GOV. ALFONSO D.

TAN
COLLEGE
Institute of Teacher
Education

FACILITAT
ING
LEARNIER
-
CENTERE
 Institute of Teacher
Education
GOV. ALFONSO D. TAN COLLEGE
Vision TANGUB CITY
MALORO,

The Institute of Teacher Education, the anchor of 21st

century educational ideals and practices is committed to
transform lives who will be the light of the world.

VISION
GADTC is integral to Tangub Mission
City’s becoming a center
for learning and eco-cultural tourism by producing God-
centered citizens committed to be light of the world.

The Institute of Teacher Education embarks on producing

MISSION
teachers who are effective communicators, critical thinkers,
innovators, socio and eco-culturally oriented, media and
To provide opportunities for continuing education for faculty
technology literate
and staff, and self-directed
providing leaders.
upgraded facilities for quality and
research-based instruction to students towards
community engagement and linkages to industry.

CORE VALUES
• INTEGRITY • •
COMPASSION EXCELLENCE

“Alfonsos as Lux M u n d i : Serving Humanity w i t h

Empowered M i n d , Passionate Heart and Virtuous
Soul”
 UNIT 1 Understanding Learning

Unit Intended Learning Outcome

 Demonstrate understanding of learner-centered theories of learning and the
types of learning.

There are three chapters related to the study and understanding of learning. Supportive to these
are the learning outcomes along the following topics.

a. Analysis of learner-centered theories of learning

b. Comparison of child, adolescent, and adult learning
c. Categorizing knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional knowledge

Chapter
Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
1

Intended Learning Outcome

 Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.

Introduction When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that comes to our mind is
studying subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and languages in
school. In a broader sense though, learning extends much more beyond the
confines of the classroom or the school. People learn everyday of their lives in
various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a
major part of the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As
such, it is important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you
 play a major role in the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding learning-
related concepts will enable you to better develop teaching methodologies and
other interventions meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the
population at large. Learning connotes observe changes in a person as a result
of environmental events and up the educational ladder, developmental changes
in their personality are affected. This has to do with improved and enhances
physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other
personality behaviors.
Search on internet or consult any book on educational psychology or
theories of learning. Read at least two theories and learning and identify their
proponents. Outline the highlights of each theory using the table below.

Description/Definition View of Knowledge View of Learning View of Motivation

Activity

Abstraction LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING

For a start, learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of

the learner. The change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for
worse, correct or incorrect and unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in
Woolfolk, 2012). To qualify for learning, the change should brought about by
experience or by interaction of the person with the environment. It is not learning
if the change is brought about by maturation like getting taller or hair turning
gray. Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included
as examples of learning.
While the definition may generally connote change either in the direction of
the positive or negative, it should be borne in mind that for our purposes in
education, it means a conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral
changes among learners in the positive direction. Thus, we should be thinking
about improving and enhancing learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills and values,
qualitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end, we should look to the
goals and objectives of education as our guide to successfully effect the desired
learning outcomes.
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s
knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views (“education.” n.d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior
with behavior including both observable activity and internal process such as
thinking, attitudes, and emotions.
Santrock (2012, p.217) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence
on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that coms about through experience.
Santrock goes further to say that it is a long-term change in mental
representations or associations as a result of experience. For example, as a
result of experience, children will change from being unable to operate a
computer into individuals who can. However, not everything that an individual
knows or is able to do is the result of experience. There are some things an
individual can do due to inherited capacities. An example of this is swallowing or
blinking of the eyes. If, however, an individual develops new methods of study,
works harder to solve problems, asks better questions then these are learning
as a result of experience.

The definition of learning covers the following elements:

a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental
illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its
basis in the brain.

Woolfolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including

practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge,
behavior or potential for behavior.” For Ormrod (2015), “learning is a long-term
change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience.”
Learning is also defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of practice and experience.” From the definitions, learning
has three important elements: a.) a change in behavior, better or worse; b.)
change takes place through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth
or maturation); and c.) behavior change must be relatively permanent and last
for a fairly long time. All learning involve activities, whether physical or mental.
Activities learned by the individual refer to types of learning, as for example,
habits, skills, facts (“Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of
Learning” n.d.)
 Types of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in
classroom activities. These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school.
These are what schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go
through daily life activities as for example, walking, running, driving,
climbing, and the like. These activities involve motor coordination.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as
the communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words,
figures, sounds are tools used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of
higher-order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, and
analyzing. It involves two processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between
stimuli and responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is
being able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like
bus, car, and ambulance.
e. Learning of Principles. It is learning principles related to science,
mathematics, grammar, and the like. Principles show the relationship
between two or more concepts, some examples of which are
formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This
learning requires the use of cognitive abilities – such as thinking,
reasoning, observation, imagination, and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and
predicts behavior. Learned attitude influence one’s behavior towards
people, objects, things, or ideas (“learning: Meaning, Nature, types
and Theories of Learning,” n.d.).

LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING

The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is

difficult to visualize and understand because it is an internal process. Hence it is
not easy to present or explain in concrete terms what this complex process is all
about. Thus, there is a need to look at theories of learning to enable one to
better conceptualize and operational what learning is all about.
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a
wide learn and range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited
framework. This may be the reason why there is available wide range of
Theories of learning, each propounding and focusing on a particular perspective
or view to explain what learning is.
A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how
individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain
how people learn and why they learn. They also try to explain the phenomenon
of learning – its nature, and the conditions under which learning best occurs.
The explanations are, however, considered as tentative. Be as it may, these
statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they are well studied or
seriously thought out, and in many cases, the result of scientific study. These
theories especially guide teachers to have a better understanding of how
learning occurs and how learners learn (“Educational Learning and Learning
Theories,” n.d.).
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and use
differently by different theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time,
definitions of learning shifted from changes that occur in the mind or behavior of
an individual, to changes in participation in ongoing activities with other
individuals, to changes in a person’s identity within group (Theories of Learning,”
n.d.).

LEARNING POINT: DEFINING “LEARNER-CENTERED”

Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-
centeredness in educational practice, especially in curriculum development and
teaching methodology. This means that policy, planning, and implementation of
educational practice should have the learner as its focus. It is therefore expected
that theories of learning and their applications should be learner centered.
Learner-Centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners –
their heredity, experiences, perspective, backgrounds, talents, interests,
capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning – the best available knowledge
about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices that are most
effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning and achievement
for all learners.
For better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are
learner-centered principles, meant to provide a framework for developing and
incorporating new strategies and designs of teaching,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the
control of the learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal
factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principles to be
viewed in isolation.
 e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational,
affective, developmental, social, and individual difference factors related
to learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in
the educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators,
parents, staffs, and guidance counselors.

Listed below are the learner-centered psychological principles which

provide the bases for understanding better the learner, and what learning is and
should be (Workgroup of the American Psychological Association Board of
Educational Affairs, 1997 cited in Santrock, 2011) Learner-centered does not
only refer to learner characteristics, but also to the beliefs, dispositions, and
practices that are created by teachers. To digress a little, principles are
statements that depict a general truth which have been established through
careful study.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning of complex subject matter is

most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning
from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process. The successful learner, over time, with
support and guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner can relate new information in
meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieved complex goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order strategies for selecting and
monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors
including culture, technology, and Instructional practices.

Developmental and Social Factors

7. Developmental Influences on Learning. As individuals develop, they

encounter different opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.
8. Social Influence on Learning. Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners have different strategies,

approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
 experience and heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in
learners’ linguistics, social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into
account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging
standards and assessing the learner and learning progress – including
diagnostic and outcome assessment ate integral parts of the learning
process.

The above context describes the different conditions under which learning best
occurs. It therefore behooves educational practitioners, especially teachers to be
creative, flexible and innovative in their approaches and methodologies, not only in
teaching, but in dealing with their students.

Santrock (2011) identifies some learner- centered instructional strategies

which address learners’ needs. They are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes
learners to authentic life problems that they meet in their daily lives.
This approach involves small-group efforts to identify problems and
issues they wish to tackle and explore, then identify materials and
resources to solve the problem. The teacher guides and monitors the
learners’ problem-solving efforts.
2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them.
This is followed by other questions, which motivate the students to
explore the questions and look for answers. The questions cause the
students to think and provoke their curiosity. These questions are
creative. A “dull” question, like “What is the effect of the People Power
Revolution in our political and economic life? “Can be translated into a
more thought- provoking one like, “Is the People Power Revolution still
going on? “
3. Discovery Learning.
This approach is in contrast to direct- instruction approach.
Teachers create the situation where students explore and figure out
things for themselves. The guided discovery learning evolved from
discovery learning, where students still construct their own
understanding but with the guidance of the teacher.

LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning has been discussed. It must be
noted that there are many theories of learning as a result of continuous study
and research, in search for the truth. It is the dynamic nature of theories that
enable us to understand better a complex phenomenon, as learning.

Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially
passive, responding to environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in the
early 1900s through the research efforts of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike
who made more objective studies about learning as opposed to the studies on
learning which relied heavily on introspection.
The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is
learned or shaped through positive reinforcement. Both of these increase the
probability that the antecedent behavior will be repeated or will happen again.
Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue or stimulus in the environment
is presented, the individual makes a particular response to that stimulus.
Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired
by associating stimuli and response. Thus, association leads to change in
behavior. Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-
response” (S-R). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider the
internal mental states or consciousness. Behaviorism instruction, however, does
not prepare the learners for problem-solving which currently is the skill being
developed among learners for survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the
learners as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by environmental factors
like reinforcement, feedback, practice or repletion (Behaviorism,” n.d.).
Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many
behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015, pp. 52-53).
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to
a variety of animals species. This is on the assumption that humans
and other animals learn in similar ways. Thus, behaviorists-
researchers apply to humans what they have derived from the studies
of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of
study is on the stimuli and responses. It is argued that stimuli and
responses are observable and measurable which contribute to
objectivity of studying learning.
c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in theoretical
explanations. This thinking stemmed from the argument that these
internal behaviors cannot be directly observed. Recently, however ,
there has emerged a thinking propounded by neo-behaviorists that
learning is better understood if cognitive processes, be included as a
factor, that explains learning.
 d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).

The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below:

(Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September 2012).
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishing
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcement
l. Negative reinforcement

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replace behaviorism as

the dominant paradigm for learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box”
and it is necessary to open it for a better understanding of how people learn.
Mental processes such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning and
other such processes need to be explored. People are seen not as programmed
beings that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is propounded in
behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and
actions are seen as a result of thinking. Knowledge can be seen as schema or
symbolic mental constructions, thus learning is defined as change in a learners
schemata. Changes in behavior are observed but this only indicates what is
going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is compared to a computer
which does a lot of processing of the data fed into it. Thus individuals are
thought of as active learners, actively engaged in their learning; and actively
seeking ways to understand and process information that they receive and relate
this to what is already known and stored within memory. Learning is thought of
as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or responding to external
stimuli. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining
new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge
which is stored in memory and not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September
2012).
 Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly,
September 2012).
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world example
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Social Constructivism
As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits
that learning is an active constructive process. The learner himself constructs
knowledge. People actively construct or create their own representation of
objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental
representations are subjective. Learning is seen as an active contextualized
process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring it. Knowledge is
based on the learners’ personal experiences and expectations of the
environment and where they continuously test these expectations through social
negotiations. Each person may have a different interpretation and construction
of the knowledge process. The person is not a blank slate but brings social and
cultural factors to a situation. It assumes that all knowledge is constructed from
the learner’s previous knowledge regardless of how one was taught. Thus, a
simple task of listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new
knowledge and not just absorbing what is being said in the lecture. Each person
generates knowledge based on his previous experience or knowledge. Thus, the
individual develops his own mental models to make sense of his experience.
Thus, learning is adjusting to one’s mental models to accommodate new
experiences.
The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the
individual needs to have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which
too create and interpret ideas. It may be said that results may not be the same
because learners create their own ideas and thus, may be unique to the
individual persons. So constructivism does not work when results are expectedly
fixed or consistent.
Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly,
September 2012).
a. Case Studies
 b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations

The applications of social constructivism show that class activities which

require the participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables
learning to occur.
The table below presents some salient points about the above-mentioned
theories of learning considered as basic to the further study of learning

Behaviorism Cognitive Social

Constructivism Constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge Knowledge is
Knowledge repertoire of systems of constructed within
behavioral cognitive social contexts
responses to structures are through
environmental actively interactions with a
stimuli. constructed by knowledge
learners based on community.
cognitive
structures.
View of Passive Active assimilation Integration of
Learning absorption of a and students into a
predefined body accommodation of knowledge
of knowledge by new information to community.
the learner. existing cognitive Collaborative
Promoted by structures. assimilation and
repetition and Discovery by accommodation
positive learners. of new
reinforcement. information.
View of Extrinsic, Intrinsic, learners Intrinsic and
Motivation involving positive set their own extrinsic. Learning
and negative goals and goals and motives
reinforcement. motivate are determined
themselves to both by learners
learn. and extrinsic
rewards provided
by the knowledge
community.
Implications for Correct Teacher facilitates Collaborative
Teaching behavioral learning by learning is
responses are providing an facilitated and
transmitted by environmental that guided by the
teachers and promotes teacher. Group
absorbed by discovery and work.
students. assimilation/
accommodation.
.
Thus far, the theories of learning presented above are considered as
forerunners of the study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own point
and tries to relate specific factors along a particular perspective to learning. It
would be good, however, to look at the other theories of learning that
consequently evolved Following the basic theories (“Strengthening Education,”
n. d.).

1. Social Learning Theory

This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both
cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that embrace attention, memory,
and motivation. This theory suggests that people learn within a social
context and that learning is facilitated through concepts like modeling,
observational learning, and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal
determinism” that holds the view that a person’s behavior, environment
and personal qualities all reciprocal influenced each other. He argues that
children learn from observing others as well as from model behavior,
which are process involving attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well-
established.
Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of
teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and
take care not to model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models
to break down traditional stereotypes.

