to combine those three sentences into one longer and more interesting

sentence."
6. Alert learners about errors to avoid. "I have to be careful not to cut
out too much information, so that I don't lose the meaning. I also need to
watch out for sentences that become too long. A reader can lose the
meaning of a sentence that's too long."
7. Access the use of the skill. "Now I'm going to reread my new sentence
to see if it makes sense."

When learners have a skill or strategy modeled, and not just merely told, they gain a
deeper understanding for when to apply it, what to watch out for, and how to analyze
their success. This is consistent with four dimensions of learning: declarative (What is
it?), procedural (How do I use it?), conditional (When and where do I use it?), and
reflective (How do I know I used it correctly?) (Angelo, 1991). You can also see
elements of metacognition emerging in the modeling lesson. Students are not just being
taught how to do something; they are being primed to analyze the success of their use of
what they are learning.

Direct Explanation. This modeling technique requires the teacher to state explicitly what
a process is and how it is to be used, including a model of how it looks or sounds (Duffy,
Roehler, & Rackliffe, 1986). This is accompanied by a clear sequence of instructions that
feature consistent use of language and precise terminology. For example, in her geometry
class, Ms. Nguyen established the purpose of the lesson, which centered on measuring
exterior angles of triangles. She also explained her language goal (to incorporate
vocabulary into discussions and proofs) and social goals (to collaborate with peers in a
group project). Before asking students to work in groups and solve problems and proofs,
she provided a direct explanation of her thinking. She read the definition of the theorem:
"The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the
two nonadjacent interior angles." She then explained her understanding of the theorem:

I know that "sum" is to add up. It's the answer when we add something
up. I also know that "nonadjacent" means "not next to." Non means "not,”
and adjacent means "next to or near." So, this theorem is saying to me
that the measure of the exterior angle—this one [she points to an exterior
angle]—is equal to the sum of the two that are not directly next to the
exterior angle I'm trying to figure out. I also know that some people call
the nonadjacent angles remote interior angles, but that doesn't really
help me here.

She then looks at a problem: "In ∆PQR, m∠Q = 45°, and m∠R = 72°. Find the measure
of an exterior angle at P." Again, she shares her thinking through direct explanation.

Okay, so I know that one angle is 45° and the other one is 72°. Wait, I
don't have to do this in my head. It is always helpful to draw a diagram
and label it with the given information. Let's see, I'll label the triangle like
this and see if it helps. Yes, it does. Now I can see which are
nonadjacent angles and which I need to solve. Easy, now it's just a
calculation problem. I'm ready for another.
She continues this way through two more examples and then moves into guided
instruction, first with the whole class and then with small groups. While she does so, she
provides students in their collaborative learning groups proofs to work on and reminds
them to use the academic vocabulary they have learned in their discussions and on the
proof pages.

Demonstration. Think of the times you have tuned in to a television show to watch a
demonstration of a complicated process you were interested in learning. It may have been
a show on making a soufflé, or redecorating a living room, or casting a fly fishing rod,
but in all cases it was accompanied by the narration of an expert who explained what he
or she was doing. The combination of verbal and visual elements reinforced the most
salient features of the task.

Ms. Lattner has begun a watercolor painting unit in her art class. Her students need to
learn how to stretch the paper correctly in order to have a satisfactory result with their
final product. She begins by naming all the materials she will need for the task, including
watercolor paper, art tape, clean water and two sponges, and a board for mounting the
paper.

The first thing I need to do is check to make sure I have the side of the
paper I want to use facing up. I can paint on either side, but I like to use
the rougher side of the paper because it seems to hold my paint better. I
can run my hand over both sides of the paper to figure out which side is
rougher. The paper needs to soak in the water for a few minutes, so I am
going to place it in the pan and set the timer for three minutes. That way I
won't forget. I used tepid water, which means water that is around room
temperature, in the pan. Hot water can ruin the paper. While it is soaking,
I'll cut the strips of tape I'll need to mount the paper on the board. I have
to make sure that the tape isn't shorter than the length of each side. If it
is, the paper will dry funny, and I'll have a big bubble in it.

