Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Advanced Topics in Computer Networks

May need to traverse multiple links to reach a destination

Ad Hoc Networks
Chalermek Intanagonwiwat
Slides courtesy of Golden G. Richard III, Jim Thompson, Musenki, and Nitin Vaidya

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Mobility causes route changes

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Formed by wireless hosts which may be mobile Dont need a pre-existing infrastructure Routes between nodes potentially contain multiple hops Why MANET?
ie, dont need a backbone network, routers, etc.

Ease, speed of deployment Decreased dependence on infrastructure Can use in many scenarios where deployment of a wired network is impractical or impossible Lots of military applications, but there are others

Many Applications
Personal area networking Military environments Civilian environments
soldiers, tanks, planes cell phone, laptop, ear phone, wrist watch

Many Variations
Fully Symmetric Environment
all nodes have identical capabilities and responsibilities

Asymmetric Capabilities
transmission ranges and radios may differ battery life at different nodes may differ processing capacity may be different at different nodes speed of movement different

Emergency operations
search-and-rescue policing and fire fighting

meeting rooms sports stadiums groups of boats, small aircraft (wired REALLY impractical!!)

Asymmetric Responsibilities
only some nodes may route packets some nodes may act as leaders of nearby nodes (e.g., cluster head)

Many Variations
Traffic characteristics may differ
bandwidth timeliness constraints reliability requirements unicast / broadcast / multicast / geocast

Many Variations
Mobility patterns may be different
people sitting at an airport lounge (little mobility) taxi cabs (highly mobile) military movements (mostly clustered?) personal area network (again, mostly clustered?)

Mobility characteristics
speed predictability
direction of movement pattern of movement

May co-exist (and co-operate) with an infrastructure-based network

uniformity (or lack thereof) of mobility characteristics among different nodes

Challenges
Limited wireless transmission range Broadcast nature of the wireless medium Packet losses due to transmission errors Environmental issues (chop that tree!!) Mobility-induced route changes Mobility-induced packet losses Battery constraints Potentially frequent network partitions Ease of snooping on wireless transmissions (security hazard)

Hidden Terminal Problem

Nodes A and C cannot hear each other Transmissions by nodes A and C can collide at node B On collision, both transmissions are lost Nodes A and C are hidden from each other

Why is Ad hoc Routing Different?

Host mobility
link failure/repair due to mobility may have different characteristics than those due to other causes traditional routing algorithms assume relatively stable network topology, few router failures

Routing Protocols
Proactive protocols
Determine routes independent of traffic pattern Traditional link-state and distance-vector routing protocols are proactive Maintain routes between every host pairs at all times Based on periodic updates High routing overhead Example: DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)

Rate of link failure/repair may be high when nodes move fast New performance criteria may be used
route stability despite mobility energy consumption

Routing Protocols (cont.)

Reactive protocols
Maintain routes only if needed Sources initiates route discovery Example: DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) and AODV (Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector)

Trade-Off
Latency of route discovery
Proactive protocols may have lower latency since routes are maintained at all times Reactive protocols may have higher latency because a route from X to Y will be found only when X attempts to send to Y

Overhead of route discovery/maintenance

Reactive protocols may have lower overhead since routes are determined only if needed Proactive protocols can (but not necessarily) result in higher overhead due to continuous route updating

Hybrid protocols
Adaptive Combination of proactive and reactive Example: ZRP (Zone Routing Protocol)

Which approach achieves a better tradeoff depends on the traffic and mobility patterns

Destination-Sequenced DistanceVector (DSDV)

Each node maintains a routing table which stores
next hop, cost metric towards each destination a sequence number that is created by the destination itself

Destination-Sequenced DistanceVector (cont.)

Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence number for itself When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the sequence number of the route and advertises it with infinite metric Destination advertises new sequence number

Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors

Each node increments and appends its sequence number when sending its local routing table

Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater sequence numbers are preferred

Destination-Sequenced DistanceVector (cont.)