2. Socio-constructivism

In late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further

changed by the perspective of “situated cognition and learning.” It
emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction in
learning. Criticism against the information-processing between
constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the
pioneer work of Leo Vygotsky as well as anthropological and
ethnographic research by scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave
came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was
that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning
as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surroundings
and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and
 independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view,
cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the
individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a
product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is formed and
utilized. This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as “participation
and social negotiations.”
Implication of Socio-constructivism on the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in
group work or cooperative learning.
b. In group on cooperative work, teachers should make sure that
each learner is able to make his contribution to accomplish the
task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local Instructional
Materials which are familiar to the learners. This is more
meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group
discussions, and problem-solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning

Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist

theories of learning but situate experience at the core of the learning
process. They aim to understand the manner in which experiences,
whether first- or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in everyday life-that
lead to a change in individual’s knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is
an influential proponent of these theories suggesting that experiential
learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural inclination to
learn; and they learn if they are fully involved in the learning process.
Rogers put forward the following insights: a) learning can only be
facilitated; we cannot teach another person directly; b) learners become
more rigid under threat; c) significant learning occurs in an environment
where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum; d) learning is most
likely to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic
continuous process or change where new learning results in and affects
learning environments.

Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education

a.Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and
experiences of the learners, which could serve as inputs for related
lessons. In so doing, students would feel that they are involved in
the learning process, because it is their own experiences which
 they are studying.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the
experiences of the students, so that they are better able to create
an atmosphere for students that is relaxed.
c.Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide
students’ learning, so that they do not have to always be the source
of learning materials.

4. Multiple Intelligence
This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that
learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience
according to the same principles. Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence
challenges the understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single
general ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many
distinct intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic
ability. This theory is speculative but appreciated by teachers in
broadening their framework of developing skills, curriculum and testing.
The MI theory “requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of
instructional materials and strategies, to make sure that the needs of
students with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented. These
concepts were developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger. Situated
learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated. It
emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and
learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the
individuals involved. The theory further asserts that it is within communities
that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking place within a
community of practice, i.e., cooperation, problem solving, building trust,
understanding and relations have the potential to foster community social
capital that enhances the community members’ well-being. Sergiovanni
reinforces the idea that learning is most effective when it takes place in
communities. Communities of practice is not confined only to schools but to
cover other settings like workplaces and organizations. It seeks to
understand both the structure of communities and how learning occurs in
them (“Education,” n. d.).
According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of
practice is based on the following assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize
 their Learning around social communities to which they belong.
Therefore, schools are powerful learning environments for students
whose social communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values,
beliefs, language, and ways of doing things. These are called
communities of practice. Real knowledge is integrated in the doing,
social relations, and expertise of these communities.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of
practice are inseparable. Because learning is intertwined with
community membership’ it is what lets us belong to adjust our status
in the group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is impossible to know
without doing. By doing, we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the
potential for learning. This is because individuals learn from the
experiences of others.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of 21st century learning or skills
emerged from the concerns about transforming the goals and
daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21 st
century characterized as knowledge and technology driven.
These are skills necessary for students to master for them to
experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and
connected age. Current discussions about 21 st century skills lead
classrooms and other environments to encourage the
development of core subject knowledge as well as media
literacy, critical and systems thinking. Group learning and use of
thematic projects involving inquiry-based collaborative work that
addresses world issues support the learning of the 21 st Century
Skills. (Source: http://unesco.org/new/en)

Name: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

Application

Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you
think so.

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to
memorize the multiplication table.

2. The trainer showed a ten-minute

video about an effective teacher to a
group of teacher-trainees.
3. The teacher gave five algebra
problems for students to solve.

4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a

topic on Philippine history, after
which he asked the students to
answer recall questions.

5. The teacher asked the students to

memorize and recite Jose Rizal’s “My
Last Farewell.”

6. The teacher invited one resource

person to give a lecture on
developing habits of cleanliness and
hygiene. After the lecture, the
students were encouraged to ask
questions to the resource speaker.

7. In a science class, the teacher asked

the students to do an experiment and
answer the questions based on the
results of the experiment.

8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil

who gave correct answers to her
questions.

9. In a statistics class, the students

were asked to interpret the data
illustrated in graphs.

10. The teacher asked the students to do

interviews with local officials. The
purpose was to identify who among
the local officials are “good” and
“effective” leaders based on a set of
criteria.

11. The teacher asked the students to

observe a chef on the correct way of
cooking a recipe.

12. In a coconut-growing locality, many

of the topics in the course had to do
with coconuts. In TLE, lessons are on
cooking using coconut recipes. In
science, lessons are on how to
improve the byproducts of coconuts.
 Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied
13. On a lesson on environmental
conservation, students climbed a
mountain to study the kinds of
topographical changes taking place.