After the timer rings, Ms. Lattner continues.

I'm going to be careful as I lift the paper because I want as much water
as possible to drain off it. I can't put a sopping wet paper on the board, or
it will take forever for it to dry.

She holds the paper above the pan to allow the excess water to drain.

I think that's as much water as I'm going to get off of the paper that way.
I've been watching the amount of water dripping in the pan, and it has
slowed down to almost nothing. I know I can get water off another way.
I'm going to lay the paper down on the board and use this sponge to
smooth it. I've checked the sponge to make sure it's clean, and now I'm
going to smooth it using long strokes across the paper. The sponge
absorbs water as it smooths. Now that the paper is smooth, I need to
tape it down. This tape gets sticky on one side, but only after it gets wet.
I use a brown sponge for wetting the tape, so that I never mix up my
 smoothing sponges with my taping ones. You know why? Because that
sticky stuff from the tape gets on the sponge. If I accidentally use that
sponge later for smoothing, I'll get it all over the paper, and it will be
ruined.

The teacher places the tape on all four edges of the paper and affixes it to the wooden
board.

Now it's done! It needs to dry overnight, and when I check it tomorrow, it
will be very tight and smooth. As the paper dries, it contracts, which
means it gets a bit smaller. The tape holds it in place, so the contraction
of the paper stretches it tight. When I paint on it, the surface will be
smooth, and it won't crinkle up as I apply the watercolors to it.

This demonstration included not only the sequence of steps but also insights into how
decisions are made about when to go on to the next step. In addition, Ms. Lattner
carefully noted the errors to avoid when completing this task.

Teaching for Metacognitive Awareness

A second aspect of a successful focus lesson is teaching for meta-cognitive awareness.

This is defined as the learner's mindful acknowledgment of his or her own learning
processes, the conditions under which he or she learns best, and a recognition that
learning has occurred. Metacognitive awareness is truly a lifelong phenomenon and is
therefore not taught in a handful of lessons. Instead, it is something that teachers must
return to again and again. This is accomplished through focus lessons that provide
students with time to recognize that learning has occurred and under what conditions.
Therefore, focus lessons with a metacognitive component ask students to analyze how
they are applying a strategy.

Anderson (2002) has developed a series of four questions that challenge learners to move
from cognition to metacognition. We will expand on each of these questions. We post
these questions on the board at the beginning of a focus lesson and write the answers as
we move through the lesson.

1. "What am I trying to accomplish?" This first question moves the

learners from merely copying a task to analyzing the outcomes. We've
long heard the reminder to "begin with the end in mind" (Covey, 2004, p.
65). Therefore, we pose this question and answer it for our students.
"This math word problem is asking me to figure out how many people can
be served with the number of apple pies at the picnic."
2. "What strategies am I using?" After identifying the problem and the
goal, the next step is to figure out what strategies can be used to achieve
a solution. "I really need to use two strategies to find the answer. First, I
have to multiply the number of slices by the total number of pies. That
will give me the total number of servings. But then I also have to divide
those servings among the people at the picnic."
 3. "How well am I using the strategies?" Once again, monitoring plays
an important role in the acquisition of new learning. The answer to this
question shows students that control of a skill or strategy comes from
pausing from time to time during the process to see whether it's working.
"Before I divide, I need to check to see if what I've multiplied makes
sense. Could it be that 8 apple pies could be cut into a total of 64 slices? I
also want to check my math. Does 8 times 8 equal 64?"
4. "What else could I do?" The goal of this question is to teach students
to think flexibly, rather than allow themselves to be bogged down in the
rigid thinking that often comes with a new skill. It is common at this stage
of learning for students to temporarily forget that they have learned other
skills or strategies previously. Remind them that those familiar strategies
have a role. "I'm still not sure I am doing this correctly. One way I can be
sure is if I draw a diagram of the pies and the people. We've done that
before when we've had tough word problems. I'm going to try that now."

