PART – A

Microprocessor Architecture: Introduction to Microprocessors-Purpose of a

Microprocessor, different types of Microprocessors, their features and their
comparison; 8086 Microprocessor- Architecture , Special functions of General
purpose registers, 8086 flag register and function of 8086 Flags, Addressing modes
of 8086.

PART – B

Instruction Set: Instruction set of 8086, Assembly language programs involving

logical, Branch and Call instructions, Sorting, Evaluation of Arithmetic
Expressions, String manipulation, Assembler directives, simple programs,
procedures and macros.
 UNIT-1: PART-A
1. Describe the features and comparison of 8085 & 8086 Microprocessors
Features of 8086:
8086 Microprocessor is an enhanced version of 8085 Microprocessor that was designed
by Intel in 1976. It is a 16-bit processor having 20 address lines and16 data lines that
provides up to 1MB storage. It consists of powerful instruction set, which provides
operations like multiplication and division easily. It supports two modes of operation, i.e.
Maximum mode and Minimum mode. Maximum mode is suitable for system having
multiple processors and Minimum mode is suitable for system having a single processor.
The most prominent features of a 8086 microprocessor are:
 It has an instruction queue, which is capable of storing six instruction bytes from
the memory resulting in faster processing.
 It was the first 16-bit processor having 16-bit ALU, 16-bit registers, internal data
bus, and 16-bit external data bus resulting in faster processing.
 It is available in 3 versions based on the frequency of operation −
8086 → 5MHz
8086-2 → 8MHz
(c)8086-1 → 10 MHz
 It uses two stages of pipelining, i.e. Fetch Stage and Execute Stage, which improves
performance.
 Fetch stage can prefetch up to 6 bytes of instructions and stores them in the queue.
 Execute stage executes these instructions.
 It has 256 vectored interrupts.
 It consists of 29,000 transistors.
Comparison between 8085 & 8086 Microprocessor:
 Size − 8085 is 8-bit microprocessor, whereas 8086 is 16-bit microprocessor.
 Address Bus − 8085 has 16-bit address bus while 8086 has 20-bit address bus.
 Memory − 8085 can access up to 64Kb, whereas 8086 can access up to 1 Mb of
memory.
 Instruction − 8085 doesn’t have an instruction queue, whereas 8086 has an
instruction queue.
 Pipelining − 8085 doesn’t support a pipelined architecture while 8086 supports a
pipelined architecture.
 I/O − 8085 can address 28 = 256 I/O's, whereas 8086 can access 2 16 = 65,536
I/O's.
 Cost − The cost of 8085 is low whereas that of 8086 is high.
2. Draw the architecture of 8086 µProcessor

Architecture of 8086 microprocessor:

As shown in the figure, the 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts
 Bus Interface Unit(BIU)
 Execution Unit(EU)
Dividing the work between these two units’ speeds up processing.
8086 HAS PIPELINING ARCHITECTURE:
 While the EU is decoding an instruction or executing an instruction, which does not
require use of the buses, the BIU fetches up to six instruction bytes for the following
instructions.
 The BIU stores these pre-fetched bytes in a first-in-first-out register set called a
queue.
 When the EU is ready for its next instruction from the queue in the BIU. This is
much faster than sending out an address to the system
 memory and waiting for memory to send back the next instruction byte or bytes.
 Except in the case of JMP and CALL instructions, where the queue must be dumped
and then reloaded starting from a new address, this pre-fetch and queue scheme
greatly speeds up processing.
 Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is called
pipelining.
 Execution Unit (EU):
The execution unit of the 8086 tells the BIU where to fetch instructions or data from,
decodes instructions, and executes instructions. The EU contains control circuitry,
which directs internal operations. A decoder in the EU translates instructions fetched
from memory into a series of actions, which the EU carries out. The EU has a 16-bit
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) which can add, subtract, AND, OR, XOR, increment,
decrement, complement or shift binary numbers.
The main functions of EU are:
 Decoding of Instructions
 Execution of instructions
Steps involved in Execution:
(i). EU extracts instructions from top of queue in BIU
(ii). Decode the instructions
(iii). Generates operands if necessary Passes operands to BIU & requests it to perform
read or write bus cycles to memory or I/O
(iv). Perform the operation specified by the instruction on operands
Bus Interface Unit (BIU):
The BIU sends out addresses, fetches instructions from memory, reads data from ports
and memory, and writes data to ports and memory. In simple words, the BIU handles all
transfers of data and addresses on the buses for the execution unit.
3. Summarize the Register Organization of 8086 Microprocessor
Register organization:
The 8086 has a powerful set of registers known as general purpose registers and special
purpose registers. All of them are 16-bit registers.
General purpose registers:
These registers can be used as either 8-bit registers or 16-bit registers. They may be
either used for holding data, variables and intermediate results temporarily or for other
purposes like a counter or for storing offset address for some particular addressing
modes etc.
Special purpose registers:
These registers are used as segment registers, pointers, index registers or as offset
storage registers for particular addressing modes.
The 8086 registers are classified into the following types:
i. General Data Registers
ii. Segment Registers
iii. Pointers and Index Registers
iv. Flag Register
General Data Registers:
The registers AX, BX, CX and DX are the general purpose 16-bit registers. AX is used as
16-bit accumulator. The lower 8-bit is designated as AL and higher 8-bit is designated as
AH. AL can be used as an 8-bit accumulator for 8-bit operation. All data register can be
used as either 16 bit or 8 bit. BX is a 16 bit register; BL indicates the lower 8-bit of BX
and BH indicates the higher 8-bit of BX. The register BX is used as offset storage for
forming physical address in case of certain addressing modes. The register CX is used
default counter in case of string and loop instructions. DX register is a general purpose
register which may be used as an implicit operand or destination in case of a few
instructions.
Segment Registers: There are 4 segment registers. They are: Code Segment
Register(CS), Data Segment Register(DS), Extra Segment Register(ES), Stack Segment
Register(SS).
The 8086 architecture uses the concept of segmented memory. 8086 able to address a
memory capacity of 1 megabyte and it is byte organized. This 1 megabyte memory is
divided into 16 logical segments. Each segment contains 64 K bytes of memory.
Code segment register (CS): is used for addressing memory location in the code segment
of the memory, where the executable program is stored.
Data segment register (DS): points to the data segment of the memory where the data is
stored.
Extra Segment Register (ES) : also refers to a segment in the memory which is another
data segment in the memory.
Stack Segment Register (SS): is used for addressing stack segment of the memory. The
stack segment is that segment of memory which is used to store stack data.