14. In an English (literature) class, the

topic was Joyce Kilmer’s poem,
“Trees.” The teacher asked two
students to write two paragraphs of
their interpretation of the poem from
a science perspective. Two students
were also asked to interpret the
poem in music form.

15. The topic under study is to study the

use of computer programs needed
for different tasks in the workplace.
 Name: _____________________________________________ Date: _________________

A. Name two highlights of social constructivism.

Assess
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
B. Describe two examples of classroom activities that are in keeping with social
learning theory.
Example 1.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Example 2.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. Name to important reasons why students should learn and develop 21st
century skills.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Chapter
Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning
2

Intended Learning Outcome

 Compare child, adolescent, and adult learning.

Several factors both internal and external to the individual relate to the kind, or
even rate of learning. One of these factors is age, which in fact is tied to
developmental levels. Human development goes through stages, each having unique
characteristics. As such, it is expected that patterns of growth and development differ
from one developmental stage to the other. Hence, there are differences in learning
among individuals across developmental

These differences may either be in rate of learning, quality of knowledge or skills

Introduction
approach to learning or perspective to learning, to name some.

It is important for teachers to be aware of and know patterns of behavior that

characterize developmental levels. Knowing this will enable teachers to decide what
and how to teach students, as well as the kind of instructional materials, activities and
opportunities to be given in the classroom, as well as the teaching methodologies to
be used.

Conduct a simple interview with a child, adolescent, and an adult. “Where do

you want to live, in the city? Or in the barrio? State your reasons for your answer.”
Take note of their answers. Encourage each one to talk about or explain his/her
answer in greater detail.

Child

Activity ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____
 Adolescent

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

___________
Adult

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____
Abstraction LEARNING POINT: PRINCIPLES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
1. Development proceeds in an orderly and predictable pattern.
Development occurs through developmental milestones, defined as the
appearance of developmentally more advanced behavior, which appear in a
predictable manner. Thus, for example, a child babbles before he learns to talk
using one-syllable words. Or he rolls over before he learns to crawl.
2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of slower
growth. It means development is not constant. For example, a learner might
proceed through a rapid growth at early childhood, but slower cognitive growth
in adolescence.
3. Different individuals develop at different rates. Most often, average age for
the entire development period is used to describe learners. This is simply an
approximation due to individual differences. Still some learners reach
developmental milestones early some later, even if they are within the same
developmental period.
4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and
nurture (environment) (Hurst, n. d.).

The above-mentioned principles of growth and development are necessary for

teachers to know, so they could better address the learning needs, abilities, and
expectations from learners. Hence, if a teacher, for example, knows that his
kindergarten pupils are on the average, 5 years old, he can say they are still at an
early stage of cognitive development. To maximize the development of cognition at
this level, he develops and approaches his lessons starting from the concrete level
and proceeding to increasing levels of abstraction. For example, in developing the
concept of the number 4, the teacher can introduce the pupils to this concept, first by
using objects to illustrate the concept.

LEARNING POINT: YOUNG LEARNERS (CHILDREN)

Following are the characteristics of young learners.

1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families, and their lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see, hear and interact to learn.
5. Their attention span is very short, thus they need engaging and entertaining
activities a so as not to lose their interest.
6. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. They need to work with their students individually because they need to be
guided (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).

Given the characteristics of young learners, teachers should be innovative in

coming up with varied tasks and experiences for young learners. Since they like to
work in groups use this as an avenue for socialization. The approach to teaching
should be more “” cooperative learning where young learners are able to learn from
each other.

LEARNING POINT: ADULT LEARNING

Malcolm Knowles is a theorist on adult learning and who popularized the

concept of andragogy. This term means the art and science of helping adults learn,
contrasting it with pedagogy which is the art and science of teaching children. He did
research on adult learning. Based on his findings, following are posited about adult
learners’ characteristics along five areas:

1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to increasing self-directedness

as they mature. They can direct their own learning, meaning they can initiate
their learning even without the help of others in planning, carrying out, and
evaluating their learning activities.

2. Adult learner experience. They draw on their accumulated experiences as

their resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they assume new social or
life roles.
 4. Orientation to learning. They are problem-centered and they want to apply
new learnings immediately. They are interested in subjects that have
immediate relevance and impact into their job or personal life.

5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal rather than

external factors (“Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy,” 2011).

What makes adult learners different from adolescent and young learners?

1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.

2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come to the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations,
and experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their intellectual
ability, educational level, personality and cognitive learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts,
and beliefs which need to be respected (“Differences of Young, Adolescent
and Adult Learners, 2018).

The following table shows the differences between adult and adolescent
learning in terms of characteristics of the learning experiences.

