El t i Arc

Electric A in
i Gases
G – Contact
C t tM Materials
t i l
Training of ILJIN engineers in Sarajevo
Course I : Electric arc
Lecture No 10

Training Coordinator: Prof.dr. Mirsad KAPETANOVIC,dipl.el.ing

Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Classes of contact materials

‰ Contact materials can be classified into three main groups:

1. pure metals,
2. alloys, and
3. sintered materials.
‰ They can further be classified into:
1. high-conductivity metals and alloys,
2. chemically resistant metals and alloys,
3. refractory metals,
4. etc.

2
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

1
High-conductivity metals

‰ Pertaining to the group of high-conductivity metals are:

1. copper (Cu),
2. aluminum (Al), and
3. silver (Ag).
( g)

‰ All electric contacts for power applications contain a high percentage of those metals.

‰ Busbars are usually made of copper or aluminum. Fretting corrosion should be

prevented and, therefore, busbar terminals may be plated with silver.

3
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - copper (Cu)

‰ Copper is a metal that has a distinctive reddish-

brown color.

‰ Symbol: Cu
‰ A ductile,
ductile malleable
malleable, metallic element that is an
excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
‰ It is widely used for electrical wiring, water piping,
and corrosion-resistant parts, either pure or in
alloys such as brass and bronze.
‰ Atomic number 29; atomic weight 63.55; melting
point 1083°C; boiling point 2595°C; specific gravity
8.92; the valences (see next slide) of copper are 1
and 2.

4
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

2
What are valences and radicals (in chemistry)

‰ A valences is combining capacity of an atom or radical determined by the number of

electrons that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with other atoms.
‰ A positive or negative integer is used to represent this capacity.

‰ In chemistry,
chemistry a radical (more precisely,
precisely a free radical) is an atom,
atom molecule,
molecule or ion that
has unpaired valence electrons or an open electron shell, and therefore may be seen as
having one or more unused covalent bonds.
‰ With some exceptions, these unused bonds make free radicals highly chemically
reactive towards other substances, or even towards themselves. Therefore, most
radicals are reasonably stable only at very low concentrations in inert media or in
vacuum.
‰ A notable example of free radical is the hydroxyl radical (HO), a molecule that is one
hydrogen atom short of a water molecule and thus has one unused bond.
‰ On the other hand, the hydroxyl anion (HO−), the oxide anion (O2−) and the carbenium
cation (CH+3) are not radicals, since the bonds that may appear to be unused are in fact
resolved by the addition or removal of electrons.
‰ Indeed, radicals are intermediate stages in many chemical reactions.
‰ In living organisms, the free radicals and their reaction products regulate many
processes, such as blood pressure, for example.
5
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - copper (Cu)

‰ In nature it is rarely found in the elementary state, and more

often in compounds (minerals).
‰ These minerals are:
ƒ Chalcopyrite; Formula: CuFeS2 (copper iron sulphide);
Also called copper pyrites; Widely distributed brass
brass-
yellow mineral ;The most important ore of copper.
ƒ Chalcocite; Formula: Cu2S (copper sulphide); A dark
gray mineral; An important ore of copper; It has been
mined for centuries and is one of the most profitable
copper ores. The reasons for this is its high copper
content (nearly 80% by weight) and the ease at which
copper can be separated from sulfur.
ƒ Coveline; Formula: CuS (copper monosulfide); Also
called covellite; It is a rare indigo blue mineral; Not an
important ore of copper; It is one of a number of binary
compounds of copper and sulfur, and has attracted
interest because of its potential uses in catalysis and
photovoltaics.
ƒ Cuprite; Formula: Cu2O. A natural reddish secondary
ore of copper, that forms as a result of weathering.
6
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

3
High-conductivity metals - copper (Cu)

‰ Copper is most commonly used as contact material due to its high conductivity.
‰ Copper contacts can be made from extruded bar stock, forged, machined and can be
stamped from plates.
‰ The metal is quite ductile, but can be hardened by additions of zinc (Zn) to form
brass,, or tin (Sn),
( ), aluminum (Al),
( ), silicon (Si),
( ), nickel (Ni),
( ), silver (Ag)
( g) and other
elements to form various bronzes.
‰ Copper contacts can be bolted, welded or brazed.
‰ When no oxide is present the material has a low contact resistance. In bolted or stab
contacts, the contact resistance remains low for long periods of time.

