Occurrence[edit]

See also: Zinc minerals

Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.0075%) of Earth's crust, making it the 24th most abundant
element. Typical background concentrations of zinc do not exceed 1 μg/m 3 in the atmosphere;
300 mg/kg in soil; 100 mg/kg in vegetation; 20 μg/L in freshwater and 5 μg/L in seawater. [18] The
element is normally found in association with other base metals such as copper and lead in ores.
[19]
 Zinc is a chalcophile, meaning the element is more likely to be found in minerals together
with sulfur and other heavy chalcogens, rather than with the light chalcogen oxygen or with non-
chalcogen electronegative elements such as the halogens. Sulfides formed as the crust solidified
under the reducing conditions of the early Earth's atmosphere. [20] Sphalerite, which is a form of
zinc sulfide, is the most heavily mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–
62% zinc.[19]
Other source minerals for zinc
include smithsonite (zinc carbonate), hemimorphite (zinc silicate), wurtzite (another zinc sulfide),
and sometimes hydrozincite (basic zinc carbonate).[21] With the exception of wurtzite, all these
other minerals were formed by weathering of the primordial zinc sulfides. [20]
Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9–2.8 billion tonnes.[22][23] Large deposits are in
Australia, Canada and the United States, with the largest reserves in Iran.[20][24][25] The most recent
estimate of reserve base for zinc (meets specified minimum physical criteria related to current
mining and production practices) was made in 2009 and calculated to be roughly 480 Mt. [26] Zinc
reserves, on the other hand, are geologically identified ore bodies whose suitability for recovery
is economically based (location, grade, quality, and quantity) at the time of determination. Since
exploration and mine development is an ongoing process, the amount of zinc reserves is not a
fixed number and sustainability of zinc ore supplies cannot be judged by simply extrapolating the
combined mine life of today's zinc mines. This concept is well supported by data from the United
States Geological Survey (USGS), which illustrates that although refined zinc production
increased 80% between 1990 and 2010, the reserve lifetime for zinc has remained unchanged.
About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and scholars have
estimated that about 109–305 million tonnes are in use. [27][28][29]

Sphalerite (ZnS)

Isotopes[edit]
Main article: Isotopes of zinc
Five stable isotopes of zinc occur in nature, with 64Zn being the most abundant isotope
(49.17% natural abundance).[30][31] The other isotopes found in nature are 66
Zn (27.73%), 67
Zn (4.04%), 68
Zn (18.45%), and 70
Zn (0.61%).[31]
Several dozen radioisotopes have been characterized. 65
Zn, which has a half-life of 243.66 days, is the least active radioisotope, followed by 72
Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours.[30] Zinc has 10 nuclear isomers. 69mZn has the longest half-life,
13.76 h.[30] The superscript m indicates a metastable isotope. The nucleus of a metastable
isotope is in an excited state and will return to the ground state by emitting a photon in the form
of a gamma ray. 61
Zn has three excited metastable states and 73
Zn has two.[32] The isotopes 65
Zn, 71
Zn, 77
Zn and 78
Zn each have only one excited metastable state. [30]
The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with a mass number lower than 66
is electron capture. The decay product resulting from electron capture is an isotope of copper. [30]
n

30Zn
 + 
e−
 → n
29Cu

The most common decay mode of a radioisotope of zinc with mass number higher than 66
is beta decay (β−), which produces an isotope of gallium.[30]
n

30Zn
 → n
31Ga

 + 
e−
 + 
ν
e

Compounds and chemistry[edit]

Main article: Compounds of zinc

Reactivity[edit]
See also: Clemmensen reduction
Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of
the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.[33] The
surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a
protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn
5(OH)

6(CO3)

2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

[34]

Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.[35] Zinc
reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[36] Extremely pure zinc reacts only
slowly at room temperature with acids.[35] Strong acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric
acid, can remove the passivating layer and the subsequent reaction with the acid
releases hydrogen gas.[35]
The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this
oxidation state are formed, the outer shell s electrons are lost, yielding a bare zinc ion
with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[37] In aqueous solution an octahedral
complex, [Zn(H
2O)6]
2+
 is the predominant species.[38] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride
at temperatures above 285 °C indicates the formation of Zn
2Cl

2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.  No compounds of zinc in positive

[35]

oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.[39] Calculations indicate that a zinc

compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.[40] Zn(III) is predicted to exist
in the presence of strongly electronegative trianions; [41] however, there exists some doubt
around this possibility.[42] But in 2021 another compound was reported with more
evidence that had the oxidation state of +3 with the formula ZnBeB 11(CN)12.[43]
Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals, nickel and
copper, though it has a filled d-shell and compounds are diamagnetic and mostly
colorless.[44] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical.
Because of this some of the equivalent salts have the same crystal structure,[45] and in
other circumstances where ionic radius is a determining factor, the chemistry of zinc has
much in common with that of magnesium.[35] In other respects, there is little similarity with
the late first-row transition metals. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree
of covalency and much more stable complexes with N- and S- donors.[44] Complexes of
zinc are mostly 4- or 6- coordinate, although 5-coordinate complexes are known.[35]

