FOC

1.Explain about characteristics of computer

ANSWER:
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

Accuracy

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used
to store data.

2.Write about the binary to other number conversions

ANSWER:

Decimal to Binary

Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the number by 2 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary equivalent.
4310 = 1010112

Decimal to Octal

Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 8 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.
Reading the remainders from bottom to top,
47310 = 7318

Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 16 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,

42310 = 1A716

3. Explain about computer memory devices

Memory Devices
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types
 Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory
 External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.

 Capacity in terms of storage increases.

 Cost per bit of storage decreases.
 Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
 Access time by the CPU increases.

RAM

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program
result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of
time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips
use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data.
This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.

ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM −
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip
there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only
once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than
ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the
charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.

Serial Access Memory

Sequential access means the system must search the storage device from the beginning of the
memory address until it finds the required piece of data. Memory device which supports such
access is called a Sequential Access Memory or Serial Access Memory. Magnetic tape is an
example of serial access memory.

Direct Access Memory

Direct access memory or Random Access Memory, refers to conditions in which a system
can go directly to the information that the user wants. Memory device which supports such
access is called a Direct Access Memory. Magnetic disks, optical disks are examples of direct
access memory.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs, are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.
Advantages
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are not
completely available in memory. The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs
can be larger than physical memory. Virtual memory is the separation of user logical memory
from physical memory.
This separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers
when only a smaller physical memory is available. Following are the situations, when entire
program is not required to be loaded fully in main memory.
 User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in
the data or computation.
  Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
 Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a
small amount of the table is actually used.
 The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would
counter many benefits.
 Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into
memory.
 A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory
that is available.
 Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be
run the same time, with a corresponding increase in CPU utilization and
throughput.

Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It normally stores
system programs, instruction and data files. It is also known as secondary memory. It can also
be used as an overflow/virtual memory in case the main memory capacity has been exceeded.
Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a processor. First the data/information of
auxiliary memory is transferred to the main memory and then that information can be
accessed by the CPU. Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are following −
 Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when power is cut off.
 Reusable − The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until it
is not overwritten or deleted by the user.
 Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability
of secondary storage device.
 Convenience − With the help of a computer software, authorised people can
locate and access the data quickly.
 Capacity − Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of
multiple disks.
 Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary
memory.
4.Explain about the LOGIC GATES
LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit
having one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship between the input
and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic gates are named as AND gate,
OR gate, NOT gate etc.

AND Gate

A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and
one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

OR Gate

A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram
Truth Table

NOT Gate

NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NAND Gate

A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
Truth Table

NOR Gate

A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

XOR Gate

XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate.
It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.
Logic diagram

Truth Table

XNOR Gate

XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtractor. The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR
gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table