Pedagogy (Adolescent) Andragogy (Adult)

Teacher-structured Learner-structured
Minimal control by the learner Minimal control by the teacher
Focus on training for events to come Focus on assimilation of learning from
past experiences
Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking
Focus on memory Focus on thinking/doing
Content supplied by teacher/class Content supplied partially by students
materials
Based on specified content standards Outcomes evolve as learning
progresses

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some implications for
 teaching this group of learners, and suggestions given by Malcolm Knowles.

a. Set a cooperative climate for learning in the classroom.

b. Assess the learner’s specific needs and interests because these are the more
important things he wants to learn.
c. Develop learning objectives based on the learners’ needs, interests and skill
levels.
d. Design sequential activities to achieve the objectives.
e. Work collaboratively with the learner to select methods, materials, and
resources for instruction.
f. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience and make adjustments as
needed, while assessing needs for further learning.
g. The experiences provided them should be problem-centered rather than
content oriented (Kearsley, 2010; Knowles, n. d.).
h. They have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

The physiological changes being experienced by adolescents at that stage,

influence their emotional, cognitive, social and even physical development. The
growth spurt occurs at this developmental stage. Because the influence of peers is
very strong at this time, expectedly, they are confronted with many distractions and
other concerns that veer their attention away from their school activities and
experiences. Thus, it is important for teachers to be visibly supportive of the
challenges confronting the adolescent students. It is also important that teachers
guide and support them, so that they are able to reach their highest and proximal
level of development. Adolescents also tend to be impulsive, and they have their own
unique interests, as well.

Application
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

A. Assume that you are a teacher teaching the concept of adding 2+3 to Grade 1
pupils. Write the steps on how you are going to approach teaching the concept
to ensure a better understanding of the task. Give your reasons why.

Steps:
Reasons:
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_

B. Observe a class in preschool.

1. Take note of the kind of instructional materials, the teacher uses (size, color,
shape, etc.).
2. Take note of how the teacher introduces a concept to be learned.
3. Find out if you were able to observe the characteristics of young learners listed
earlier. List down your observations.
 Observations

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Name: ______________________________________ Date: __________________

A. As a whole, what are the developmental characteristics of young learners that

Assess make them different from adolescent and adult learners?

Child Learners Adolescent Learners Adult Learners

 B. Below is a list of classroom activities. Identify whose needs will be addressed
by each activity – young? Adolescents? Adults?

1. Students go to the seashore to study different kinds of shells.

2. Students name and identify real fruits shown by the teacher.
3. Students are given ingredients and were asked to cook these using their own
method.
4. Students were grouped into three and were given two problems to solve.
5. Students were doing an experiment and the teacher was present to guide
them.
6. The students were asked to tell stories about their family using pictures.
7. Students were asked to interpret a poem.
8. Students were asked to interview five leaders in the community, from which
they were to make an assessment of how effective or ineffective the leaders
are.
9. Students were asked to make a table in two hours.
10. Students were asked to observe the leaves of plants in the garden.

Chapter
Declarative, Procedural, and Functional Knowledge
3
 Intended Learning Outcome
 Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge

This chapter deals with identifying the three types of learning and differentiating
one from the other. This is important for teachers to know so that they can determine
ways of carrying out methodologies and activities in the classroom, most appropriate
for the learners. This will ensure that learning will be raised to higher levels. It must
be noted, that one of the outcomes of the learning process is the acquisition of
Introduction
knowledge. As will be seen later, acquired knowledge comes in different levels
depending on the kind of learning experiences learners are exposed to. Thus, the
deliberate interventions and activities are significant factors meant to influence the
kind of level or type of knowledge one acquired or developed.

Observe a class in English. Observe also a class in science. In each class, list
down episodes where the teacher imparts or develops among the students, the
procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge. Determine differences of what
happened in the two classes you observer.

A. English Class
Episodes Procedural Knowledge Declarative Knowledge

Activity

B. Science Class
Episodes Procedural Knowledge Declarative Knowledge

LEARNING POINT: CATEGORIES OF KNOWLEDGE

Acquisition of knowledge is one of the outcomes of the learning process. The
Abstraction other outcomes have something to do with acquisition and the development of skills,
attitude?’ values, and a lot more. Among these, however, knowledge is basic. One
has to have knowledge, as for example, before he can develop certain attitudes or
skills.
A look at the literature shows that experts and researchers identify and classify
knowledge in several ways. For the purposes of this chapter, the classification of
knowledge will focus only on three, namely, declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge. However, other classifications, will also be presented presumably to
make the distinctions finer and more specific. It is assumed that the other types of
knowledge as classified by other authors could be subsumed under any of these
three.

Let us first look at the definitions of these three terms.