While addressing any location in the memory bank, the physical address is calculated
from two parts:
Physical address= segment address + offset address
The first is segment address, the segment registers contain 16-bit segment base
addresses, related to different segment.
The second part is the offset value in that segment.
Pointers and Index Registers:
The index and pointer registers are given below:
IP—Instruction pointer-store memory location of next instruction to be executed
BP—Base pointer
SP—Stack pointer
SI—Source index
DI—Destination index
 The pointers registers contain offset within the particular segments. The pointer register
IP contains offset within the code segment. The pointer register BP contains offset within
the data segment. Thee pointer register SP contains offset within the stack segment. The
index registers are used as general purpose registers as well as for offset storage in case
of indexed, base indexed and relative base indexed addressing modes. The register SI is
used to store the offset of source data in data segment. The register DI is used to store
the offset of destination in data or extra segment. The index registers are particularly
useful for string manipulation.
8086 flag register
The 8086 flag register contents indicate the results of computation in the ALU. It also
contains some flag bits to control the CPU operations. A 16 bit flag register is used in
8086. It is divided into two parts .
i. Condition code or status flags
ii. Machine control flags
The condition code flag register is the lower byte of the 16-bit flag register. The
condition code flag register is identical to 8085 flag register, with an additional overflow
flag.
The control flag register is the higher byte of the flag register. It contains three flags
namely direction flag (D), interrupt flag (I) and trap flag (T).
4. Describe the 8086 Flag Register of 8086 Microprocessor
The 8086 flag register contents indicate the results of computation in the ALU. It also
contains some flag bits to control the CPU operations.
A 16 bit flag register is used in 8086. It is divided into two parts .
i. Condition code or status flags
ii. Machine control flags
The condition code flag register is the lower byte of the 16-bit flag register. The condition
code flag register is identical to 8085 flag register, with an additional overflow flag. The
control flag register is the higher byte of the flag register. It contains three flags namely
direction flag (D), interrupt flag (I) and trap flag (T).

