mini-basin.
Salt-wall height (W) describes the relief of the salt-wall (or its direct-
P1 P2 P1
ly overlying cover sediment) relative to that of the sediment fill-level in S salt
the adjoining mini-basin(s). When a salt wall (or its cover sediment)
rises above the height of the surrounding basin plain to generate a topo-
graphic expression, it will be prone to erosion and reworking, potential- basement
ly acting as a source for the generation of clastic detritus derived from
reworked cover sediment and diapir-derived detritus reworked from
the salt wall itself. Such detritus may be reworked into the surrounding c
accumulating stratigraphy as part of the basin fill and recorded as
3 surface
lithofacies characterised by lithic clasts of local intraformational origin
(e.g., mudstone rip-ups) or by clasts of reworked evaporite material
(e.g., gypsum).
overburden
Basin subsidence rate (R) refers specifically to the rate at which the h 2 1
3
floor of the mini-basin subsides into the underlying salt. This value
O
may vary in orientations both parallel and transverse to the axis of
elongate mini-basins, as well as temporally.
Salt-wall uplift rate (U) refers to the rate at which a salt wall (or its
S salt
directly overlying cover sediment) is uplifted above the sediment fill- P2 P1 P3
level of the adjoining mini-basin. This rate of uplift may be modified
by dissolution of the salt in the subsurface, effectively reducing the basement
rate of uplift.
Salt-weld formation or basin grounding refers to the time that basin Fig. 3. Common mechanisms for the initiation of halokinesis. ρ signifies density of materi-
subsidence effectively ceases because the remaining thickness of salt al. (a) Buoyancy-driven halokinesis, where density of the overburden initiates and drives
beneath a subsiding mini-basin is insufficient to allow further flow halokinesis. (b) Differential loading, where halokinesis is driven by varying thickness and
density of overburden, created by features such as accumulation of a prograding alluvial
because the remaining basin-fill potential (P) is effectively zero wedge. (c) Initiation of halokinesis due to extension, where thin-skinned tectonics creates
(cf., Hudec and Jackson, 2007) and a salt weld forms. The ability of salt differential thicknesses of salt.
to deform and flow is dependent on the thickness of salt, with shear Modified after Jackson and Talbot (1986).
and Fort, 2003), differential loading (Ings and Beaumont, 2010), or a) Initiation of mini-basin subsidence overburden
buoyancy (Trusheim, 1960). Where salt thickness is sufficient to allow
the development of salt-walled mini-basins, the presence of pre-salt
basement structures, including their geometry, trend, spacing and salt
along-strike continuity, commonly exert a significant control on the lo-
cation and style of salt-wall growth (Doelling, 1988; Barde et al., 2002a; basement extension
Trudgill, 2011). Sites of initiation of salt-wall growth and the orientation
of such salt walls have been related to the distribution and orientation of
various types of basement feature, including horst-and-graben struc-
tures or relict topography, which generate variations in the thickness b) Mini-basin subsidence and salt-wall growth
of salt, of which triggers the onset of halokinesis (Hodgson et al.,
1992; Smith et al., 1993). Salt walls typically form above horst and gra- salt dissolution near
or at the surface
ben structures, although a differential thickness of salt may not itself be
the sole factor responsible for the initiation of the growth of salt walls.
Additionally, differential loading may exert a control on the spacing of
salt walls, as a function of salt viscosity, salt thickness, and overburden
density (Ings and Beaumont, 2010). Mini-basin size varies, in part as a
function of initiation mechanism, with individual basins typically
being 8–15 km wide, whereas intervening salt walls typically have
widths of 1 to 2 km (Barde et al., 2002a; Goldsmith et al., 2003;
Trudgill, 2011; Banham and Mountney, 2013a).
The ongoing growth of salt-walled mini-basins is maintained and
driven by a buoyancy imbalance (Rayleigh–Taylor instability), where c) Mini-basin grounds on pre-salt basement
the overlying sediment has a greater density than that of the underlying subsidence stops
salt (Hudec et al., 2009; Ings and Beaumont, 2010; Fig. 3). This density-
driven process typically requires sediments to have a density of
~2500 kg m−3, which equates to a burial depth of ~1000–2300 m to
generate the mechanical compaction required to achieve this density
for most clastic sediments (Jackson and Talbot, 1986; Hudec et al.,
2009).
Initiation of salt-wall growth by other mechanisms has also been de-
scribed by Hudec et al. (2009), including: (i) lateral shortening of the salt weld
growth of develops
salt layer due to the application of compressive stress, thereby creating salt wall
a bathymetric high where salt is forced up and a bathymetric low in the ceases
top surface of the adjacent salt; (ii) thinning of the salt layer due to
extensional stress, whereby stretching of the salt layer causes it to sag,
forming a bathymetric low (Fig. 3); or (iii) flow of salt via creep
d) Salt-wall collapse original mini-basins become
down-dip under the influence of gravity, thereby creating a bathymetric synforms develop as secondary relative highs
low at the head of the original salt body; (iv) sediment loading, whereby mini-basins above collapsing salt walls
overlying strata of variable thickness generates a significant differential
load at a point on the underlying salt layer (Fig. 3); or (v) sub-salt defor-
mation, such as the creation of a roll-over basin by extension or folding
by compression. Each of these mechanisms relies on the generation of a
bathymetric low in the salt to allow for the accumulation of sediment,
progressive accumulation of which, in turn, generates additional load-
ing and enables buoyancy-driven withdrawal and lateral salt migration
at depth, thereby leading to additional subsidence at the site of loading. extension occurs where
sediment ‘pod’i s weakest
An alternative mechanism for the initiation of mini-basin generation over collapsing salt walls
is the viscous pressure ridge model proposed by Ings and Beaumont
(2010), in which flow of overburden and underlying salt – driven by,
for example, collapse of a continental margin or progradation of a Fig. 4. Model demonstrating the evolution of salt-walled mini-basins throughout various
delta or alluvial mega-fan – can result in the formation of a pressure stages of evolution.
Modified after Hodgson et al. (1992).
ridge due to differential rates of flow within the underlying salt. The
trapping of sediment by the formation of these viscous pressure ridges
culminates in the development of a sediment succession that is suffi- before sediment loading of the salt eventually takes over as the driving
ciently thick to create a Rayleigh–Taylor instability, allowing conven- mechanism of basin subsidence and salt wall growth (Hudec et al.,
tional buoyancy-driven subsidence to take over. 2009; Ings and Beaumont, 2010). Sediment accumulation in these ba-
Once a sufficient density contrast threshold has been attained, sins continues by the process of down-building (Barton, 1933) until
whereby compaction of the overlying sediment has resulted in a mean the basin grounds on the sub-salt basement, effectively preventing ad-
sediment density that is greater than that of the underlying salt, load- ditional accumulation of sediments within the mini-basin. Later, axial
driven displacement of the salt from beneath the incipient mini-basins migration or dissolution of salt from an uplifted swell, wall or stock
will commence as salt flows into neighbouring growing salt walls can cause the salt uplift to collapse, thereby allowing secondary mini-
(Ings and Beaumont, 2010). basins to form over the crests of the former salt-wall highs (Colman
The evolution of salt-walled mini-basins (or ‘pods’) was described et al., 1986; Hodgson et al., 1992; Hudec, 1995).
previously by Hodgson et al. (1992) (Fig. 4). Initiation of salt-wall Once initiated, mini-basins can subside at sustained rates of N1 km/Ma
growth can be triggered by any one of the aforementioned mechanisms, for several million years: for example, some Pliocene and Pleistocene
examples have fills that are up to 8 km thick (Hudec et al., 2009). In some determine basin-scale regional changes in the thickness of salt that ac-
instances, rates of up to 10 km/Ma have been recorded in the Gulf of cumulates. This, in turn, determines the maximum potential basin-fill
Mexico (Prather, 2000). thickness during the later development of salt-walled mini-basins.
3.2. Parameters controlling subsidence and sedimentation rate 3.2.1.2. Total thickness of salt. The thickness of salt ultimately controls the
maximum distance a mini-basin can subside before it grounds on the
Many parameters are known to influence the style of sediment pre-salt basement. The total thickness of salt can vary across the basin
accumulation in salt-walled mini-basins: some are static (e.g., original (e.g., Paradox Basin, Trudgill, 2011; Central North Sea, Hodgson et al.,
salt thickness and composition) in that they do not vary throughout 1992; Smith et al., 1993), resulting in adjacent mini-basins grounding
the episode of mini-basin subsidence; others are dynamic variables at different times during the evolution of a mini-basin province. Mini-
(e.g., climate and sediment delivery rate) that change over the course basin grounding results in a cessation of generation of further accom-
of mini-basin subsidence (Banham and Mountney, 2013a; Fig. 5) modation in that basin and once local available accommodation has
Understanding these parameters is key to determining the history of been filled, sediment bypass into neighbouring basins will commence
subsidence and sedimentation within a salt mini-basin province and leading to a relative increase in sedimentation rate in mini-basins that
for showing how this may have controlled fluvial drainage pathways may formerly have been relatively sediment-starved. Furthermore,
and subsequently how this influenced basin-fill evolution. thicker successions of salt tend to deform and flow at faster rates than
thinner successions, meaning that higher rates of subsidence tend to
3.2.1. Static parameters occur in mini-basin provinces for which evaporite thicknesses are
Static parameters are controls that remain constant (i.e., temporally greatest (Hudec and Jackson, 2007).
invariable) throughout the evolution of a mini-basin; such parameters
typically exert a basin-scale control on system evolution and are nor- 3.2.1.3. Evaporite properties. The composition and style of stratification of
mally set prior to the onset of halokinesis. the evaporate-bearing units undergoing halokinesis exert a control on the
shear rate of the salt as it deforms and flows within the subsurface. The
3.2.1.1. Basement geometries. The trends of faults in the pre-salt base- presence of clastic or carbonate lithologies within an otherwise evapo-
ment, their spacing and geometry, together with the average dip of rite-dominated succession will tend to reduce the flow rate (Hite, 1968;
the pre-salt basement, act to control the spatial pattern of development Jackson and Talbot, 1986), thereby directly influencing the rate of subsi-
and temporal sequence of evolution of growing salt walls (Fig. 6). Salt dence of overlying mini-basins and the rate of uplift of adjacent salt
walls tend to develop at a site of change in salt thickness, such as com- walls. The composition of the evaporites undergoing deformation will
monly occurs across fault offsets (Doelling, 1988; Smith et al., 1993; also influence the timing of salt-weld formation because the presence of
Trudgill, 2011). Alternatively changes in salt thickness may occur clastic and carbonate lithologies acts to hamper the ability of salt to
where salt overlies buried topography, or may result from facies varia- flow, especially where the thickness of salt is substantially reduced.
tions within the evaporite-bearing deposition units. Where basement
trends are simple and follow a single trend, salt walls tend to evolve 3.2.2. Dynamic parameters
as elongate, linear and parallel features (e.g., Salt Anticline Region of Dynamic parameters are controls that vary either spatially within or
the Paradox Basin, Utah; La Popa Basin, Mexico; parts of the Central between mini-basins, or temporally over the duration of the evolution
Graben in the subsurface of the North Sea). By contrast, in situations of one or a series of mini-basins. These factors can be allogenic or auto-
where basement features are present that trend in different orienta- genic in origin and can influence the style of sedimentation at a range of
tions, more complex pre-salt basement geometries tend to favour the scales.
evolution of salt walls arranged in polygonal patterns and with varying
continuity (e.g., Pre-Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan) (Fig. 6). Basement dip, 3.2.2.1. Geothermal controls. Geothermal gradient dictates the viscosity
which can result in a variable basement depth across a basin, may and density of salt (Jackson and Talbot, 1986). An increase in the
Climate Meteoric
Primary sediment supply Water
Secondary sediment supply Transport direction axial
Transport distance to salt walls
(maturity) Sediment density
& distribution
Nature
Confining
of pressure Bypass rate Differential Bypass rate
sediment Rate of sediment supply
Accumulation
& secondary subsidence rates & tertiary
Rate Salt exposure sed. supply rate
eroded from sed. supply rate
uplift
ground water
infiltration
Loading dissolution
tion
Tectonic control Original