When X receives information from Y about a route to Z
Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent from Y If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to equal S(Y)

Flooding for Data Delivery

Sender S broadcasts data packet P to all its neighbors Each node receiving P forwards P to its neighbors Sequence numbers used to avoid the possibility of forwarding the same packet more than once Packet P reaches destination D provided that D is reachable from sender S Node D does not forward the packet

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Flooding for Data Delivery

Broadcast transmission Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L Y

Represents a node that has received packet P Represents that connected nodes are within each others transmission range

Represents a node that receives packet P for the first time Represents transmission of packet P

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Node H receives packet P from two neighbors: potential for collision

Node C receives packet P from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded packet P once

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Nodes J and K both broadcast packet P to node D Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide => Packet P may not be delivered to node D at all, despite the use of flooding!!

Node D does not forward packet P, because node D is the intended destination of packet P

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Flooding for Data Delivery

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Flooding completed

Nodes unreachable from S do not receive packet P (e.g., node Z) Nodes for which all paths from S go through the destination D also do not receive packet P (example: node N)

Flooding may deliver packets to too many nodes (in the worst case, all nodes reachable from sender may receive the packet)

Flooding for Data Delivery: Advantages

Simplicity May be more efficient than other protocols when rate of information transmission is low enough that the overhead of explicit route discovery/maintenance incurred by other protocols is relatively higher
this scenario may occur, for instance, when nodes transmit small data packets relatively infrequently, and many topology changes occur between consecutive packet transmissions

Flooding for Data Delivery: Advantages (cont.)

Potentially higher reliability of data delivery
Because packets may be delivered to the destination on multiple paths

For high mobility patterns, may be the only reasonable choice?

Flooding for Data Delivery: Disadvantages

Potentially, very high overhead
Data packets may be delivered to too many nodes who do not need to receive them Flooding uses broadcasting -- hard to implement reliable broadcast delivery without significantly increasing overhead
Broadcasting in IEEE 802.11 MAC is unreliable

Flooding of Control Packets

Many protocols perform (potentially limited) flooding of control packets, instead of data packets The control packets are used to discover routes Discovered routes are subsequently used to send data packet(s) Overhead of control packet flooding is amortized over data packets transmitted between consecutive control packet floods

Potentially, lower reliability of data delivery

In our example, nodes J and K may transmit to node D simultaneously, resulting in loss of the packet
in this case, destination would not receive the packet at all

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ) Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ

Route Discovery in DSR

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

Route Discovery in DSR

Broadcast transmission [S] S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L Z Y

Route Discovery in DSR

Y Z S B A C H [S,C] I G K E [S,E] F J D N M

Represents transmission of RREQ [X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors: potential for collision

Route Discovery in DSR

Y Z S B A C H I G [S,C,G] K E F [S,E,F] J D N M L

Route Discovery in DSR

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F [S,E,F,J] J D [S,C,G,K] N

Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide

Route Discovery in DSR

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N [S,E,F,J,M] M L

Route Discovery in DSR

Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP) RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route appended to received RREQ RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was received by node D

Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the route discovery

Route Reply in DSR

Y Z S B A C H I G K E RREP [S,E,F,J,D] F J D N M

Route Reply in DSR

Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request (RREQ) only if links are guaranteed to be bi-directional
L

If unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP may need a route discovery for S from node D

To ensure this, RREQ should be forwarded only if it received on a link that is known to be bi-directional

Unless node D already knows a route to node S If a route discovery is initiated by D for a route to S, then the Route Reply is piggybacked on the Route Request from D.

Represents RREP control message

DSR: More
Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the RREP When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in the packet header Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded Note that routes are discovered ONLY when a node wants to send data to a node and no route to that node is available
hence the name source routing

Data Delivery in DSR

Y DATA [S,E,F,J,D] S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L Z

Packet header size grows with route length

DSR Optimization: Route Caching

Each node caches a new route it learns by any E.g., When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also learns route [S,E,F] to node F When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for node D, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F learns route [F,J,D] to node D

DSR Optimization: Route Caching (cont.)