Notice how the metacognitive awareness focus lesson differs from modeling and how it
represents a gradual release of responsibility within this phase of instruction. In the
metacognition focus lesson, the emphasis shifts to direct instruction on a framework for
making decisions about the use of the skill or strategy. Students have already had a focus
lesson or two on how to perform these operations. They are now ready to see how to
examine ways to prepare and plan, select an approach, and monitor the execution of their
plan (Anderson, 2002). The teacher has shifted away from the step-by-step instruction
during the modeling phase; there is less attention on direct explanation and
demonstration.

Public Problem Solving. Novices have difficulty bridging the "how" of new learning to
the "where" and "when" of using the skill or strategy. Public problem solving is a
demonstration of the metacognitive processes an expert engages in, as the teacher makes
his or her thinking transparent to learners.

Ms. Dykstra's students have been reading a passage in their social studies textbooks about
representative and direct democracies. She knows this is a challenging concept for some
and wants to use this opportunity to show how she untangles this confusion.

When I was reading that last section, I got those two ideas all jumbled up
in my head. I thought I understood, but when I tried to restate it in my
head, I realized I didn't have it yet. So I looked back in the book to help
myself. The first thing I did was look for the bolded words. I remember
there were bolded words and that there was a definition in the same
sentence. I reread that to myself, and this time I did it as a whisper-read
so I could hear myself.

She quietly reads the sentences aloud.

That helped, I think. I am going to check myself to be sure. I'll close my

book and see if I can say it in my own words. "A direct democracy means
everyone gets to vote. A representative democracy means people
 choose someone to do the voting for them." Now I'm going to check my
answer with the book to see if I am right.

Ms. Dykstra shows her students throughout the day how she evaluates her own learning
through monitoring and checking. She also reinforces strategies she has taught them
previously by showing them when she applies them, such as rereading, finding bolded
words, and reading aloud to herself when she runs into difficult text.

Think-alouds. Application is the end goal of a series of focus lessons, as focus lessons
prepare learners for assuming more of the cognitive load needed in guided, collaborative,
and independent learning. A think-aloud process provides the chance for the teacher to
combine the cognition introduced through modeling with the thinking skills introduced
through the metacognitive awareness lessons. The key to an effective think-aloud is that
the teacher is using the first person to describe how he or she makes decisions,
implements skills, activates problem-solving protocols, and evaluates whether success
has been achieved. Importantly, this is a chance for students to witness how an expert
merges declarative, procedural, conditional, and reflective knowledge in a fluent fashion.
Fisher and Frey (2007b) describe five key considerations in crafting an effective think-
aloud:

• Keep the focus of the think-aloud tight and brief. It is easy to get
carried away with a think-aloud, allowing it to turn into a rambling
monologue of every thought that wanders through your head. Choose a
short piece of written text, a single math word problem, or one example
of a process. It is better to deliver a short but effective think-aloud than
one that serves only to confuse the learner with too many details.
• Pay attention to your own thinking processes as you design your
think-aloud. This is really very difficult when you are an expert at
something. Nathan and Petrosino (2003) state that "well-developed
subject matter knowledge can lead people to assume that learning should
follow the structure of the subject-matter domain rather than the learning
needs and developmental profiles of novices"—a phenomenon they call
the "expert blind spot" (p. 906). In other words, when you've been very
adept at something for a long time, it can be difficult to retrace your own
learning footsteps to recall a time when this information was new to you.
A successful think-aloud requires you to unpack your own thinking
processes to understand how you arrive at understanding.
• Find your authentic voice when you think aloud. This approach
requires lots of "I" statements, which can feel contrived when you first
begin. As teachers, it seems more comfortable to tell students, using lots
of "you" statements. The problem with those statements is that our
instruction reverts to direct explanation, rather than making the thinking
of an expert transparent. It is useful to find an informal style and to resist
adopting an overly academic voice. Your students will find it more helpful
to hear you say, "Wow—when I first looked at this diagram of the solar
system, I thought right away about what it didn't have in the illustration,
like the asteroid belt and the dwarf planets," rather than, "I analyzed the