rate
salt level
Fric
on long-term
sediment Salt
supply rheology
potential Salt stratification
s and heterogeneity
Basement geometrie Grounding
(anisotropy)
s
and fault orientation resistance
(rheology)
Geothermal gradient
Fig. 5. Schematic depiction of the action of a suite of controlling parameters to dictate the geometry and style of infill of salt-walled mini-basins. These factors govern rates of sediment
accumulation and basin subsidence.
Modified after Banham and Mountney (2013a).
Salt-wall & mini-basin geometries

Differential rates
Salt-wall of salt-wall uplift “Blind”
Linear within a single wall mini-basin
Linear basement mini-basin spurs
geometries
following single
trend
Lin e
ar s Closed
a lt w
alls mini-basin
Incr
easi
ng c
omp
Incr le
easi xity of P oly
ng s b
Incr alt-w asemen gon
al s
easi a t ge alt w
ng b ll conn ome alls Complex basement
asin ectiv try geometries following
isola ity
tio n multiple trends
Fig. 6. Common salt wall and mini-basin geometries. Geometries of developing salt walls are controlled by factors, including: the trend of pre-existing basement faults and topography; the
direction of tectonic extension or shortening; and the direction of differential loading. Where a single basement trend exists, linear salt walls tend to develop and these separate elongate,
linear mini-basins. Where multiple basement trends exist or where tectonism occurs in an orientation that is oblique to the trend of pre-existing basement structures, polygonal walled
mini-basins tend to develop.
geothermal gradient will act to reduce salt viscosity, thereby enabling it bedrock geology in the catchment area, exerts a direct control on the
to flow at a faster rate. Decreasing the density of the salt will reduce the rate at which accommodation in mini-basins becomes filled; evidence
threshold required to allow buoyancy-driven subsidence to occur for such control is recorded in the architectural fill-style of the develop-
(Srivastava and Merchant, 1973; Jackson and Talbot, 1986). ing mini-basins. Furthermore, the rate of sediment delivery and infilling
of accommodation also exerts an indirect control on the generation of
3.2.2.2. Climate. Climate controls the evolution of salt walled mini-basins new accommodation by driving additional subsidence due to loading
in several ways. Where meteoric water percolates into subsurface salt that enhances rates of subsurface salt withdrawal from beneath evolving
layers, “softening” of the salt ensues, leading to increased flow rates, en- mini-basins. High rates of sediment delivery tend to favour rapid infilling
hanced rates of subsurface dissolution, a reduction in the overall rate of of available accommodation, leading to significant reworking of earlier
salt-wall uplift, or enhanced rates of mini-basin subsidence (Jackson deposits by fluvial systems that migrate dynamically across alluvial
and Talbot, 1986; Senseny et al., 1992). Climate is also a fundamental plains and undertake repeated avulsions. Such activity tends to preserve
control that influences rates of weathering and erosion in fluvial catch- fluvial expressions that are dominated by relatively coarse-grained
ments, fluvial discharge regime, style of sediment transport, and fluvial lower parts of fluvial channel-fill elements, with reworking leading to
form at downstream sites of sediment deposition. Thus, climate exerts a considerable bypass of detritus farther downstream (Hardgrove et al.,
significant influence on the ensuing style of fluvial sedimentation and 2010). Such conditions favour the accumulation of relatively sand-
generation of preserved sedimentary architecture. prone basin-fill styles with the associated preservation of multi-storey
channel complexes (Banham and Mountney, 2013a). By contrast, low
3.2.2.3. Sediment delivery direction. The orientation of inherited sediment rates of sediment delivery favour the accumulation and preservation of
delivery networks relative to the orientation of the trend of evolving salt more complete fluvial depositional cycles arising from the cut, fill and
walls exerts a fundamental control on the style of stratigraphic architec- migration of channels and the accumulation of surrounding floodplain
ture preserved both within a single mini-basin and between neighbouring elements since accommodation will more likely be available to promote
mini-basins. In situations where preferred drainage is aligned transverse preservation. Such conditions tend to favour the development of rela-
to the trend of growing salt walls – and especially in cases where salt- tively sand-poor basin fills in which a greater proportion of argillaceous
wall uplift has been sufficient to generate a surface topographic expression floodplain sediments are preserved and where channel-belts will tend
– the style of fill of a series of adjacent mini-basins will tend to manifest as to be isolated in otherwise overbank-dominated successions (cf., Bristow
a systematic proximal-to-distal fining away from the sediment source and Best, 1993; Banham and Mountney, 2013a).
(Venus, 2013). By contrast, fluvial drainage systems aligned parallel to
the trend of salt walls tend to result in basin-fill architectures that can 3.2.2.5. Dissolution rate. Salt dissolution by meteoric waters tends to en-
change from sand-prone to sand-poor between neighbouring mini-basins, hance rates of mini-basin subsidence and retard rates of salt-wall
in situations where topography associated with growing salt walls is effec- growth. A reduction or even reversal of salt-wall uplift may result in
tive in confining fluvial fairways to a particular mini-basin, leaving others the diminishment or elimination of surface topographic expression,
relatively sediment-starved (Banham and Mountney, 2013a,b). resulting in a reduction in the amount of incision required by a fluvial
system to maintain a drainage pathway across an actively uplifting
3.2.2.4. Sediment delivery rate. The rate of sediment delivery, which is salt wall and potentially eventually leading to the linkage of
significantly controlled by external factors such as climate regime and neighbouring mini-basins and a cessation of basin isolation.
These parameters can interact dynamically creating both positive Banham and Mountney, 2013a) can result in the capture of fluvial sys-
and negative feed-back cycles, which can enhance, or retard the rate tems and their confinement to the edges of a single mini-basin
of sediment accumulation within this basins. (Fig. 7). As such, the distribution of preserved fluvial elements in areas
close to the flanks of salt walls can vary markedly from those present
3.2.3. Fluvial interactions in the central part of the same mini-basin (Andrie et al., 2012;
Surface topography generated by the combination of growth of salt Banham and Mountney, 2013a,b). Salt trapped beneath the centre of a
walls with subsidence of adjacent mini-basins exerts a fundamental mini-basin can result in the formation of a turtle-back structure
control on fluvial drainage pathways and therefore also on the resultant (sensu Barde et al., 2002a,b), where subsidence rates are reduced rela-
accumulated stratigraphic succession. The effect of this control is mani- tive to those of adjacent rim-synclines (Fig. 7). This can result in the gen-
fest in a number of different ways (Fig. 7). Preferred or inherited orien- eration of a relative high in the centre of a mini-basin that may limit the
tation of drainage networks relative to the trend of salt walls acts to rate of sedimentation in such regions and may even potentially isolate
determine the type and geometrical arrangement of preserved fluvial two marginal rim-synclines to form sub-basins.
elements and their distribution both within and between mini-basins. In isolated basins, where fluvial activity is limited due to preferential
Topography associated with uplifted salt walls can divert or deflect drainage into adjacent basins, active fluvial processes tend to be domi-
transverse-draining fluvial systems, or induce localised accumulation nated by: (i) localised reworking and redistribution of sediment from
of sediment while fluvial systems attempt to incise across uplifted uplifted salt-wall topography; (ii) delivery of sediment via the overspill
salt-walls. This can ultimately lead to drainage capture or diversion of drainage pathways from adjacent basins; and (iii) the development
and the development of antecedent drainage networks. Sediment of minor drainage pathways within the basin via supply along the
input into neighbouring basins may then be reduced which in turn basin axis, in some cases in the form of episodic non-confined flow rath-
can lead to the formation of relatively sand-poor basins adjacent to rel- er than channelised flow (Abdullatif, 1989; Banham and Mountney,
atively sand-prone basins. Where drainage pathways cross salt-wall- 2013b). Non-confined flows that give rise to depositional sediment bod-
generated topography, the potential rate of fluvial incision must be ies with thin but laterally extensive sheet-like elements and only minor
greater than the rate of salt-wall uplift for the fluvial course to be channel elements are especially common in relatively isolated, sedi-
maintained. ment-starved basins under semi-arid climates (Rahn, 1967; Williams,
Active channels draining parallel to or across salt-wall-generated to- 1970; Benvenuti et al., 2005; Banham and Mountney, 2013a,b).
pography can migrate and encroach onto and rework sediment derived
from the flanks of salt walls leading to the accumulation of beds com- 3.2.4. Mini-basin sediment-fill style
posed of locally reworked intraformational clasts or, in some cases, dia- The interplay between the rates of sediment supply and accommo-
pir-derived detritus such as reworked clasts of gypsum, carbonate or dation generation due to subsidence is a key factor that dictates basin-
clastic material associated with surface exposure of the uplifted salt fill style (S) in evolving mini-basins (Fig. 8). For example, for a relatively
(Lawton and Buck, 2006; Banham and Mountney, 2013a). high and constant rate of sediment supply (Fig. 8), fluvial strata within a
In the case of axial-draining fluvial systems for which confining salt- slowly-subsiding basin will experience significant reworking as fluvial
wall-generated topography is linear, elongate and continuous, individu- systems avulse and migrate laterally, preserving only the lower parts
al mini-basins tend to be isolated from their neighbours, even where of channel-fill elements that become vertically stacked to form multi-
surface relief over the salt wall is minimal. This configuration potentially storey channel complexes dominated by coarse-grained clastic deposits.
allows significantly different successions to accumulate between In such cases, aggradation rates are relatively low and the middle and
neighbouring basins, in terms of sediment and rate of accumulation. upper parts of channel-fill elements, including the sandy bedforms
Generation of topographic lows associated with the development of that typically characterise the middle parts of fluvial depositional cycles
rim-synclines by the preferential withdrawal of salt from beneath the (Miall, 1996), will be prone to reworking as later channels migrate
margins of mini-basins adjacent to salt walls (Barde et al., 2002b; across the flood plain. In cases like this, where the rate of sediment
Style of fluvial interaction with salt walls and subsiding mini-basins
Transverse sediment delivery Axial sediment delivery