When node E forwards data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D] to node D A node may also learn a route when it overhears data packets, even though it is not directly involved in the transmission
Promiscuous Mode

means

Route Caching (cont.)

When node S learns that a route to node D is broken, it uses another route from its local cache, if such a route to D exists in its cache. Otherwise, node S initiates route discovery by sending a route request Node X on receiving a Route Request for some node D can send a Route Reply directly if node X knows a route to node D Use of route cache
can speed up route discovery can reduce propagation of route requests
[P,Q,R]

Route Caching (cont.)

[S,E,F,J,D] [E,F,J,D]

S B A C H
[C,S]

[F,J,D],[F,E,S]

F G
[G,C,S]

[J,F,E,S]

J K Z D

Represents cached route at a node (DSR maintains the cached routes in a tree format)

Route Caching (cont.)

[S,E,F,J,D] [E,F,J,D]

Route Error (RERR)

Y RERR [J-D] Z S E C H I G K F J D N M L

S B A C H
[C,S]

[F,J,D],[F,E,S]

F
[G,C,S]

[J,F,E,S]

G I
[K,G,C,S] K RREQ

J D
RREP

L A N

When node Z sends a route request Z for node C, node K sends back a route reply [Z,K,G,C] to node Z using a locally cached route

J sends a route error to S along route J-F-E-S when its attempt to forward the data packet S (with route SEFJD) on J-D fails Nodes hearing RERR update their route cache to remove link J-D

Route Caching: Beware!

Stale caches can adversely affect performance With passage of time and host mobility, cached routes may become invalid A sender host may try several stale routes (obtained from local cache, or replied from cache by other nodes), before finding a good route It may be more expensive to try several broken routes than to simply discover a new one!!

DSR: Advantages
Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches
reduces overhead of route maintenance

DSR: Disadvantages
Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated by neighboring nodes insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ

DSR: Disadvantages (cont.)

Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes replying using their local cache Route Reply Storm problem Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route

DSR: Disadvantages (cont.)

An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus polluting other caches This problem can be eased if some mechanism to purge (potentially) invalid cached routes is incorporated.
Static timeouts Adaptive timeouts based on expected rate of mobility

DSR w/ Implicit Source Routing

Enhancement to make transmission of data packets cheaper Dont send entire source route with data packet Instead, establish a numbered flow between source and destination Flow identifier is attached to data packets instead of route

Details of Implicit Source Routing (cont.)

Replace source route on each data packet with the following tuple:
Source address and destination address can actually be obtained from IP header Each node maintains a flow table that identifies current flows Flows are established with a flow establishment packet
Contains source route + unique flow ID + timeout <source address, destination address, flowID>

Details of Implicit Source Routing (cont.)

In addition to forwarding flow packet toward the destination, a forwarding node makes an entry in its flow table Entry will be removed from the flow table if a packet doesnt traverse the flow for duration timeout Subsequent data packets, after initial flow establishment, contain only the tuple previously described

Details of Implicit Source Routing (cont.)

If a node receives a tuple
<source address, destination address, flowID> and does not understand the flowID, then a FLOW UNKNOWN error is transmitted toward the sender Upon receiving FLOW UNKNOWN, sender must reestablish the flow Paper assumes three duplicate flow establishment packets are sent Redundancy increases likelihood that at least one flow establishment will be received at each node in the source route

Default Flows
Can use most recent flow for each <source, destination> as default Transmit no additional info on data packets Nodes on path between source and destination examine TTL of packet to see if they should forward If source, destination, TTL match most recent flow, forward as if flow ID were present

Route Shortening
Illustration:
S A B C D is source route C overhears packet when S transmits C sends gratuitous ROUTE REPLY to S, containing S C D to replace old route Associate a hop count with each flow table entry Hearing a packet with a hop count less than expected means gratuitous ROUTE REPLY should be sent