Zinc(I) compounds[edit]
Zinc(I) compounds are rare and need bulky ligands to stabilize the low oxidation state.
Most zinc(I) compounds contain formally the [Zn2]2+ core, which is analogous to the
[Hg2]2+ dimeric cation present in mercury(I) compounds. The diamagnetic nature of the
ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the Zn–Zn
bond, (η5-C5Me5)2Zn2, is also the first dimetallocene. The [Zn2]2+ ion
rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and zinc(II), and has only been obtained in a
yellow diamagnetic glass by cooling a solution of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl 2.[46]

Zinc(II) compounds[edit]

Zinc acetate

Zinc chloride

Binary compounds of zinc are known for most of the metalloids and all

the nonmetals except the noble gases. The oxide ZnO is a white powder that is nearly
insoluble in neutral aqueous solutions, but is amphoteric, dissolving in both strong basic
and acidic solutions.[35] The other chalcogenides (ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe) have varied
applications in electronics and optics.[47] Pnictogenides (Zn
3N

2, Zn

3P

2, Zn

3As

2 and Zn

3Sb

2),  the peroxide (ZnO

[48][49]

2), the hydride (ZnH

2), and the carbide (ZnC

2) are also known.  Of the four halides, ZnF

[50]

2 has the most ionic character, while the others (ZnCl

2, ZnBr

2, and ZnI

2) have relatively low melting points and are considered to have more covalent character.
[51]

In weak basic solutions containing Zn2+

 ions, the hydroxide Zn(OH)
2 forms as a white precipitate. In stronger alkaline solutions, this hydroxide is dissolved to

form zincates ([Zn(OH)4]2−

).[35] The nitrate Zn(NO3)
2, chlorate Zn(ClO3)

2, sulfate ZnSO

4, phosphate Zn

3(PO4)

2, molybdate ZnMoO

4, cyanide Zn(CN)

2, arsenite Zn(AsO2)

2, arsenate Zn(AsO4)

2·8H

2O and the chromate ZnCrO

4 (one of the few colored zinc compounds) are a few examples of other common

inorganic compounds of zinc.[52][53]

Organozinc compounds are those that contain zinc–carbon covalent bonds. Diethylzinc
((C
2H5)

2Zn) is a reagent in synthetic chemistry. It was first reported in 1848 from the reaction of

zinc and ethyl iodide, and was the first compound known to contain a metal–
carbon sigma bond.[54]
Test for zinc[edit]
Cobalticyanide paper (Rinnmann's test for Zn) can be used as a chemical indicator for
zinc. 4 g of K3Co(CN)6 and 1 g of KClO3 is dissolved on 100 ml of water. Paper is dipped
in the solution and dried at 100 °C. One drop of the sample is dropped onto the dry
paper and heated. A green disc indicates the presence of zinc.[55]

History[edit]
Ancient use[edit]
The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD,
[56]
 mentions a metal which, when oxidized, produces pushpanjan, thought to be zinc
oxide.[57] Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur in India, have been active since the Mauryan
period (c.  322 and 187 BCE). The smelting of metallic zinc here, however, appears to
have begun around the 12th century AD.[58][59] One estimate is that this location produced
an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th
centuries.[21] Another estimate gives a total production of 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc
over this period.[58] The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written in approximately the 13th century
AD, mentions two types of zinc-containing ores: one used for metal extraction and
another used for medicinal purposes.[59]

Late Roman brass bucket – the Hemmoorer Eimer from Warstade, Germany, second to third
century AD

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been
discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc–copper alloy brass thousands of
years prior to the discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to
10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc.[4]
Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC,
but few varieties were made.[5] Ornaments made of alloys containing 80–90% zinc, with
lead, iron, antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that
are 2,500 years old.[19] A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found
in a Dacian archaeological site.[60]
The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite.
The pills were used for sore eyes and were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del
Pozzino, wrecked in 140 BC.[61][62]
The manufacture of brass was known to the Romans by about 30 BC.[63] They made
brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal and copper
together in a crucible.[63] The resulting calamine brass was then either cast or hammered
into shape for use in weaponry.[64] Some coins struck by Romans in the Christian era are
made of what is probably calamine brass.[65]
Strabo writing in the 1st century BC (but quoting a now lost work of the 4th century BC
historian Theopompus) mentions "drops of false silver" which when mixed with copper
make brass. This may refer to small quantities of zinc that is a by-product of
smelting sulfide ores.[66] Zinc in such remnants in smelting ovens was usually discarded
as it was thought to be worthless.[67]
The Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to Roman Gaul made of an alloy that is
mostly zinc.[68]