Partially-confined
Incision & down-cutting elements Primary
Encroachment Salt-wall breach drainage
onto salt-wall flank
iment s
ource Primary se
diment sour Salt glacier
direction
ary sed ce
Diversion Second
Basement
Linear Channel flood-out

salt wall
Sand Complex salt-wall
Capture & confinement -pron morphology
to rim-syncline e ba (e.g. polygonal)
sins
Non-confined
Sand elements
Turtle-back structure -poo Fan-delta
r bas
Channel-fill
ins
Reworked salt-wall Lake formation due
elements
detritus (e.g. gypsum clasts) to ponding
Fig. 7. Fluvial interactions with uplifted salt walls and subsiding mini-basins. Sediments can be delivered transversely or axially into the mini-basins and this may act to dictate the ensuing
basin-fill style. The development of polygonal salt walls can further add to stratigraphic complexity.
Basin-fill style: over-filled, filled and under-filled mini-basins

Transverse drainage active fluvial system
down-cuts to maintain
extensive reworking of well-sorted course over growing
channel-fill elements: preferential salt-wall structure moderate reworking of fine-grained
preservation of basal channel lag overbank strata: preferential lake formation: rate
preservation of sand-prone channel- of subsidence is
fill bar and dune elements significantly greater
sediment source area: than rate of sediment
constant rate of sediment delivery
supply
Ove
rf
(gra illed ba differential rates
v s
low el-pron in of salt-wall uplift
subs e along single salt
iden ); Fille wall feature
rate ce ( d ba
mod sand-p sin
erat ro
e su ne);
bs
uplifted area above salt wall: rate idence Und little reworking: preservation of
little accommodation; area erfil lacustrine and overbank strata
subject to bypass and erosion (si led ba interbedded with rare
uplifted area above salt high lt-prone sin single-storey fluvial channel
wall: limited accommodation subs ); elements
id
rate ence
Fig. 8. Basin-fill style, demonstrating the development of over-filled, filled, and under-filled basin styles. The model depicts a system subject to a constant rate of sediment supply rate, but
for adjacent mini-basins that undertake variable rates of subsidence.
delivery outpaces the rate of accommodation generation, an over-filled 4. Case studies

basin tends to develop, the fill of which is dominated by channel lag
and gravel sheet elements arranged into multiple, vertically stacked The expression of fluvial systems accumulating in salt-walled mini-
thin sets and cosets separated by complex arrangements of erosional basins varies dramatically, both between and within halokinetic
bounding surfaces (Fig. 8). Bypass of sediment farther downstream provinces (c.f., Bromley, 1991; Matthews et al., 2007; Venus, 2013;
within the system as sand-dominated bedload and mud- and silt- Banham and Mountney, 2013a,b). The various styles of basin fill are
dominated suspended load is significant. herein explored through studies (Table 1) which demonstrate how
In cases where the rate of sediment delivery is broadly in equilibri- the interplay between various controlling factors (Fig. 5) acts to dictate
um with the rate of accommodation generation due to on-going subsi- drainage pathways, the generation of localised depocentres, and the
dence, fluvial depositional cycles will tend to preserve a relatively style of fluvial system accumulation and preservation.
complete record of the cut, infill, lateral migration and final abandon-
ment of channel systems (Fig. 8). Such fluvial cycles tend to have an ero- 4.1. Salt Anticline Region, SE Utah
sional base, a lower part dominated by gravel sheet elements, a middle
part dominated by cross-bedded sand-dominated bedform elements, The Salt Anticline Province of SE Utah is located in the foredeep of
and an upper part dominated by ripple cross-laminated fine-grained the Paradox Basin, which developed as a flexural foreland basin during
sandstone elements (often with climbing-ripple strata) and argillaceous the Pennsylvanian in response to loading of the continental plate by the
floodplain elements. In some cases, the down-cutting associated with Uncompahgre Uplift of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains (Barbeau, 2003;
the emplacement and lateral accretion of later channel elements will re- Fig. 9a). The Uncompahgre Uplift formed the northwest margin of the
sult in reworking of overbank (floodplain) elements and the transport basin, adjacent to the foredeep, and acted as a source of sediment
of argillaceous sediment farther downstream. Over time, this will culmi- throughout much of the Pennsylvanian and Permian (Kluth and
nate in the formation of a filled basin, the fill of which will tend to be Coney, 1981; Barbeau, 2003), eventually leading to the progradation
dominated by a sand-prone basin fill style in which fining-upward and accumulation of the alluvial mega-fan of the Cutler Group
depositional cycles are evident. (Barbeau, 2003; Cain and Mountney, 2009, 2011). A series of transgres-
In cases where the rate of sediment delivery is outpaced by the rate sive–regressive cycles driven by eustatic sea-level changes during the
of accommodation generation due to subsidence, the potential vertical Pennsylvanian (Goldhammer et al., 1991) resulted in the periodic par-
aggradation rate will be high but if the sedimentation rate does not fill tial isolation of the foredeep region from a larger epeiric sea-way by
the available accommodation an under-filled basin will develop, the fill the forebulge of the Paradox Basin, and this repeated isolation resulted
of which will be dominated by channelised fluvial elements encased in the accumulation of a thick succession of evaporites (the Paradox
within finer-grained elements of floodplain and overbank origin Formation).
(Fig. 8). The preservation potential of floodplain packages is greatest Pre-salt basement faults generated by brittle deformation associated
in these types of basins, and relatively silt-prone and sand-poor basin- with flexural down-warping are aligned northwest-to-southeast, paral-
fill styles tend to accumulate as a consequence. Fluvial successions in lel to the elongate trend of the uplifted Uncompahgre Front (Doelling,
under-filled basins are commonly intercalated with lacustrine succes- 1988; Barbeau, 2003; Trudgill, 2011). The accumulation of differential
sions, especially in humid-climate settings (Prochnow et al., 2006; salt thicknesses across these basement faults, combined with differen-
Matthews et al., 2007). By contrast, in arid-climate settings, accommo- tial loading of the salt by the Cutler Undivided mega-fan, likely initiated
dation may remain unfilled and sabkha and playa systems may develop salt movement and controlled the location and orientation of the resul-
(Banham and Mountney, 2013a). tant salt walls, which grew to form linear features along the same
Table 1
Studies of fluvial systems which accumulated in salt-walled mini-basins. Examples grouped by region.
Case study Age Drainage Climate Type Sed supply Subsidence Fill style Key references
orientation rate rate
Paradox Basin Barbeau (2003) and