Packet Delivery Ratio

With implicit source routing:

Latency

Path Length (vs. Optimal)

Overhead: Routing Packets Only

Routing Overhead (Total)

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)

DSR includes source routes in packet headers Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance

AODV Message Types

RREQ (Route Request)
Discover a route to a destination

AODV attempts to improve on vanilla DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only between nodes which need to communicate Implicit source routing version of DSR has largely removed the improvements that AODV had over vanilla DSR

particularly when data contents of a packet are small

RREP (Route Reply) RERR (Route Error)

Propagate info about broken links

AODV: Local Data

Each node maintains node sequence # broadcast ID (uniquely identifies a particular RREQ) Also maintains a routing table, one entry per destination Each entry in routing table contains: destination IP next hop IP # of hops to destination Sequence # for destination precursor infowho routes THROUGH me to this destination? Expiration time for this entry

AODV: RREQ contents

Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to DSR Before sending a RREQ: Source increments the broadcast ID Source increments its source sequence number RREQ contains: Source IP Source sequence # Broadcast ID Destination IP Destination sequence # Hop count (initially zero, incremented on each hop toward destination) Flags

Each time the route entry is used to send data to the destination, the expiration time is pushed forward

AODV: RREP Contents

RREP contains:
Hop Count Destination IP Address Destination Sequence Number Originator IP Address Lifetime

More RREQ
When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a reverse path pointing towards the source When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it replies by sending a Route Reply Route Reply travels along the reverse path setup when Route Request is forwarded If a node knows a route to the destination, it can reply directly to the node that forwarded the RREQ
AODV assumes bi-directional links!

Flags

Time in milliseconds for which route associated with RREP is valid

Route Requests in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Route Requests in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

Represents transmission of RREQ

Route Requests in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Represents links on Reverse Path

Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Reverse Path Setup in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the RREQ

Route Reply in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Route Reply in AODV

An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S To determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent, destination sequence numbers are used Works because a new Route Request by node S for a destination is assigned a higher destination sequence number. An intermediate node which knows a route, but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply

Represents links on path taken by RREP

Forward Path Setup in AODV

Y Z S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L

Data Delivery in AODV

Y DATA S B A C H I G K E F J D N M L Z

Forward links are setup when RREP travels along the reverse path Represents a link on the forward path

Routing table entries used to forward data packet. Route is not included in packet header.

Timeouts
A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a timeout interval
timeout should be long enough to allow RREP to come back

Link Failure Reporting

A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table entry if the neighbor sent a packet within active_route_timeout interval which was forwarded using that entry When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active neighbors are informed Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR) messages, which also update destination sequence numbers

A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used for an active_route_timeout interval
if no data is sent using a particular routing table entry, that entry will be deleted from the routing table (even if the route may actually still be valid)

Route Error (RERR) messages

When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D) on link (X,Y):
X increments the destination sequence number for D in its routing table sets the hop count to D through Y to generates an RERR, which includes the updated sequence number set their sequence number for D to the one in the RERR set the hop count for their route to D to this means the known route to D is broken

Link Failure Detection

Hello messages: Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello messages Absence of hello message is used as an indication of link failure Alternatively, failure to receive several MAC-level acknowledgements may be used as an indication of link failure

Nodes receiving the RERR:

Why Use Sequence Numbers?

To avoid using old/broken routes To prevent formation of loops
A B E Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by C is lost Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via path C-E-A) Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B Results in a loop (for instance, C-E-A-B-C ) C

Why Sequence Numbers (cont.)

D through B, seq #1

To determine which route is newer

B E

Loop would look like thisbut prevented, because the new RREQ sent by C contains a destination sequence # for D of *2*--this means that the next hop A B to D cant be used. The sequence number reveals that the route is too old!