Flag Register of 8086 Microprocessor

Description of each flag bit:
SF- Sign Flag: This flag is set, when the result of any computation is negative. For signed
computations the sign flag equals the MSB of the result.
ZF- Zero Flag: This flag is set, if the result of the computation or comparison performed
by the previous instruction is zero.
PF- Parity Flag: This flag is set to 1, if the lower byte of the result contains even number
of 1’s.
CF- Carry Flag: This flag is set, when there is a carry out of MSB in case of addition or a
borrow in case of subtraction.
AF-Auxilary Carry Flag: This is set, if there is a carry from the lowest nibble, i.e, bit three
during addition, or borrow for the lowest nibble, i.e, bit three, during subtraction.
OF- Over flow Flag: This flag is set, if an overflow occurs, i.e, if the result of a signed
operation is large enough to accommodate in a destination register. The result is of more
than 7-bits in size in case of 8-bit signed operation and more than 15-bits in size in case
of 16-bit sign operations, and then the overflow will be set.
TF- Tarp Flag: If this flag is set, the processor enters the single step execution mode. The
processor executes the current instruction and the control is transferred to the Trap
interrupt service routine.
IF- Interrupt Flag: If this flag is set, the mask able interrupts are recognized by the CPU,
otherwise they are ignored.
D- Direction Flag: This is used by string manipulation instructions. If this flag bit is ‘0’,
the string is processed beginning from the lowest address to the highest address, i.e.,
auto incrementing mode. Otherwise, the string is processed from the highest address
towards the lowest address, i.e., auto decrementing mode.
5. Analyze the Memory Segmentation and organization 8086 Microprocessor:
The memory in an 8086 based system is organized as segmented memory. The CPU 8086
is able to access 1MB of physical memory. The complete 1MB of memory can be divided
into 16 segments, each of 64KB size and is addressed by one of the segment register. The
16-bit contents of the segment register actually point to the starting location of a
particular segment. The address of the segments may be assigned as 0000H to F000h
respectively. To address a specific memory location within a segment, we need an offset
address. The offset address values are from 0000H to FFFFH so that the physical
addresses range from 00000H to FFFFFH.
Physical address is calculated as below:
Ex: Segment address ---------------------------------------------------------1005H
Offset address -----------------------------------------------------------------5555H
Segment address ----------------------1005H --------- 0001 0000 0000 0101
Shifted left by 4 Positions------------------------ 0001 0000 0000 0101 0000
+
Offset address ------------------------- 5555H --------- 0101 0101 0101 0101

Physical address ---------------------155A5H 0001 0101 0101 1010 0101

Physical address = Segment address * 10H + Offset address.

The main advantages of the segmented memory scheme are as follows:
1. Allows the memory capacity to be 1MB although the actual addresses to be handled
are of 16-bit size.
2. Allows the placing of code, data and stack portions of the same program in different
parts (segments) of memory, for data and code protection.
3. Permits a program and/or its data to be put into different areas of memory each time
the program is executed, i.e., provision for relocation is done.
Overlapping and Non-overlapping Memory segments:
In the overlapping area locations physical address = CS1+IP1 = CS2+IP2. Where ‘+’
indicates the procedure of physical address formation.
6. Explain different Addressing modes of 8086 Micrprocessor
Addressing mode indicates a way of locating data or operands.
The addressing modes describe the types of operands and the way they are accessed for
executing an instruction. According to the flow of instruction execution, the instructions
may be categorized as
i) Sequential control flow instructions and
ii) Control transfer instructions
Sequential control flow instructions are the instructions, which after execution, transfer
control to the next instruction appearing immediately after it (in the sequence) in the
program. For example, the arithmetic, logic, data transfer and processor control
instructions are sequential control flow instructions. The control transfer instructions,
on the other hand, transfer control to some predefined address or the address somehow
specified in the instruction, after their execution. For example, INT, CALL, RET and
JUMP instructions fall under this category.
The addressing modes for sequential control transfer instructions are:
1. Immediate: In this type of addressing, immediate data is a part of instruction and
appears in the form of successive byte or bytes.
Ex: MOV AX, 0005H
In the above example, 0005H is the immediate data. The immediate data may be 8-bit or
16-bit in size.
2. Direct: In the direct addressing mode a 16-bit memory address (offset) is directly
specified in the instruction as a part of it.
Ex: MOV AX, [5000H]
Here, data resides in a memory location in the data segment, whose effective address
may be completed using 5000H as the offset address and content of DS as segment
address. The effective address here, is 10H * DS + 5000H.
3. Register: In register addressing mode, the data is stored in a register and is referred
using the particular register. All the registers, except IP, may be used in this mode.
Ex: MOV BX, AX
4. Register Indirect: Sometimes, the address of the memory location, which contains
data or operand, is determined in an indirect way, using the offset register. This mode of
addressing is known as register indirect mode. In this addressing mode, the offset
address of data is in either BX or SI or DI register. The default segment is either DS or
ES. The data is supposed to be available at the address pointed to by the content of any
of the above registers in the default data segment.
Ex: MOV AX, [BX]
Here, data is present in a memory location in DS whose offset address is in BX. The
effective address of the data is given as 10H * DS+[BX].
5. Indexed: In this addressing mode, offset of the operand is stored in one of the index
registers. DS and ES are the default segments for index registers, SI and DI respectively.
This is a special case of register indirect addressing mode.
Ex: MOV AX, [SI]
Here, data is available at an offset address stored in SI in DS. The effective address, in
this case, is computed as 10*DS+[SI].