Trudgill (2011)
Cutler Group Permian Transverse Arid Braided High High Gravel prone Venus (2013)
Moenkopi Fm Triassic Axial Hyperarid Braided/nonconfined Low Moderate Basin dependent Stewart et al. (1972), Lawton
(Lower) (silt prone) and Buck (2006) and Banham
and Mountney (2013a,b)
Chinle Fm Triassic Axial Subhumid–arid L. meandering High Low Sand prone Hazel (1994), Prochnow et al.
(Upper) U. braided (2006) and Matthews et al. (2007)
Kayenta Fm Jurassic Tangental Arid Braided High Low Sand prone Bromley (1991)
Pre-Caspian Basin Volozh (1994) and Barde
et al. (2002a)
Tatarian Permian Transverse Arid Braided, evaporitic – – Basin dependent Barde et al. (2002b) and
Newell et al. (2012)
Triassic Triassic Transverse Semiarid Braided, lacustrine, High Moderate Basin dependent Barde et al. (2002b) and
detaic Newell et al. (2012)
Central Graben, CNS
Skagerrak Fm Triassic Axial Arid Braided/nonconfined Low–mod. Moderate Basin dependent Hodgson et al. (1992), Smith
terminal splay (sand prone) et al. (1993) and McKie (2011)
La Popa Basin Rowan et al. (2012)
Carroza Fm Eocene Axial Arid Braided Moderate – – Buck et al. (2010) and
Andrie et al. (2012)
Germany
Weisselster Basin Eocene Temperate Meandering – Low – Halfar et al. (1998)
Schoningen Ecocene Axial Humid Meandering – Low – Osman et al. (2013)
River Weser & Aller Recent Axial Temperate Meandering – Low – Sirocko et al. (2002)
Canada
New Brunswick Carboniferous – – – – – – Waldron and Rygel (2010) and
Craggs et al. (2013)
Sverdrup Basin Juras.–Cret. – ?Temperate – – – – Harrison and Jackson (in press)
northwest–southeast trend (Prommel, 1923; Shoemaker and Newman, field in the distal part of the Paradox Basin, beyond the margin of the
1959; Doelling et al., 2002). Halokinesis and mini-basin development Salt Anticline Region (Cain and Mountney, 2009).
commenced in response to loading of salt of the Paradox Formation by The transverse drainage orientation relative to the trend of the ac-
accumulating fluvial strata of the overlying Honaker Trail Formation tively uplifting salt walls resulted in initial preferential deposition and
and Cutler Group during the late Pennsylvanian and Permian (Kluth accumulation of fluvial strata in the Fisher mini-basin that developed
and Du Chene, 2009; Trudgill, 2011). Throughout the duration of sedi- adjacent to the frontal thrust of the Uncompahgre Uplift, most proximal
mentation in the Salt Anticline Region, both the direction and rate of to the sediment source (Venus, 2013). Throughout most of the episode
sediment supply varied substantially. These changes are recorded by of accumulation of strata of the Cutler Group, the rate of delivery of sed-
significant differences in the style of fill of the mini-basins by fluvial iment significantly outpaced the rate of subsidence, and an over-filled
(see below). Mini-basin subsidence and sediment accumulation contin- basin state developed in which the accumulating fluvial system was
ued throughout Permian (Venus, 2013), Triassic (Matthews et al., 2007; able to rapidly fill available accommodation in the developing mini-
Banham and Mountney, 2013a,b), and locally into the Jurassic (Doelling, basins, sequentially from the most proximal Fisher Basin and latterly
1988; Bromley, 1991). Four fully developed salt-walled mini-basins into the Parriott and Big Bend basins (Kluth and Du Chene, 2009;
developed between the Uncompahgre Front and the Paradox fore- Trudgill, 2011). During the late Permian, the fluvial systems were epi-
bulge: the Fisher; Parriott; Big Bend (Matthews et al., 2007; Banham sodically able to deliver sediment beyond the distal limits of the Salt
and Mountney, 2013a,b); and Shafer basins (Venus, 2013). Additional Anticline Region, leading to progradation of the Organ Rock Formation
mini-basins not described here are present elsewhere in the region, (Cain and Mountney, 2009).
most notably along-strike from these primary basins (Trudgill, 2011). The styles of fluvial sediment fill within the subsiding mini-basins
document an architectural expression which records high rates of sedi-
4.1.1. The Cutler Group ment delivery that resulted in an over-filled basin state and the preser-
The Undifferentiated Cutler Group, of predominantly Permian age, vation of a sand- and gravel-prone fill-style (Venus, 2013). The total
accumulated in the mini-basins of the Salt Anticline Region during a thickness of accumulated Cutler Group sediments in each mini-basin
protracted episode characterised by relatively high rates of sediment de- systematically decreases from the more proximal Fisher Basin to the
livery. Sediment was principally sourced from the eroding Uncompahgre more distal Shafer Basin across the Salt Anticline Region (Paz et al.,
Uplift, a region of significant regional elevation on the northeast flank of 2009; Trudgill, 2011). Basin-fill styles demonstrate a progressive fining
the Paradox Basin, and delivered southwest-wards into the Salt Anticline trend from the proximal Fisher Basin into the Parriott, Big Bend and fi-
Region, perpendicular to the northwest–southeast trend of the evolving nally into the Shafer basins (Cain and Mountney, 2009, 2011; Venus,
salt walls (Werner, 1974; Mack and Rasmussen, 1984; Cain and 2013). This occurred, in part, due to systematic fining of the sediment
Mountney, 2009; Venus, 2013; Fig. 9b). The prevailing climate at this in transport with increasing distance down-steam and implies a de-
time was dominantly semi-arid (Werner, 1974; Cain and Mountney, crease in fluvial energy and transport capacity that is typical of alluvial
2009), though with evidence for more humid episodes at times (Cain mega-fans or distributive fluvial systems, due to radial spreading and
and Mountney, 2009; Soreghan et al., 2009; Cain and Mountney, transmissions loss (Fisher and Nichols, 2007; Hartley et al., 2010;
2011). Evidence for these climatic variations are recorded in part by Weissmann et al., 2010). Additionally, downstream fining of the calibre
the progradation and retrogradation of the Organ Rock Formation, a of accumulated sediment was also influenced by episodic salt-wall up-
~100 m-thick wedge of alluvial strata, which is the lateral equivalent of lift, which episodically resulted in repeated diversion of fluvial drainage
the Undivided Cutler Group and which interacts with an aeolian dune pathways to orientations parallel to the trend of the salt walls and the
ponding of flood-water and sediment behind growing salt-wall topog- the dominant south-westerly trend (Venus, 2013). Despite evidence
raphy (Venus, 2013). These “pond” elements are characterised by to show that salt-wall topography influenced fluvial drainage path-
non-channelised elements containing high proportions of mica, sug- ways, few salt clasts are preserved in the Cutler Group accumulations
gesting an episodic damming of flood-waters that resulted in the accu- that form the main fill of the mini-basins, and this demonstrates that
mulation of deposits from slow-flowing or standing water in areas the salt walls themselves were unlikely to have breached the land
directly upstream of uplifted salt-wall topography. surface.
The damming of floodwater required the emergence of localised re- Episodic resurgence of fluvial activity led to overtopping of salt walls
lief associated with growing salt-wall topography and such episodes re- and such events likely corresponded to more humid climatic episodes.
cord the episodic transition to a temporarily under-filled basin-fill style. For such events, palaeoflow indicators record transport directly across
Ponding of sediment behind salt walls likely corresponded to episodes buried salt walls suggesting the burial of any earlier surface topographic
of decreased fluvial activity at times of heightened climatic aridity: flu- expression. Localised reworking of fluvial strata from atop salt walls is
vial deposits indicative of such conditions are characterised by surfaces demonstrated by an increase in the occurrence of intraformational
with desiccation cracks in fine-grained strata and sedimentary struc- rip-up clasts in sediment accumulations directly downstream from the
tures such as climbing ripples and trough cross-bedding which record buried but slowly growing salt walls (Cain and Mountney, 2009;
palaeoflow indicators that are diverted or even reversed compared to Venus, 2013).
Fig. 9. Salt Anticline Region, southeastern Utah. (a) Overview of map and stratigraphy of the Paradox Basin. (b) General depositional model depicting the style of fluvial accumulation of the
Permian Cutler Group, where transverse delivery of sediment from the Uncompahgre Uplift into the foredeep of the Paradox Basin resulted in preferential filling of basins closest to the
Uncompahgre Uplift prior to overspill into more distal mini-basins. (c) General depositional model depicting the style of fluvial accumulation in the Lower Triassic Moenkopi Formation
and showing the development of adjacent sand-prone and sand-poor basins of similar ages. Modified after Banham and Mountney (2013b). (d) General depositional model depicting the
style of fluvial accumulation in the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation, where episodic uplift of salt walls influenced sediment accumulation across the region. In addition, climate variation
during accumulation influenced fluvial style and the resultant preserved stratigraphic expression (modified after Matthews et al., 2007).
b Regional overview: deposition of Cutler Group (Permian)

Uncompahgre Highlands
are the primary sediment source Salt walls act to divert Direction of Flow to
for the Cutler Group (not to scale) fluvial flow, but do not SW
generally act as barriers
to fluvial flow
Fisher Basin
Moab Valley
Parriott Ba
sin
salt-wall
Big Bend
Basin
dy
Stu
a of
Are
Proximal
Paradox Basin
.
Fm
Salt ra dox
Cutler Group sediment 10km Pa
accumulation is thicker
Pre
adjacent to the -sal
Uncompahgre Front t ba
sem Multi-lateral channel elements
t en within salt-walled mini-basin
Fluvial flow is perpendicular to Distal
the axis of the salt-walls Paradox Basin
c Basin scale overview: deposition of Moenkopi Formation (Triassic)

Direction of flow to
Sand-prone mini-basin (Fisher Basin)
Sand-prone basin is characterised by high ratio of sand to NW
argillacious material. These basins tend to have high Single-storey, Multi-lateral Channel Elements
proportions of channelised, and associated elements Laterally extensive, shallow channel-fill elements
amalgamated into a“ channel sheet”. These
Multi-Storey Multi-Lateral Channel Elements (F1) elements are generally isolated within heterolithic
Fisher basi
Laterally amalgamated channel elements n sheet-like elements
become vertically amalgamated as the fluvial Parriott ba
system aggrades si n
wall
salt
lley
r Va
Fishe
Partially-
confined over-spill elements
Form between channelised elements Heterolithic Sheet-like Elements
and salt walls which act to partially Laterally extensive and vertically
confine water, increasing water amalgamated fluvial elements can
velocity, allowing larger grained represent over 80% of the stratigrahic
material to be transported succession in some parts of sand-poor mini-basins
Sand-poor mini-basin (Parriott Basin)
Sand-poor basin is characterised by low
ratio of sand to argillacious material. The Chute and Pond Elements
fill of these basins tent to be filled with non-confined Minor elements are common in sand-poor mini-
elements and associated elements basins, representing convergence and disserpation of
non-confined flood waters, and the pooling of flood
water in the aftermath of flood events
d Local overview: Chinle Formation Deposition