Optimization: Expanding Ring Search

Route Requests are initially sent with small Time-to-Live (TTL) field, to limit their propagation
DSR also includes a similar optimization

Summary: AODV Unicast

Routes need not be included in packet headers Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for routes that are in active use At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each node
DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination

If no Route Reply is received, then larger TTL tried

Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

Simulation: AODV vs. DSR

Documented in "Performance Comparison of Two On-demand Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks" Vanilla DSR (NOT implicit source routes) Comparison under a number of different traffic loads and mobility parameters ns-2 simulation package 2Mb/sec 802.11, 250m range Send queue of 64 packets 30seconds max to find a route before it is dropped from the send queue

Mobility Model
Random waypoint model
Initial random location Choose destination on grid Move to destination at speed of 0-20m/sec Pause Choose new destination and repeat

1500x300 w/ 50 nodes

2200x600 w/ 100 nodes

900 seconds 4 512-byte packets/sec (except for 40 senders, 3 per sec) 500 seconds 4 512-byte packets/sec for 10/20 senders, 2 per sec for 40 senders

Some limitations imposed by resource requirements of the simulator

Interesting Metrics
Delivery fraction (% of packets delivered successfully) Average end-to-end delay (# secs to deliver a data packet) Normalized routing load

50 nodes, packet delivery %

10 sources

# of packets (routing, etc.) per data packet delivered E.g., each hop in a RREQ counts as one packet

20 sources

50 nodes, packet delivery %

30 sources

50 nodes, delay
10 sources

40 sources

20 sources

50 nodes, delay
30 sources

50 nodes, routing load

10 sources

40 sources

20 sources

50 nodes, routing load

30 sources

100 nodes, packet delivery %

10 sources

20 sources 40 sources 40 sources

100 nodes, delay

10 sources

100 nodes, routing load

10 sources

20 sources

20 sources

40 sources

40 sources

Observations
More stressful situations:
AODV better in terms of packet delivery % DSR attempts to use too many stale routes DSR delay much higher DSR loses many packets because route discovery takes too longsend queue fills, drops packets

Observations (cont.)
DSR almost always has better routing load (in terms of # packets!) DSR caches routes, so can eliminate many full route request/reply cycles DSR does generate a lot of RREPs..so in terms of # bytes transmitted, difference from AODV is not so great

Less stressful situations:

DSR better. Route caching good. DSR delay comparable to AODV

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Link Reversal Algorithm

Attempts to keep link reversals local to where the failure occurred
But this is not guaranteed

Link Reversal Methods

Advantages
Link reversal methods attempt to limit updates to routing tables at nodes in the vicinity of a broken link Each node may potentially have multiple routes to a destination Need a mechanism to detect link failure hello messages may be used If network is partitioned, link reversals continue indefinitely

When the first packet is sent to a destination, the destination oriented DAG is constructed The initial construction does result in flooding of control packets

Disadvantages

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)

Route optimality is considered of secondary importance; longer routes may be used At each node, a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each destination, that computes the height of the node with respect to the destination Height captures number of hops and next hop

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (cont.)

Route discovery is by using query and update packets TORA modifies the partial link reversal method to be able to detect partitions When a partition is detected, all nodes in the partition are informed, and link reversals in that partition cease

Location-Aided Routing (LAR)

Exploits location information to limit scope of route request flood Expected Zone is determined as a region that is expected to hold the current location of the destination
Expected region determined based on potentially old location information, and knowledge of the destinations speed Location information may be obtained using GPS

Request Zone
Define a Request Zone LAR is same as flooding, except that only nodes in request zone forward route request Smallest rectangle including S and expected zone for D

Route requests limited to a Request Zone that contains the Expected Zone and location of the sender node

Location Aided Routing (LAR)

Advantages
reduces the scope of route request flood reduces overhead of route discovery

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X are said to be in the routing zone of node X All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be peripheral nodes of node Xs routing zone Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all nodes within the source nodes own zone. Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar to DSR or AODV) to determine routes to outside zone.

Disadvantages
Nodes need to know their physical locations Does not take into account possible existence of obstructions for radio transmissions

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

Radius of routing zone = 2