Assignment 04

Q1) What is Internet Protocol Routing?

IP Routing is an umbrella term for the set of protocols that determine the path that data
follows in order to travel across multiple networks from its source to its destination. Data is
routed from its source to its destination through a series of routers, and across multiple
networks. The IP Routing protocols enable routers to build up a forwarding table that
correlates final destinations with next hop addresses.

These protocols include:

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

 IS-IS (Intermediate System - Intermediate System)
 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
When an IP packet is to be forwarded, a router uses its forwarding table to determine the
next hop for the packet's destination (based on the destination IP address in the IP packet
header), and forwards the packet appropriately. The next router then repeats this process
using its own forwarding table, and so on until the packet reaches its destination. At each
stage, the IP address in the packet header is sufficient information to determine the next
hop; no additional protocol headers are required.

The Internet, for the purpose of routing, is divided into Autonomous Systems (ASs). An AS is
a group of routers that are under the control of a single administration and exchange
routing information using a common routing protocol. For example, a corporate intranet or
an ISP network can usually be regarded as an individual AS. The Internet can be visualized
as a partial mesh of ASs. An AS can be classified as one of the following three types.

A Stub AS has a single connection to one other AS. Any data sent to, or received from, a
destination outside the AS must travel over that connection. A small campus network is an
example of a stub AS.

A Transit AS has multiple connections to one or more ASs, which permits data that is not
destined for a node within that AS to travel through it. An ISP network is an example of a
transit AS.

A Multihomed AS also has multiple connections to one or more ASs, but it does not permit
data received over one of these connections to be forwarded out of the AS again. In other
words, it does not provide a transit service to other ASs. A Multihomed AS is similar to a
Stub AS, except that the ingress and egress points for data traveling to or from the AS can
be chosen from one of a number of connections, depending on which connection offers the
shortest route to the eventual destination. A large enterprise network would normally be a
multihomed AS.

Q2) What is Static and Dynamic Routing? Explain with advantages

and disadvantages.
What is Static Routing?
In static routing, the routes show the path between two routers that cannot be updated

automatically. The path is manually updated. If the changes occur on the network side, we

need to update the routing table’s changing path. Routing tables are the tables that contain

the routing information. Static routing is easy  to design and implement, as there is not a

complex path. Static routing is the best choice when the number of routers is less as it

requires manual updates. Static routing is also known for non-adaptive routing as it does

not adopt the routing path automatically.

What is Dynamic Routing?

In dynamic routing, the routers show the path between two routers that can be updated

automatically. Paths are automatically updated. If the changes occur on the network side,

there is no need to update the routing path manually; routing paths will automatically be

updated. Paths between routers are known as routing paths. When changes occur at the

network, it sends messages to a router to inform about changes. The router updates the

changes and using routing algorithm routes, i.e. routing paths are calculated and updated

in the table. Dynamic routing also is known for adaptive routing as it adopts the routing

path automatically.
The routes or paths on which the dynamic routing is performed are known as a dynamic

path or dynamic routes.in this routing; the information is responsive to the network changes

to updated the changes dynamically. Responsive means it changes according to the

network changes. It adjusts itself with respect to the network changes.

Q3) What are different types of Routing Protocols? Explain.

1. Distance Vector Routing Protocol :
These protocols select the best path on the basis of hop counts to reach a destination
network in a particular direction. Dynamic protocol like RIP is an example of a distance
vector routing protocol. Hop count is each router that occurs in between the source and the
destination network. The path with the least hop count will be chosen as the best path. 
Features – 
Updates of the network are exchanged periodically. 
Updates (routing information) are always broadcast. 
Full routing tables are sent in updates. 
Routers always trust routing information received from neighbor routers. This is also known
as routing on rumors. 
 
Disadvantages – 
As the routing information is exchanged periodically, unnecessary traffic is generated which
consumes available bandwidth. 
As full routing tables are exchanged, therefore it has security issues. If an authorized person
enters the network, then the whole topology will be very easy to understand. 
Also, the broadcasting of the network periodically creates unnecessary traffic. 
 
2. Link State Routing Protocol :
These protocols know more about Internetwork than any other distance vector routing
protocol. These are also known as SPF (Shortest Path First) protocol. OSPF is an example of
link-state routing protocol. 
Features – 
Hello, messages, also known as keep-alive messages are used for neighbor discovery and
recovery. 
Concept of triggered updates is used i.e updates are triggered only when there is a topology
change. 
Only that many updates are exchanged which is requested by the neighbor router. 
 
Link state routing protocol maintains three tables namely: 
Neighbor table- the table which contains information about the neighbors of the router
only, i.e, to which adjacency has been formed. 
Topology table-  This table contains information about the whole topology i.e contains both
best and backup routes to a particular advertised networks. 
Routing table- This table contains all the best routes to the advertised network. 
 