Axial drainage of major Direction of Flow to
fluvial-channel belts to Palaeosols present on long-lived NW
accumulate sand-prone fairways topographic highs that flank salt walls Growing salt-wall topography
and above rising salt walls breached and eroded by
Localised depocentre above Intra-formational braided fluvial system
Transverse drainage of fluvial tributary unconformity of
deflating salt segment in systems acting to rework sediment local to regional extent Local angular unconformity
response to withdrawal derived from flanks of salt walls developed on flanks of growing
salt walls; halokinetic
Localised lake sequence boundary
development
in centre of
isolated
mini-basin Undifferentiated
subcrop
a b
Along-axis Growth of salt
salt movement Location of salt walls walls by passive
dictated by Rapid rates of accommodation No available accommodation
diapirism
creation in mini-basins and above growing salt walls;
Slumping of detritus basement faults Localised depocentres in
rim synclines preserves results in sediment bypass
down flanks of rim synclines and mini-basins fine-grained overbank elements and reworking
salt walls maintained by on-going salt withdrawal
Fig. 9 (continued).
4.1.2. The Moenkopi Formation elements are preserved throughout the stratigraphic succession, espe-
The resumption of fluvial accumulation in the Salt Anticline Region of cially in the upper part where the in-fill of a pronounced rim-syncline
the Paradox Basin in the early Triassic coincided with a significant change is dominated by amalgamated channel-fill elements, indicating prefer-
in the climatic and drainage regime of the region. Sediment accumulation ential concentration of drainage pathways in this topographic low.
during this period occurred under the influence of an arid to hyper-arid
regime (Blakey and Ranney, 2008; Banham and Mountney, 2013b). 4.1.3. The Chinle Formation
Palaeodrainage from the Uncompahgre Highlands had diminished signif- By onset of accumulation of the Chinle Formation, the Fisher and
icantly by the onset of deposition of the Moenkopi Formation, and instead Parriott Basins had all but effectively grounded, allowing only very lim-
a new dominant drainage pathway had become established that was ited additional accumulation in these basins. The palaeodrainage direc-
sourced in the San Luis and Defiant Upwarp region to the southwest tion remained axial to the salt walls, towards the northwest. The final
(Fig. 9c) and which drained north-westwards through the Salt Anticline burial of the remnants of the Uncompahgre Uplift signified a final cessa-
Region (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey, 1974; Banham and Mountney, tion of sediment derived from the northeast (Trudgill, 2011). Climate
2013b). Sediment was delivered axially into what was by then a series during the accumulation of the Chinle Formation changed from humid
of well-developed northwest–southeast trending mini-basins: the Fisher, to semi-arid (Prochnow et al., 2006; Fig. 9d). This shift in climate is
Parriott and Big Bend Basins, each of which was apparently isolated from recorded by a change in fluvial style: architectural elements in the
its neighbouring basins in terms of drainage pathways. lower part of the formation are characterised by thick and well-devel-
Subsidence rates between the basins varied throughout accumula- oped palaeosols that are intercalated with thick channel-fill elements,
tion of the Moenkopi Formation, in part due to the inheritance of the internal fill of which is dominated by asymptotic-based cross-strat-
basin-fill geometries from the previously accumulated deposits of the ified sets indicative of accumulation of a coarse-grained meandering
Cutler Group. These inherited basin-fill geometries, where the basin-fill river system in which lateral accretion processes dominated (Hazel,
thicknesses varied both within and between basins, were important in 1994); the upper part of the formation, records laminated sand sheet el-
controlling the style, timing and rate of mini-basin subsidence through- ements and sandy bedforms containing crudely-bedded conglomerate
out the accumulation of the Moenkopi Formation. The basin-fill thick- and coarse-grained sandstone trough cross-stratified sets and scour
ness was thinnest adjacent to the Uncompahgre Uplift (where Cutler fills, indicative of the accumulation of a gravelly low-sinuosity fluvial
Group sediments were preferentially deposited in the earlier phase of system (Hazel, 1994).
basin fill) and thickened towards more central parts of the Paradox Preferential accumulation of fluvial deposits of the Cutler Group and
Basin (Banham and Mountney, 2013a). Variable rates of both subsidence Moenkopi Formation in the basins closest to the Uncompahgre Uplift
and sediment supply resulted in the accumulation of both sand-prone limited the remnant basin-fill potential of the Fisher and Parriott Basins,
(filled) and sand-poor (under-filled) basin-fill styles in neighbouring ba- which by the Late Triassic had effectively grounded. However, in the Big
sins for the same stratigraphic levels. The Fisher Basin, which had little Bend Basin, lower rates of subsidence throughout evolution of this
remaining remnant basin-fill potential (i.e., available accommodation) basin, and the retention of residual salt beneath this basin, allowed con-
due to its imminent grounding by the onset of the early Triassic, experi- tinued localised subsidence into the Late Triassic. This is reflected by
enced low rates of subsidence (Banham and Mountney, 2013a). This, variations in thickness in units of the lower part of the Chinle Formation,
coupled with high rates of sediment delivery (both from the San-Luis which vary from b10 m thick in the northern-most part of the Paradox
Uplift region and from the remnant Uncompahgre Highlands as a sec- Basin, to over 50 m thick in localised depocentres, such as parts of the
ondary source), resulted in the accumulation of a sand-prone basin-fill Big Bend Basin, and near the Cane Creek Anticline of the Shafer Basin
style, apparently early in the history of accumulation of the Moenkopi to the southwest of the town of Moab (Matthews et al., 2007; Fig. 9d).
Formation. As the basins evolved during the early Triassic, the rate of These localised depocentres record the final phases of subsidence asso-
sediment delivery to the Fisher Basin progressively diminished, in part ciated with salt displacement from beneath mini-basins where axial
due to the final denudation of the Uncompahgre Uplift, resulting in the variations of salt thickness or rate of salt flow resulted in localised
basin-fill style becoming progressively less sand-prone upwards. grounding relatively late in the history of evolution of the Salt Anticline
In the adjacent Parriott Basin, the basin-fill potential varied spatially, Region and the concomitant accumulation of a thicker succession.
due to the variable thickness of the inherited basin-fill: basin-fill poten- In addition to variations in preserved thickness, angular discor-
tial was least on the side of the basin closest to the Uncompahgre Front dances between the Chinle and Moenkopi formations, together with
where a thick succession of Cutler Group sediments had accumulated intraformational unconformities within the Chinle Formation, indicate
and greatest on the distal margin of the basin. This resulted in preferen- ongoing tilting of strata by halokinesis in some parts of the succession
tial subsidence on the distal margin of the Parriott Basin, culminating in (Matthews et al., 2007). Areas of relatively high rates of subsidence in
the formation of a rim-syncline in the latter stages of the accumulation basin centres were typically poorly drained, resulting in accumulation
of the Moenkopi Formation. This rim-syncline, which formed a locus of of lacustrine elements, especially during the lower part of the Chinle
subsidence and which apparently formed a topographic low, acted as a Formation (Matthews et al., 2007). Multi-storey channel elements and
preferential drainage corridor, leading to the accumulation of stacked palaeosols accumulated towards the basin margins during episodes of
fluvial channel-fill elements during the final phases. During the accu- halokinetic quiescence, with higher proportions of channel elements
mulation of the middle and upper parts of the Moenkopi Formation, and palaeosol maturity apparently increasing with the duration of qui-
high rates of salt-wall uplift, combined with an increase in climatic arid- escence (Prochnow et al., 2006; Matthews et al., 2007). In the upper
ity, resulted in a relative reduction in the rate sediment supply (Banham part of the Chinle Formation, an increase in aridity is recorded by a
and Mountney, 2013a) which allowed the Castle Valley Salt Wall, sepa- change from a meandering to a braided system (Hazel, 1994). During
rating the Parriott and Big Bend basins, to breach the land-surface this episode palaeodrainage was oblique to salt-wall axes; aggradation
(Lawton and Buck, 2006). Detritus derived from surface exposure of of the basin fill to the level where available accommodation was filled
this salt wall was subsequently reworked into discrete gypsum-clast- temporarily allowed cross-salt-wall drainage, before renewed uplift of
bearing units, which are preserved in the succession around the flanks the salt walls resulted in deflection of the drainage pathways parallel
of the Castle Valley salt wall, in both the Parriott and Big Bend basins. to salt walls (Matthews et al., 2007).
The Big Bend Basin, which occupied a position further from the
Uncompahgre Uplift, had the greatest basin-fill potential at the onset 4.2. Pre-Caspian Basin
of the accumulation of the Moenkopi Formation and the rate of sedi-
ment supply to this basin is interpreted to have been slightly higher In the salt-walled mini-basins of the Pre-Caspian salt tectonic prov-
than that to the Parriott Basin because a greater proportion of channel ince, Pre-Caspian Basin developed as a rift basin during the Devonian
(Pairazian, 1999; Barde et al., 2002a; Fig. 10a). Throughout the Carbon- up to 4500 m salt during the Kungurian to Kazanian (Permian) (Gralla
iferous, approximately 2000 m of carbonate strata recording reef devel- and Marsky, 2000; Barde et al., 2002a). Onset of halokinesis was linked
opment accumulated in the basin at a time when it was largely starved to further uplift of the Urals, either by lateral shortening and orogenic
of clastic sediment input (Schamel et al., 1995). This episode of carbon- collapse (Ings and Beaumont, 2010; Newell et al., 2012) or by sediment
ate accumulation ceased when the Pre-Caspian Basin became partially loading induced by accumulation of clastic sediments derived from the
isolated from the regional sea due to uplift of the developing Ural Moun- Urals. The orientation of the developing salt walls was controlled either
tains to the east during the Late Carboniferous (Barde et al., 2002a; by pre-existing basement trends inherited from the original onset of the
Volozh et al., 2003). This restriction of marine water circulation resulted Pre-Caspian Basin or from the ensuing uplift of the Urals (Barde et al.,
in repeated desiccation of the basin, culminating in the accumulation of 2002a; Brown et al., 2004). These events resulted in the development
a Russia
42° 46° 47 50° 52 54°
ORENBURG
58
Chronostratigraphy Lithology Thickness
RUSSIA
Volga
PC E Saratov (m)
IN
Kazakhstan Ural'sk
basin CL
I PLIO. & QUATERNARY 100
A NT
JUR. CRETACEOUS TERT.

Ural
China
R AL 50° 1000 - 2000
50° USea
Caspian
Don
U 300 - 700
Syn-halokinesis
Volgograd L 40 - 2000
ARALSOR
MONOCLINE U
M 100 - 600
48° 48°
U 200 - 600
TRIASSIC
M 20 - 1300
KA
RP
IN
S KI L 200 - 500
Y
FO
LD CASPIAN Tatarian
Upper
BA
46° ED ARAL 200 - 2000

ZO SEA Kazanian
PERMIAN
NE SEA 46° Ufimian
SALT
100 km
Kungurian
Lower
Legend Transform faults Sed. supply direction 400 - 6000
Outline of Main structural Ural foldbelt
Artinskian
basin elements Sakmarian
20 km Asselian
Peripheral Central spreading Temir salt wall trends
sub-basin zone
b Pre-Caspian Basin: overview

Braided fluvial system
Braided fluvial system with associated over- Aeolian dune field
incising through salt wall bank & crevasse-splay preserved in isolated
elements mini-basin
Fan-delta prograding
into endorheic lake
Salt glacier formed