6. Register Relative: In this addressing mode, the data is available at an effective

address formed by adding an 8-bit or 16-bit displacement with the content of any one of
the registers BX, BP, SI and DI in the default (either DS or ES) segment.
Ex: MOV AX, 50H[BX]
Here, the effective address is given as 10H *DS+50H+[BX]

7. Based Indexed: The effective address of data is formed, in this addressing mode, by
adding content of a base register (any one of BX or BP) to the content of an index register
(any one of SI or DI). The default segment register may be ES or DS.
Ex: MOV AX, [BX][SI]
Here, BX is the base register and SI is the index register the effective address is
computed as 10H * DS + [BX] + [SI].
8. Relative Based Indexed: The effective address is formed by adding an 8 or 16-bit
displacement with the sum of the contents of any one of the base register (BX or BP) and
any one of the index register, in a default segment.
Ex: MOV AX, 50H [BX] [SI]
Here, 50H is an immediate displacement, BX is base register and SI is an index register
the effective address of data is computed as 10H * DS + [BX] + [SI] + 50H
For control transfer instructions, the addressing modes depend upon whether the
destination is within the same segment or different one. It also depends upon the
method of passing the destination address to the processor. Basically, there are two
addressing modes for the control transfer instructions, intersegment addressing and
Intra-segment addressing modes. If the location to which the control is to be transferred
lies in a different segment other than the current one, the mode is called intersegment
mode. If the destination location lies in the same segment, the mode is called intra-
segment mode.

Addressing modes for Control Transfer Instructions

9. Intra-segment Direct Mode: In this mode, the address to which the control is to be
transferred lies in the same segment in which the control transfer instruction lies and
appears directly in the instruction as an immediate displacement value. In this
addressing mode, the displacement is computed relative to the content of the instruction
pointer IP. The effective address to which the control will be transferred is given by the
sum of 8 or 16-bit displacement and current content of IP. In the case of jump
instruction, if the signed displacement (d) is of 8-bits (i.e –128<d<+128) we
term it as short jump and if it is of 16-bits (i.e-32, 768<d<+32,768) it is termed as long
jump.
10. Intra-segment Indirect Mode: In this mode, the displacement to which the control
is to be transferred, is in the same segment in which the control transfer instruction lies,
but it is passed to the instruction indirectly. Here, the
branch address is found as the content of a register or a memory location. This
addressing mode may be used in unconditional branch instructions.
 11. Inter-segment Direct: In this mode, the address to which the control is to be
transferred is in a different segment. This addressing mode provides a means of
branching from one code segment to another code segment. Here, the CS
and IP of the destination address are specified directly in the instruction.
12. Inter-segment Indirect: In this mode, the address to which the control is to be
transferred lies in a different segment and it is passed to the instruction indirectly, i.e
contents of a memory block containing four bytes, i.e IP (LSB), IP(MSB), CS(LSB) and CS
(MSB) sequentially. The starting address of the memory block may be referred using any
of the addressing modes, except immediate mode.
7. Explain the forming of effective addresses in different modes of 8086 µProcessor.
Forming the effective Addresses:
The following examples explain forming of the effective addresses in the different modes.
Ex: 1. The contents of different registers are given below. Form effective addresses for
different addressing modes.
Offset (displacement)=5000H
[AX]-1000H, [BX]- 2000H, [SI]-3000H, [DI]-4000H, [BP]-5000H, [SP]-6000H,
[CS]-0000H, [DS]-1000H, [SS]-2000H, [IP]-7000H
Shifting segment address four bits to the left is equivalent to multiplying it by 16D or
10H
i. Direct addressing mode: ii. Register indirect:
MOV AX,[5000H] MOV AX, [BX]
DS : OFFSET ↔ 1000H : 5000H DS: BX ↔ 1000H: 2000H
10H*DS ↔ 10000—segment address 10H*DS↔ 10000—segment address
offset ↔ +5000---offset address [BX] ↔ +2000---offset address
_______ ________
15000H – Effective address 12000H – Effective address
_______ ________

iii. Register relative: iv. Based indexed:

MOV AX, 5000 [BX] MOV AX, [BX] [SI]
DS : [5000+BX]
DS : [BX + SI]
10H*DS ↔ 10000
10H*DS ↔ 10000
offset ↔ +5000
[BX] ↔ +2000
[BX] ↔ +2000
[SI] ↔ +3000
________
_______
17000H – Effective address
15000H – Effective address
________
_______

v. Relative based index:

MOV AX, 5000[BX][SI]
DS : [BX+SI+5000]
10H*DS ↔ 10000
[BX] ↔ +2000
[SI] ↔ +3000
+5000
___________
1A000H – Effective address
___________