Declarative Knowledge

Declarative knowledge is the information acquired that one can speak about. It
is that which we know (“Declarative Learning,” n. d.). It is the information that one can
“declare.” The capital of a country is a declarative piece of information. They are facts
and events that can be explicitly stored and consciously recalled or declared
(Zimmerman, 2014).
Declarative knowledge is a product of declarative learning. It is that skill that we
use to acquire new information. Declarative learning is associated with tasks that
require greater amount of attention as what happens in school.
As a process, declarative learning occurs consciously and most often through
memorization. As such, it is language-based and is dependent on memory. It is the
means through which much new information is acquired, both in education and for
personal improvement. What students know is declarative learning.
In education, declarative knowledge strategies are those that can help the
learner construct meaning (Harris, n. d.) by linking new learning with existing
knowledge, as for example, stating instructional purposes, and/or previewing lessons,
organizing and chunking information into recognizable patterns, or coming up with
mnemonic devices, and elaborating to fill knowledge gaps with the help of inference.
There are three subtypes of declarative knowledge cognition (Harris, n. d.).

a. Labels and names (pairing information)

b. Facts and lists (describing relationships)
c. Organizational discourse (thread of meaning running throughout)

Procedural Knowledge

As opposed to declarative knowledge, it refers to what one can do and what

one is able to do. An example of procedural knowledge is knowing how to ride a bike.
Other concepts related to procedural learning include automatic or habitual learning
referred to as motor learning and/or procedural learning (“Declarative Learning,” n.
d.). As opposed to declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge may not have a
language component; can be performed without conscious thought or attention given
to the process; sometimes learned implicitly rather than explicitly (“Declarative
Learning” n. d.). It is often less conscious than declarative learning. Declarative
learning can eventually become procedural knowledge. For example, in teaching a
child to cross the street, first, the mother recites the phrase every time they cross the
street, “Look left, look right; If free, cross the street. This can go on and on, until such
time, that the child can cross the street, without reciting the phrases learned from his
mother. This is an example of a case where learning is declarative first, then
transitions to procedural knowledge. This is knowledge that a person knows to do, by
doing it better than when explaining in words. This is exemplified best by riding a bike
or dancing the tinikling. Some knowledge is shared between declarative and
procedural learning. For example, singing correctly Bahay Kubo means one can
recall the names of vegetables usually grown in the farm.

Functional Knowledge

It is any piece of stored information that can be adapted and applied to different
circumstances or are transferable to different settings. Functionality of that
knowledge is the key. Functional learning is how people acquire and categorize data
often referred to as “schema” by cognitive theorists. If information is acquired through
several circumstances, situations and is recalled through different situations, that
knowledge becomes functional as the schema becomes robust and readily
adjustable. This is knowledge that is concrete and usable rather than abstract and
theoretical (Source: www.philau.edu.).

Other Ways of Classifying Knowledge

Following are other ways of classifying knowledge.

a. Episodic Knowledge

Refers to biological memory reflecting not only what happened but also where
and when it happened. Examples of episodic memory are memories of childhood
days or a girl’s first day in school.
b. Semantic Knowledge
Deals with memories and information but not tied to personal biographies. It is
organized knowledge about facts, concepts, generalizations, and their associations.
 Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) claim that there are three subtypes of semantic
knowledge.

a. Declarative. Statement of truth that deals with what we know about the world.
b. Procedural. Knowledge of about how things are done.
c. Conditional. If declarative knowledge accounts for what, if procedural
knowledge accounts for how, conditional knowledge accounts for knowing
when.

Declarative knowledge is organized according to various levels:

a. Descriptions
b. Time elements
c. Process
d. Causal relationship
e. Episodes
f. Generalization
g. Principles
h. Concepts

Dimensions of Knowledge

Following are the dimensions of knowledge as identified by Anderson &

Krathwohl (2001).

a. Conceptual Knowledge. Knowledge of classification, principles,

generalizations, theories, models, situations pertinent to a particular discipline.
One may be able to know and explain the theory of multiple intelligences.
b. Metacognitive Knowledge. Awareness of one’s own cognition and particular
cognitive processes.
c. Factual. Knowledge basic to specific disciplines like science or math.

As gleaned from the different definitions and classifications of knowledge, the

pattern is that the level or quality of the knowledge acquired expectedly will improve
with experience and with appropriate interventions. Knowledge acquisition starts from
gathering and putting together basic content, until it progresses to knowledge on how
and what to do with basic knowledge, until one is able to discriminate when to use or
apply content and process.