where salt wall
Network of salt walls breached land-
formed along multiple surface; isolated
pre-existing basement mini-basin dominated
trends by evaporitic
processes
Fig. 10. Pre-Caspian Basin, Kazakhstan. (a) Overview map and stratigraphic column (after Barde et al., 2002a,b). (b) General depositional model depicting fluvial sediment accumulation in
a series of polygonal salt-walled mini-basins in the Pre-Caspian Basin. Basin-fill style is highly variable: drainage pathways can become entrenched in some mini-basins, thereby
preventing sediment delivery into neighbouring basins. Sediment-starved basins tend to be characterised by evaporitic or lacustrine sedimentation. Modified after Barde et al. (2002b).
of complex basement trends, which are expressed by the distribution of these evaporite layers in the Central Graben region exceeds 1.5 km
salt-wall geometries: linear salt walls with a north–south trend typical- (Stewart and Clarke, 1999; Glennie et al., 2003; Fig. 11a). Initiation of
ly developed in the east and these follow basement faults sympathetic halokinesis occurred during the Early Triassic in response to differential
to the trend of the Urals, in the rest of the Pre-Caspian Basin, basement loading of the salt by prograding clastic fluvial wedges from the north
faults are typically oriented northeast–southwest and southeast–north- and by thin-skinned extension causing reactive diapirism (Stewart
west, having been generated during the initial evolution of the basin and Clarke, 1999). It is likely that basement faults exerted a fundamen-
(Barde et al., 2002a). These competing basement trends resulted in tal control on the orientation and distribution of salt walls, which follow
the generation of salt walls with polygonal geometries throughout the the primary NNW–SSE-oriented fault trends of the Central Graben
rest of the basin (Barde et al., 2002a; Volozh et al., 2003). (Hodgson et al., 1992; Peacock, 2004; Fig. 11a). The duration of
Sediment accumulation within the mini-basins occurred from the halokinesis in the Central Graben was dictated by the thickness of salt
Late Permian through to the present, with rates of halokinesis having beneath the mini-basins, with basins developed over palaeo-highs
decreased significantly since the Triassic. Up to 6 km of sediment have where the salt was thinner, typically grounding on the pre-salt base-
accumulated in the western mini-basins (Barde et al., 2002a,b; Newell ment during the Early- to Middle-Triassic, and salt basins formed over
et al., 2012). Most subsurface studies have focused on the Permian thicker successions of salt grounding in the late Triassic or Jurassic
and Triassic parts of the basin fill since these host significant hydrocar- (Smith et al., 1993). In some instances, salt walls began to collapse
bon plays (Barde et al., 2002a; O'Hearn et al., 2003; Volozh et al., 2003); due to secondary axial migration away from the wall or in response to
more recently, field-based studies have additionally been undertaken dissolution after grounding of the adjacent mini-basins. These processes
where outcrop allows (Newell et al., 2012). led to the development of secondary mini-basins over the original salt-
Sediment was delivered into the Pre-Caspian Basin by fluvial systems wall crests (Smith et al., 1993).
emanating from the Ural Mountains (Newell et al., 2012) that drained The Triassic fill of the Central Graben consists of two main forma-
transverse to the north–south trend of the linear mini-basins in the east- tions: the Lower Triassic Smith Bank Formation, which is of fluvio-lacus-
ern part of the region. Climate during the Tatarian (Upper Permian) was trine origin (Smith et al., 1993; Goldsmith et al., 2003); and the Middle-
semi-arid to sub-humid, whereas Triassic strata accumulated under a to Upper-Triassic Skagerrak Formation, which is divided into the Judy,
more arid climatic regime (Newell et al., 1999). The polygonal salt Joanne, and Josephine sandstone members and the Julius, Jonathan
walls in much of the basin exerted a significant control on fluvial path- and Joshua mudstone members (Goldsmith et al., 1995; Fig. 11a). Prov-
ways and sediment distribution, resulting in the evolution of multiple enance of the lower parts of the Skagerrak Formation demonstrates a
of sedimentary environments within adjacent basins (Fig. 10b). Where sediment source almost exclusively from the Shetland Platform, with
fluvial systems incised into uplifting salt walls and maintained their sediments in the upper parts of the formation having been sourced
drainage pathways, braided river and associated facies dominated the from both Scotland and Fennoscandia (Mange-Rajetzkey, 1995).
basin fill (Barde et al., 2002b). Where mini-basins became endorheic, This temporal change in sediment provenance could have arisen in re-
due to uplift of a salt wall on the downstream margin of the basin, sponse to a change in climate, a change in tectonic regime on the
intra-basin lakes developed, with the fluvial systems terminating as la- Fennoscandian margin, or a change in rate of halokinesis that could
custrine fan-deltas (cf., Nichols and Fisher, 2007). This is expressed as a have resulted in a change of configuration of sediment supply (cf.,
basin-fill style that is sand-prone at its upstream margin but which is Moenkopi Formation). The Judy and Joanne sandstone members form
dominated by heterolithic siltstone, mudstone and potentially lacustrine two of the main hydrocarbon plays of the Triassic syn-halokinetic se-
organic-rich argillaceous strata in its central part. Where mini-basins quence in the Central Graben of the North Sea (Goldsmith et al., 1995;
remained isolated due to diversion of drainage pathways or high rates McKie, 2011).
of salt-wall uplift driven by displacement of salt from beneath adjacent The Judy Sandstone Member is interpreted to be a dryland terminal
basins, the resulting accumulation is dominated by a sediment-starved fluvial system, characterised by: stacked, low-sinuosity, high width-
basin-fill style characterised by the accumulation of continental evapo- depth ratio channel-fill elements; terminal splay and flood-out ele-
rites. Locally, diapir-derived detritus from salt-glaciers (salt-wall segments; and ephemeral playa lake elements (McKie et al., 2010; McKie,
ments that breached the ground surface before undergoing gravity 2011). Throughout the Middle- to Late-Triassic, sediment was delivered
collapse) and conglomerate horizons (reworked from clastic material axially in an orientation parallel to the uplifted salt walls, with surface
forming the flank of the uplifting salt wall) contributed to coarse detritus topography above growing salt walls apparently causing neighbouring
filling these basins (cf., Lawton and Buck, 2006; Buck et al., 2010). mini-basins to develop in isolation. This resulted in contrasting styles
Basin-fill style between the mini-basins varies dramatically, as of basin fill between adjacent mini-basins (Hodgson et al., 1992;
recorded by subsurface well-log data (Barde et al., 2002b). This is a func- Smith et al., 1993; Fig. 11b). Temporary closure of basins resulted in
tion of several factors: inheritance and capture of pre-existing drainage the accumulation of ephemeral lakes or salt pans, with much of the fill
pathways as mini-basins developed; maintenance of salt-wall height at characterised by argillaceous heterolithic facies, the total thickness of
a rate of uplift that preserved a long-lived topographic expression capa- which was partly dependent on the duration of isolation. During these
ble of effectively partitioning neighbouring mini-basins and localised episodes of drainage diversion, fluvial pathways were apparently con-
differences in the rate of sediment delivery and accumulation to fill centrated preferentially along the axes of some basins, resulting in the
available accommodation in adjacent mini-basins. Presently, there is a coeval development of sand-prone basin fill styles in certain mini-
lack of detailed sedimentological description for the basin-fill styles of basins, yet notably sand-poor fill-styles in neighbouring mini-basins.
the mini-basins in the Pre-Caspian Basin.
4.4. La Popa Basin
4.3. North Sea — J Block/Skagerrak Formation
La Popa Basin, northern Mexico, developed during the Late Jurassic
During the Middle Permian, ongoing subsidence of the northern as a pull-apart basin associated with movement on the Coahuila-Ta-
Rotliegend Basin (located in the subsurface beneath the present-day maulipas transform and roll-back and eventual foundering of the
North Sea) allowed the Zechstein Sea to flood into the basin from the Mezcalera Plate (Dickinson and Lawton, 2001; Andrie et al., 2012), in
north via a sill or narrow inlet (Ziegler, 1975). Repeated closure of this which the Minas Viejas evaporite accumulated (Rowan et al., 2012;
inlet, coupled with prevailing arid conditions and high evaporation Fig. 12a). The onset of halokinesis occurred during the Late Jurassic,
rates, led to restricted recharge of the fluids circulating in the basin though the initiation mechanism remains unresolved, with (i) exten-
and culminated in accumulation of a series of thick evaporate sequences sion, thermal and loading subsidence that caused tilting, or (ii) differen-
of the Zechstein Group (Smith and Taylor, 1992). The total thickness of tial loading by sediments derived from the Coahuila Platform each
a Areas of Timescale Central Graben

Sandstone
Joshua
Jurassic extension Mudstone
Rhaetian Member Siltstone/claystone
Areas of
Triassic extension Salt
Josephine
Faults Sandstone V
V
Anhydrite
Upper Triassic
Member
Sed. Delivery Dir. Norian Carbonate
Jonathan
West Mudstone
Member
Shetland
Basin
a be n
Carnian
Skagerrak Formation
g Gr
Heron Group
Joanne
Moray Firth
V i ki n
Sandstone
Basins Member
Middle Triassic
Ladinian
Julius
Mudstone
Member
Eg Anisian
ers Judy
und Sandstone
Basi
Cen
Gr n Member
t ra
ab
Lower Triassic
l
en
Olenekian
Bunter
Smith Bank
Formation
Sandstone
Induan
Shearwater
VV
Changh-
Salt Fm
singian Turbot
Sole Pit Anhydrite
Zechstein
Cheshire
Permian
Basin Basin V Fm
VV
Wuchia- V V V V
pingian Innes Mbr

V
Halibut Fm
V V V
ArgyllM br
Kupferschiefer Fm
b Central Graben, North Sea: overview

Middle Triassic Mini-basin synform becomes
Main conduit of filled with sediment as
clastic transport initially thin salt allows
pods to ground. Salt
through linked mini-basin
walls are no longer fed
synform system
Mini-basin not grounded;

this provides permanent
synform
Synform temporarily
isolated; provides site
for ephemeral lake development
Upper Triassic Salt-wall collapse producing
synform over pre-existing
Reworking of antiform
Middle Triassic
sand
Subsidence of mini-basin
into thick salt continues to
concentrate clastic conduit
until basin grounds
Salt withdrawal produces Grounded mini-basin becomes
synform that preserves Upper antiform as adjacent
Triassic sand-prone strata salt wall collapses
Middle and Upper Triassic
Over-bank Channel
Zechstein Salt Lower Triassic Mudstone
elements elements
Fig. 11. Central Graben, North Sea. (a) Overview map of Central Graben & stratigraphic column (Modified after Goldsmith et al., 1995; Glennie et al., 2003; Goldsmith et al., 2003).
(b) General depositional model depicting fluvial sediment accumulation during the Middle and Late Triassic in the Central Graben of the North Sea. Drainage pathways may bifurcate
or become isolated as a result of salt-wall uplift, which controls the developing stratigraphic succession. Differential subsidence rates may lead to the development of lacustrine intervals
within the succession.
Modified after Hodgson et al. (1992).
having been proposed as the likely cause (Rowan et al., 2012). Sediment channel elements indicate that drainage pathways were confined to
accumulation continued in La Popa Basin from the Late Jurassic to the the developing rim syncline adjacent to the salt wall at this time. During
Eocene, with the Cretaceous and Palaeocene stratigraphy being domi- accumulation of Upper Carroza Member, deposition of channel ele-
nated by marine sedimentation (Lawton et al., 2001). The Hidalgoan ments became restricted to the immediate flank of the salt wall, as con-
Orogeny (Cretaceous–Palaeogene) generated the Sierra Madre Fold- trolled by the migrating axis of the Carroza Syncline. The progressive
Thrust belt, which was the principal source region of sediment to the migration of the Carroza syncline axis and associated development
La Popa Basin to the south (Rowan et al., 2012). The fluvial Carroza and migration of a rim-syncline controlled the locus of drainage and
Formation accumulated during the late Eocene at the end of a major the progressive shift of the accumulation of fluvial channel elements
marine regression (Andrie et al., 2012) and was later deformed during towards the flank of La Popa salt wall over time.
formation of the Carroza syncline by continued salt displacement and
crustal shortening by the Hidalgoan Orogenic event (Rowan et al., 5. Discussion
2012).
The distribution of fluvial elements in the Carroza Formation dem- The interplay between the rate of mini-basin subsidence and the
onstrates how halokinetic processes can control the position of drainage rate of sediment accumulation, including variation in these over space
pathways adjacent to uplifting salt walls, and study of these has led to and time, is a key control on the development of fluvial systems and
the development of models with which to predict the distribution of their preserved successions in salt-walled mini-basins. Mini-basin sub-
sand bodies and the reservoir potential (Andrie et al., 2012; Fig. 12b). sidence rates are determined by the rate of underlying salt evacuation,
The Lower Member of the Carroza Formation is characterised by wide which will vary over time in response to changes of sediment loading
but isolated channel-fill complexes, with varying palaeocurrents and proximity to grounding on the pre-salt basement, typically
(Andrie et al., 2012). Sedimentation rates were relatively high com- resulting in a non-linear subsidence history. Rates of sediment delivery,
pared to subsidence rates during initial phase of deposition, allowing which are themselves partly controlled by external factors such as cli-
for unconfined migration of the fluvial system across the basin. During mate and source area, dictate sediment type, composition, availability
accumulation of the Middle Carroza Member, fluvial elements began and delivery rate. Dominant drainage pathway and the nature of any
preferentially stacking around the position of the Carroza syncline sediment bypassing that may occur (itself controlled by subsidence
hinge, which by this time had migrated towards the flank of La Popa rates) can result in significant variations in the style of sediment
salt wall. Palaeodrainage direction became preferentially aligned paral- delivery and rate of accumulation between and within mini-basins.
lel to this northwest–southeast trending salt wall, indicating that suffi- Fig. 13 demonstrates how the interplay between sediment supply rate
cient topography had been generated to capture drainage pathways. and subsidence rate can control basin-fill style.
The topographic expression eventually became sufficient to trigger In cases where rates of sediment delivery and subsidence are
debris flows from salt-wall flanks. Alignment and stacking of fluvial balanced, avulsion coupled with lateral migration of channels tends to
Carroza
102° 100°
Eocene
MEXICO Viento
TEXAS
Adjuntas
Paleoc.
28°
Co Sabinas Potrerillos
ah
u
Be ila
lt Fol
Monclova d
Parras
Late
Co
ahu
ila
Pla 26°
tfor
m La Popa Basin
a Torreon Pa
El Toro
rras B Monterrey
asin Indidura
Cretaceous
Saltillo
El Toro
Sier
Mexico Orient ra Madre
al mou
ntains
Sediment supply pathway
Cupido
Early
La Popa lentil Fm. Potrerillos Fm. San Jose Lentil
Minas Viejas Fm. Viento Fm.