Advantages – 
As it maintains separate tables for both the best route and the backup routes ( whole
topology) therefore it has more knowledge of the internetwork than any other distance
vector routing protocol. 
Concept of triggered updates is used therefore no more unnecessary bandwidth
consumption is seen like in distance vector routing protocol. 
Partial updates are triggered when there is a topology change, not a full update like
distance vector routing protocol where the whole routing table is exchanged. 
 
3. Advanced Distance vector routing protocol :
It is also known as hybrid routing protocol which uses the concept of both distance vector
and link-state routing protocol.  Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)  is an
example of this class of routing protocol. EIGRP acts as a link-state routing protocol as it
uses the concept of Hello protocol for neighbor discovery and forming an adjacency. Also,
partial updates are triggered when a change occurs. EIGRP acts as a distance-vector routing
protocol as it learned routes from directly connected neighbors.

Q4) What are different modes in router?

There are four operating modes in the router settings — the main mode and three
additional modes:
  Router (A) — main mode;
 Adapter (B) — connect Ethernet devices to a Wi-Fi network;
 Repeater/Extender (C) — Wi-Fi extension;
 Access point/Extender (D) — expansion of the Wi-Fi area with Ethernet connection.
1. Router Mode (A)

The device works in this mode as a regular router with the ability to connect to a provider
via Ethernet, PON modem, Wi-Fi or via a 3G/4G USB modem. This mode is preset by default
in the factory settings. By default, the Keenetic has IP address translation (NAT), and DHCP
server enabled to assign IP addresses to clients automatically.

2. Adapter Mode (B)

In Adapter Mode, the router must be connected to the wireless network of the main router.
In this mode, the device works as a wireless bridge with a disabled own access point,
providing access to the Wi-Fi network to all devices connected via cable to its network ports.
For more information on configuring this mode, see the article 'Adapter Mode,  Configuring
Adapter Mode on models with an A/B operating mode switch'.

3. Repeater/Extender Mode (C)

Repeater/Extender Mode expands the area of coverage of your Wi-Fi network without
additional cables.
In this mode, the device works as a wireless bridge with the ability to connect wireless
clients and Ethernet network devices to its Wi-Fi network. This mode is ideal for extending
an existing Wi-Fi network area. If necessary, you can use this mode for  Seamless Wi-Fi
roaming.
The Wi-Fi settings on the Main Router and a repeater will be identical, as the device copies
the wireless network parameters from the Main Router (in the case of the Keenetic dual-
band model both 2.4 and 5 GHz Wi-Fi networks are enhanced). Your wireless clients will
switch between the Main Router and a repeater without any additional reconfiguration,
depending on the signal level at any point in the apartment. You can connect clients to the
repeater using both wireless network or Ethernet cable.
For more information on configuring this mode, see the article 'Repeater/Extender Mode'.

4. Access point/Extender Mode (D)

The Keenetic works as a normal network switch with a wireless access point in this mode.
The mode is used to expand the Wi-Fi area with an Ethernet cable connection. This option is
useful if you want to extend the coverage of an existing Wi-Fi network without
compromising its maximum performance. If necessary, you can use seamless Wi-Fi
roaming  in this mode.
Connect the router to your home network using an Ethernet cable, and then connect your
wireless devices to it. By default, in Access Point/Extender Mode, your wireless network will
work with the password and network name that are shown on the label on the additional
router, but you can change them to the settings of the Main Router.
For more information on configuring this mode, see the article 'Access Point/Extender
Mode'.

Q5) What is Default Route?

A default route is the route that takes effect when no other route is available for an IP
destination address.

If a packet is received on a routing device, the device first checks to see if the IP destination
address is on one of the device’s local subnets. If the destination address is not local, the
device checks its routing table. If the remote destination subnet is not listed in the routing
table, the packet is forwarded to the next hop toward the destination using the default
route. The default route generally has a next-hop address of another routing device, which
performs the same process. The process repeats until a packet is delivered to the
destination.

The route evaluation process in each router uses the longest prefix match method to obtain
the most specific route. The network with the longest subnet mask that matches the
destination IP address is the next-hop network gateway.

The default route in IPv4 is designated as 0.0.0.0/0 or simply 0/0. Similarly, in IPv6, the
default route is specified as ::/0. The subnet mask /0 specifies all networks, and is the
shortest match possible. A route lookup that does not match any other route uses this route
if it is configured and active in the routing table. To be active, the configured next-hop
address must be reachable.

Administrators generally point the default route toward the routing device that has a
connection to a network service provider. Therefore, packets with destinations outside the
organization's local area network, typically destinations on the Internet or a wide area
network, are forwarded to the routing device with the connection to that provider. The
device to which the default route points is often called the default gateway.