LEARNING POINT: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

ACQUISITION

As earlier mentioned, appropriate interventions or activities given to students,

as well as appropriate methodologies will help improve the quality of the knowledge
acquired by students. Santrock (2011) claimed that mental processes of experts can
help the teacher’s guide the students into becoming more effective learners. The
question is, “What is it exactly that the experts do?” Studies have shown that experts
are better than novices along the following.

a. Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information

b. Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that
indicates understanding of the topic
c. Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort
d. Adapting an approach to new situations
e. Using effective strategies

Knowing the above would approaches be able to that determine experts

appropriate use in dealing strategies with to knowledge help students or teachers
apply these approaches that experts use.

a. Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of Organization. Experts are

better able to detect important features of problems and context not noticed by
novices. When confronted with information or data, experts engage in
chunking of information where, they deduce hierarchical structures, making
them recall the more important information therein.

b. Organization and Depth of Information. Experts’ knowledge is organized

around the important ideas or concepts. Thus, they have a deeper
understanding of knowledge than novices. Usually, experts have more
elaborate networks of information about an area. As such the curriculum
should be designed in a way that it is easy for the students to organize
information.

c. Fluent Retrieval. Experts along a certain area, are able to retrieve information
fluently or without much effort. The advantage of effortless retrieval is that it
places less burden on the conscious effort of retrieving the information. For
example, expert readers can readily read the written word with less effort than
novices, thus, making them pay attention as well to comprehending and
deriving meaning from the written word. Novice readers spend more time
retrieving information from the written word, thus there is less time spent given
to comprehension.
d. Adaptive Expertise. Experts are able to approach unique or new situations in
a flexible manner and are not limited to the “old” approach they usually use.
They are flexible and can adapt equally well, even to new situations, rather
than always responding in a rigid or fixed way.
 e. Strategies. Experts use effective strategies in understanding information in
their area of expertise and in advancing it. Acclimation is the initial stage of
expertise in a particular domain (science, mathematics). At this stage,
students have limited and fragmented knowledge that limits their ability to
differentiate between accurate and inaccurate information, or between relevant
and irrelevant information. Teachers should help students go beyond the
acclimation stage, by guiding them into differentiating between important and
non-important, or what is accurate from inaccurate. Teachers should also
teach students strategies and practice them in relevant situations.

f. Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning. Teachers should always talk to

students on the importance of reviewing and monitoring regularly what they
have learned; and that it is better to distribute their learning over a period of
time, rather than cramming at the last minute for review.

g. Asking Themselves Questions. Teachers should encourage students to ask

themselves questions. When students do this, they expand the number of
associations with the information they need to retrieve. Teachers should also
encourage the students to periodically ask questions, as for example, while
listening to a lecture, watching a video, or even while reading. They can also
be encouraged to generate questions about their experiences, and this way,
they can better remember such experiences.

h. Taking Good Notes. This refers to taking good notes while reading a text or
from a lecture. However, in taking down notes, they should be taught
strategies to organize their notes, so that they can get the bigger picture of the
material they are dealing with.

 Summarizing: Have children listen first, then deduce the main idea.
 Outlining: This requires writing down the main topic and then the sub-topics.
 Using concept maps: They visually portray information in spider-like format.

i. Using a Study System. This refers to a system that students should adapt for
studying. An established study system will help learners for more meaningful
learning.

Certain types of teaching methods or techniques are appropriate to best

develop particular types of knowledge and outcomes. It therefore requires the
teacher to know exactly what kind of learning students need to develop.
 a. For developing declarative knowledge, the appropriate methods would be
to provide activities on organizing, listing, and elaborating to facilitate learning.
This calls for rehearsals, use of fact sheets, graphic organizers, use of thinking
maps, recall and remembrance strategies, and organizational concepts.
b. For developing concept learning, applications of learning is the most
appropriate. This does not involve memory or recall as in declarative learning,
but the use of inquiry or expository approach is the more appropriate to use.
c. For learning procedures, the application of procedural methods to reach the
final product is a good approach. This entails the following: recognition, recall,
application, analysis and completion of steps. Simple procedures should be
demonstrated and practiced one at a time.
d. For learning of principles, cause and effect strategies are effective to teach
principles.

Application
Name: ____________________________________ Date: ______________

There are ways or strategies by which students can improve the quality of
knowledge they have developed and acquired. Can you suggest one strategy or one
method (apart from those mentioned in this chapter) to improve the quality of the
knowledge that you have acquired?
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
 _
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_
___________________________________________________________________
_

Name: ______________________________________ Date: __________________

Identify if the knowledge is declarative, procedural or functional.

____________1. Putting together the parts of a microscope earlier demonstrated by

the teacher.
____________2. Reciting a poem earlier memorized
____________3. Naming the parts of a flower correctly as read from a science book

Assess ____________4. Reciting the table of multiplication

____________5. Knowing how to ride a bicycle
____________6. Knowing how to drive
____________7. Applying first-aid procedure to a person who drowned
____________8. The teacher gave different types of rewards to his students who
scored high
____________9. Knowing how to bake a chocolate cake.
____________10. With knowledge of simple machines, Mario was able to move a
load in a cylindrical container.