San Marcos
Upper Carroza Fm.
Ca
N rro
za
Sy
Taraises
Middle Carroza Fm. nc

lin
e
Jurassic
Lower Carroza Fm. La Casita

Late
1 km
Minas Viejas
Fig. 12. La Popa Basin, Mexico. (a) Overview maps of La Popa Basin and stratigraphic column (after Dickinson and Lawton, 2001; Andrie et al., 2012). For more accurate maps, see Andrie
et al. (2012). (b) General depositional model depicting fluvial sediment accumulation in the Carroza Formation, La Popa Basin, Mexico. Development of a rim-syncline adjacent to La Popa
salt wall controlled the location of drainage pathways throughout the latter stages of deposition of the Carroza Formation. Modified after Andrie et al. (2012).
b La Popa Basin: Carroza Fm. evolution dominated by evaporitic processes and salt flats might form (Goodall
et al., 2000), whereas thick palaeosols and possibly coal swamps may
develop in more humid settings. Eventual overtopping of salt walls by
Lower Carroza fluvial systems will result in incision and diversion of drainage into ad-
Syncline hinge
Splay jacent under-filled mini-basins; such events may either temporarily or
permanently change the fill-style of the neighbouring basin.
Lowe 5.1. Evolution of fluvial systems in salt-walled mini-basins

r Carr
oza
~900 Consideration of various case-studies has allowed for a series of ge-

Vi e
nto m neric evolutionary models to be proposed for both linear and polygonal
For
mat
io n La Popa salt-walled mini-basins, and these depict the expected sequence of
Salt Wall basin-scale sedimentary architectures (Figs. 14, 15).
5.1.1. Linear basins

Initiation of salt-walled mini-basin growth (Fig. 14a) triggered by
Middle Carroza Syncline hinge sediment loading in combination with a tectonic mechanism results in
initial diversion of fluvial systems in cases where they are unable to
respond sufficiently quickly to downcut through growing salt highs.
Splay
Mini-basins closest to the sediment source will tend to fill quicker and
Midd
le Ca therefore tend to be sand- or gravel-prone; conversely, more distal
L. Ca rro
rroza za mini-basins may develop relatively sand-poor basin-fill styles.
Rapid subsidence may occur due to a rapid influx of sediment, which
~250 will act to load the salt beneath the developing basin (Fig. 14b). A reduc-
m
La Popa tion in the rate of sediment supply, for example due to a change to a
Salt Wall Debris
flow more arid climatic regime, may contribute to fluvial diversion during
episodes when the rate of sediment delivery is outpaced by subsidence
and salt wall uplift. Mini-basins may become isolated for short episodes,
developing under-filled basin segments, or for longer episodes where
Upper Carroza Syncline hinge
the style of basin infill may record isolation (e.g., evaporite basins).
The development of turtle-back structures and rim synclines may act
Splay
to partition drainage pathways within a single mini-basin.
Uppe
r Car Temporary sediment supply shutdown driven by a region-wide shift in
Midd roza
le Ca climatic regime may significantly reduce fluvial activity resulting in re-
rroza
duced sediment accumulation rates in all mini-basins across a province
(Fig. 14c). Such a climate change may also coincide with a change of
~15 La Popa sediment source region. Such a change may account for the develop-
0m
Salt Wall ment of adjacent sand-prone and sand-poor basins. When salt wall up-
lift rates outpace sediment accumulation, salt walls may breach the land
surface, creating a source of detritus that may be locally reworked.
Basin grounding will eventually occur once subsiding mini-basins
Fig. 12 (continued). have effectively displaced the underlying salt, and this will prevent fur-
ther subsidence (Fig. 14c). Due to the differential subsidence history of
adjacent mini-basins or the onset of salt-wall collapse, subsidence
may continue locally and may lead to the development of secondary
rework and remove the majority of fine-grained overbank elements, basin atop collapsing salt walls. A shift to more humid conditions can re-
resulting in high proportions of sand-prone channel-fill elements. sult in the development of meandering fluvial systems, with ephemeral
Where the rate of subsidence outpaces sediment delivery, the fluvial or perennial lakes developing in some basins.
system will aggrade to preserve near-complete fluvial fining-upward
cycles, and avulsion and lateral migration are less likely to rework or re- 5.1.2. Polygonal basins
move these overbank elements. Such conditions result in sandy chan- Initiation of polygonal salt walls in response to multiple basement
nel-fill elements becoming vertically isolated from each other. Such a trends can lead to the development of blind or closed (i.e., isolated)
situation may culminate in the formation of perennial lakes, which mini-basins, with fluvial systems becoming confined to a series of
can lead to accumulation of thick lacustrine successions. Conversely, adjacent basins (Fig. 15a). Blind basins can be characterised by lacus-
where the rate of sediment delivery significantly outpaces the rate of trine elements with deltas developing on lake margins.
subsidence, lack of available accommodation means that deposited stra- Rapid subsidence and ensuing salt-wall uplift can disrupt drainage
ta are prone to reworking, thereby preserving only the lowermost parts through the region, with previously open basins becoming closed or
of fluvial depositional cycles, such as pebbly basal lags. Many such de- blind (Fig. 15b). Some isolated basins can become dominated by evapo-
posits have poor reservoir potential. Where rates of sediment delivery ritic or aeolian processes, especially those distal to sediment source area
greatly exceed rates of subsidence, fluvial systems can potentially over- in arid settings.
spill confining salt walls, resulting in drainage diversion into adjacent Drainage diversion may occur when sediment accumulation in a
basins, especially where salt walls are arranged in polygonal patterns. closed basin out-strips subsidence rates, allowing the fluvial system to
Alternatively, where growing salt walls generate a long-lived surface breach a salt wall and incise a new drainage pathway into a neigh-
expression, fluvial systems may become confined within a single bouring basin (Fig. 15c).
mini-basin, leaving adjacent basins isolated from the primary source Onset of basin grounding will tend to occur first in those mini-basins
of sediment input. These isolated mini-basins can potentially become that experienced high rates of sediment delivery and therefore rapid
increasing rates of sediment supply

result in an increased chance of channel development of
fine-grained interconnectivity a deep basin;
lacustrine well connected
or marine channels; rare
deposits; pebble lags &
act as overbank
barrier to strata; best
channels
annels are fluid flow reservoir
orly inter-
poorly potential
nnected
connected
F F G
channels isolated
ted preservation of channels elements are well sediment supply combined
high rate of sedime
in overbank strata;
rata; significant connected and preferentially with moderate rate of subsidence
generally poor proportions of preserve sandy bedforms; results in a basin fifill dominated base
connectivity good reservoir
Subsidence Rate
overbank material elements: pebble lags

channel base elem
F G P
basin is shallow, preferential preservation
high rate of sedime
sediment supply combined
so only thin of basal channel lags,
with low rate of sub
subsidence rate
channels are well
ell successions are generally poor
overfilled basin
generates an overfi
connected preserved reservoir potential
G P P
Sediment Supply Rate

Matrix displays likely basin-fill architectures
very poorly sorted; clay-pebble associated with various rates of sediment
supply and subsidence.
moderately to well sorted; sand
poor to moderately sorted; clay-silt Overfilled basins tend to occur when rates
of sedimentation outpace rates of
moderately sorted; silt-fine sand subsidence
Underfilled basins tend to occur when rates

G good reservoir potential of subsidence outpace rates of sediment
supply and the available accommodation
F fair reservoir potential space remains partly unfilled.
P poor reservoir potential Filled Basins occur when the rates of
sediment supply and subsidence are
balanced.
Fig. 13. Conceptual model demonstrating how the interplay between rates of subsidence and sediment supply acts to control the developing basin-fill style. Balanced rates of subsidence
and sediment supply generate filled (sand-prone) basins; in cases where the rate of subsidence outpaces the rate of sediment supply, under-filled basins with argillaceous fills tend to
develop and available accommodation may remain partially unfilled; in cases where the rate of sediment supply outpaces the rate of subsidence, over-filled basins with gravel-prone
fills tend to develop and accommodation is filled leading to downstream bypassing of excess sediment.
subsidence (Fig. 15d). Partial collapse of certain salt walls in the 5.2. Gaps in understanding
aftermath of grounding will tend to promote unrestricted inter-basin
drainage, while other salt walls may continue to grow and therefore Despite having been the subject of numerous studies since the early
prevent sediment delivery to adjacent basins. Heel–toe geometries 1990s (e.g., Bromley, 1991), there remain significant gaps in our under-
with intraformational unconformities may develop where subsidence standing of the mechanisms governing the accumulation of fluvial stra-
switches from one side of a single mini-basin to the other. tigraphy in salt-walled mini-basins. Of the 120 evaporite provinces
a
(a) Linear basin evolution:
evolution: initiation
initiation
Subsidence: low, accelerating
Sediment supply: moderate
Current incision point
Isolated basin: maintained by down- Palaeodrainage
independent sediment Fluvial channels diverted cutting channels. transverse to
supply by final salt wall
salt walls
Fluvial encroachment on to
and reworking of salt wall
Decreasing
salt thickness Relict incision
point: fluvial system
Anisotropy in salt can diverted after channel
result in local variations failed to incise faster
in salt-flow rates Temporary ponding than uplift
of water near Bas Differential loading of salt by
eme
Differential flow rates incision point nt sediments delivered by transverse
in salt can create relative draining fluvial system initiated
Salt-wall geometry reflects Mini-basins closest to halokinesis; basins closest to
highs axially within basin sediment source fill
sub-salt basement trends site of sediment source will
more quickly than
form and fill first
those in more distal locations
(b)
b Linear basin evolution:
evolution: rapid
rapid subsidence
subsidence
Subsidence: high Turtle-back ridge Rapid uplift of salt-wall
Sediment supply: high isolates sand-prone isolates successive
rim-synclines Sediment supplies basins from main Palaeodrainage
Sediment-starved basin: direction dependent
sediment source
evaporitic processes dominate from secondary on basin
deposition source area
Localised salt-wall
surface breach
Ponding of
Rim-synclines in single sediment adjacent
basin can become isolated, to uplifted salt wall in
or interlinked, depending on developing rim-synclines
parameters governing connectivity
Differential subsidence rates
Bas result in lake formation
eme
Differential flow rates Uplifted salt walls nt
in salt can create relative may undergo slumping Rapid delivery of sediment into
lows axially within basin, due to undermining or basin closest to primary sediment
where lacustrine elements slope instability Halokinetic sequence source results in aggradation and
may develop boundary temporary over-filling of the basin
Fig. 14. Models depicting the evolution of linear salt-walled mini-basins. See text for further explanation.
c Linear basin evolution: temporary sediment supply shutdown

Subsidence: moderate
Sediment supply: low Salt glaciers form Sheet-like elements
where salt wall deposited by non-
Salt pans form in basins Palaeodrainage
breaches surface confined flows
with little fluvial activity direction change
dominate basin fill Isolated single-storey reflects switch of
channel-belt element source region
Salt wall breaches
surface along much
of its
length
Diapir-derived
detritus reworked to form Salt pans
discreet gypsum-clast horizons may be eroded by
subsequent fluvial activity
Dissolution of salt can
lead to enhanced rates Bas Reduced subsidence rates
of subsidence and modify eme prevent salt wall breaching
nt
drainage patterns (e.g Flood-out and land surface: absence of
remove turtle-backs) reconvergence reworked gypsum
of flood water Subsidence rate reduced clasts in areas
as time of salt-weld formation adjacent to salt wall
approaches
d Linear basin evolution: basin grounding

Subsidence: low/negligable
Sediment supply: moderate Sheet-like elements
Distal basin receives high deposited by non- Palaeodrainage
Ongoing subsidence and
rate of sediment supply due to confined flows direction
sediment accumulation
drainage diversion dominate basin fill
in distal basins Switch to meandering fluvial
Distal salt wall still acting as a style reflects switch to
barrier to drainage humid climate
Asymmetric
basin subsidence: Some highs
one side grounds still present along
before the other length of salt wall;
may act to divert drainage
Halokinetic sequence
boundaries reflect Bas
eme Salt wall collapsing at some
episodic subsidence nt
Salt-wall uplift ceased, locations along its axis,
Lake formed in area forming secondary mini-basins
of ongoing subsidence; allowing inter-basin
migration Mini-basin grounded on
palaeosols forming in pre-salt strata, forming
humid climate a salt weld
Fig. 14 (continued).
a Polygonal basin evolution: initiation

Subsidence: low, accelerating
Sediment supply: moderate Salt-wall development
retarded by salt Pre-existing drainage
Salt walls parallel to subsurface salt dissolution pathways down-cut in Palaeodrainage
palaeoflow direction can response to salt-wall growth direction
prevent communication
between neighbouring axial
drainage pathways
Mini-basins
subside and
Temporary ponding accumulate sediment
adjacent to salt walls fastest in basins closest
can change bedload to source of sediment supply
composition, Some lateral drainage Bas
modifying style of down- eme
occurs across salt nt
stream sedimentation walls parallel to
palaeoflow; possible Closed basin:
Salt-wall geometries
inheritance of pre-existing results in endorheic
controlled by basement
drainage pathways drainage and lacustrine
trends with multiple
element accumulation
orientations
b Polygonal basin evolution: rapid subsidence

Subsidence: high Salt-wall uplift; onset of closure of “Bottle-necking” can cause
Sediment supply: high a basin can result in lake formation rapid sediment accumulation
and accumulation of deltaic in up-stream basins Palaeodrainage
Small alluvial fans may develop direction
and lacustrine elements
down-stream of point Rapid uplift can block and divert
where fluvial system breaches lateral drainage pathways,
salt wall isolating channel-belts
Incision points on Diversion of

salt walls may act as minor drainage
weak points for later salt-wall pathways into main
breaches when salt-wall drainage corridor likely
uplift rates increase in the hinterland
Depending on climate, Bas Salt pans develop
eme
mini-basin province may nt in isolated basins,
become completely endorheic where sediment
due to drainage obstruction input is negligable
Reworking of diapir-
by uplifted salt walls and
derived detritus
fluvial transmission losses
Fig. 15. Models depicting the evolution of polygonal salt-walled mini-basins. See text for further explanation.
c Polygonal basin evolution: drainage diversion

Subsidence: high Closure of mini-basin has Rate of sediment accumulation
Sediment supply: high resulted in overspilling into the outpaces rate of subsidence,
adjacent mini-basin at the lowest point allowing overspilling of Palaeodrainage
Salt breaching at a weak fluvial system into an direction
of the salt wall
point in salt wall adjacent basin
Lacustrine elements: Saline lakes may develop
may act as seal, source in isolated basins
or barrier to hydrocarbon
migration
Incision points on Onset of

salt walls may act as grounding results
weak points for later salt- in reduction of
wall breaches when salt-wall subsidence rate, increasing
uplift rates increase sediment bypass into
Lake in-filled by prograding Bas basins lying down-stream
eme
delta. Sandy elements and nt
argillaceous elements Differential subsidence
inter-finger in a complex Sediment-starved basins within mini-basin diverts drainage
manner controlled by subsidence, may subside at a slower rate to one side of basin
sediment supply and drainage due to lack of loading to displace
underlying salt
d Polygonal basin evolution: onset of basin grounding

Subsidence: high
Sediment supply: high Differential subsidence on
Salt-wall growth Palaeodrainage
opposite side of basin:
ceased in hinterland direction
Reduced rate of salt-wall development of “heel-toe” geometry
where mini-basins have
uplift allows migration grounded
of fluvial channel systems into
adjacent basins
Mini-basins
grounded in
Meandering drainage hinterland, where
system may develop in sediment supply is highest
response to onset of more
Bas
humid climatic regime eme
Crevasse splay nt Development of mature
Mini-basins in areas palaeosol in isolated
distal to source of sediment basins
Mini-basin isolated throughout
supply continue to subside its evolution has limited subsidence
Fig. 15 (continued).
documented by Hudec and Jackson (2007) that are known to have un- a typical evolutionary sequence for a polygonal arrangement of salt-
dergone salt deformation, many examples that demonstrate syn- walled mini-basins, showing the predicted distribution of fluvial archi-
halokinetic evolution of fluvial systems exist, both in the subsurface tectural elements and how drainage pathways can be diverted by vari-
and in outcrop. The majority of recent detailed outcrop studies have ous controls operating within the mini-basin province.
been conducted in the Paradox Basin of Utah, with fewer studies under- These case studies demonstrate that fluvial facies and architectural-
taken in other outcropping basins, such as the Pre-Caspian Basin, or La element distributions can be predicted both within and between mini-
Popa Basin. basins. The predictive models presented here are of value in assessing
Of the case studies considered in this study, 7 examples accumulated the distribution of sand-prone elements within subsurface reservoirs.
under semi-arid or arid climates, which is reflected by a dominance of However, improved techniques for understanding architectural-
braided fluvial networks, with evidence for evaporitic processes and de- element distribution and prediction of climate regimes will require
velopment of calcisols and aridisols. This may reflect the fact that most good well control and high-quality seismic to predict the probable loca-
outcropping salt basins, which were later mobilised to form salt-walled tions of sand fairways for systems known only from the subsurface.
mini-basin provinces, developed between the late Pennsylvanian and
Permian, with fluvial sediment accumulation occurring during globally Acknowledgements
arid period of the Permian and Triassic. Studies of meandering fluvial
systems preserved in ancient salt mini-basins are under-represented This paper would not have been possible had it not been for the prior
in the literature, in part due to a lack of recognition of suitable outcrops studies of many geoscientists working across the field of halokinesis, in
for study. addition to those who have contributed specifically to the study of fluvi-
Spatial variations in rates of subsidence along mini-basin axes and al stratigraphic expressions preserved in salt-walled mini-basins. This
the creation of local depocentres have yet to be studied in detail. Such research forms part of a broader investigation of controls on fluvial sed-
spatial variations could result in local accumulation of lacustrine de- imentary architecture that has been funded by Areva, BHP Billiton,
posits, or could act as a mechanism for controlling the location of ConocoPhilips, Nexen, Saudi Aramco, Shell, Tullow Oil and Woodside
nodal avulsions, flood-outs or points of convergence of high-aspect- through their sponsorship of the Fluvial & Eolian Research Group at
ratio channels, thereby controlling the distribution of sand-prone chan- the University of Leeds. Bernard Besly, Jo Venus and Tom Randles are
nel-fill elements or thin sheet-like heterolithic elements. thanked for valuable discussions on several aspects of this review
Detailed analysis of the controls on drainage pathways in polygonal paper. Reviewer Timothy F. Lawton and Chief Editor Jasper Knight are
salt-walled mini-basins also requires further study. Switching of drain- thanked for their advice and constructive comments.
age pathways and total or partial isolation of certain mini-basins
reflects local changes in sediment delivery. Locally increased rates of ac-
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Sedimentary Geology 296 (2013) 142–166

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Evolution of ﬂuvial systems in salt-walled mini-basins:

halokinetic and sedimentary controls; (v) to show how such models F2

erate to determine the style of evolution of salt-walled mini-basins and M’ F1’’

Tectonic control Original

Salt-wall & mini-basin geometries

Style of fluvial interaction with salt walls and subsiding mini-basins

Transverse sediment delivery Axial sediment delivery

Linear Channel flood-out

Basin-fill style: over-filled, filled and under-filled mini-basins

delivery outpaces the rate of accommodation generation, an over-ﬁlled 4. Case studies

Paradox Basin Barbeau (2003) and

b Regional overview: deposition of Cutler Group (Permian)

c Basin scale overview: deposition of Moenkopi Formation (Triassic)

d Local overview: Chinle Formation Deposition

JUR. CRETACEOUS TERT.

46° ED ARAL 200 - 2000

b Pre-Caspian Basin: overview

Salt glacier formed

a Areas of Timescale Central Graben

pingian Innes Mbr

b Central Graben, North Sea: overview

Mini-basin not grounded;

La Popa lentil Fm. Potrerillos Fm. San Jose Lentil

Minas Viejas Fm. Viento Fm.

Middle Carroza Fm. nc

Lower Carroza Fm. La Casita

Lowe 5.1. Evolution of ﬂuvial systems in salt-walled mini-basins

~900 Consideration of various case-studies has allowed for a series of ge-

5.1.1. Linear basins

increasing rates of sediment supply

overbank material elements: pebble lags

Sediment Supply Rate

Underfilled basins tend to occur when rates

c Linear basin evolution: temporary sediment supply shutdown

d Linear basin evolution: basin grounding

a Polygonal basin evolution: initiation

b Polygonal basin evolution: rapid subsidence

Incision points on Diversion of

c Polygonal basin evolution: drainage diversion

Incision points on Onset of

d Polygonal basin evolution: onset of basin grounding

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