7
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - copper (Cu)

‰ In frequently operated sliding contacts, the mechanical removal of oxide can be

achieved, but this increases the wear of material.
‰ Copper contacts are often plated with Ag for protection against oxide formation.
‰ They are good opening contacts in non-oxidizing environments and under oil. The
t
temperature
t off the
th contacts
t t mustt nott reach
h above
b 100°C d
100°C, due tto th
the ffactt that
th t oxidation
id ti
accelerates significantly at these temperatures.
‰ Copper contacts form strong welds and sufficient opening force should be applied to
break any formed weld.
‰ Arc erosion is severe on copper. Therefore, this material is not suitable for arcing
contacts in apparatus with an intensive arc.
‰ Main disadvantage of cooper contacts is that they create stable oxide layers on the
surface, which grow thicker in time.
‰ Th
The oxide
id can bbe removed
d easily
il and
dddoes nott form
f very quickly
i kl att normall
temperatures.
‰ In power circuits fretting on copper contacts is not a serious problem. It should be
prevented, however, in low-current, low voltage circuits.

8
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

4
High-conductivity metals - silver (Ag)

‰ Silver is a metal with a bright white metallic luster

that can take a high degree of polish.
‰ Symbol: Ag
‰ Silver is a relatively soft, low melting point, ductile
malleable ((slightly
g y harder than g gold)) metal. It has
the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of all
metals, even higher than copper.
‰ Silver is a semi-precious metal used in currency
coins, to make ornaments, and jewelry.
‰ Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and
conductors. Its greater cost has prevented it from
being widely used in place of copper for electrical
purposes.
‰ It is
i usedd iin mirrors
i and
d iin catalysis
t l i off chemical
h i l
reactions. Its compounds are used in photographic
film. Silver compounds are used as disinfectants
and microbiocides
‰ Atomic number 47; atomic weight 107.89; melting
point 962°C; boiling point 2162°C; specific gravity
10.5; the valence of silver is1.
9
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - silver (Ag)

‰ In nature silver is found in native form, alloyed with gold or

combined with sulfur, antimony or chlorine in ores such as:
ƒ Argentite; Formula: Ag2S (cubic silver sulfide); It
occurs in mineral veins, and when found in large
masses, as in is Mexico, it forms an important ore of
silver.
ƒ Chlorargyrite, also called Horn silver; Formula: AgCl
(silver chloride); It is gray, but the color changes to
brown or purple on exposure to light. It is quite soft,
very heavy mineral, an important ore of silver.
ƒ Pyrargyrite, also known as dark red silver ore;
F
Formula:
l A Ag3SbS3 (silver
( il antimony
ti sulphide);
l hid ) It is
i an
important source of the metal. It is a dark red to black
mineral that occurs in silver veins and is an important
ore of silver.

10
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

5
High-conductivity metals - silver (Ag)

‰ Silver contacts can be formed in many ways:

• extruded,
• stamped,
• forged,
g
• etc ...
‰ They can be bolted, welded or brazed and
form excellent spring-loaded connections.
‰ Silver is often plated on copper and aluminum
to act as a terminal or a contact holder.

11
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - silver (Ag)

‰ It produces very thin oxide and sulfide films. Silver oxides are very unstable, so at the
temperature of 200°C, silver oxides will again reduce to pure silver.
‰ Therefore, silver contacts give a very low contact resistance.
‰ With the addition of copper, silver becomes harder and more force has to be used to
maintain
i t i llow values
l off contact
t t resistance.
i t
‰ Silver oxide is very volatile and decomposes under arcing. Oxide and sulfide films are
easily ruptured by reasonable contact forces or wiping action.
‰ Fretting is not a problem in power circuits.
‰ The low boiling point does result in severe erosion by arcs, even at currents of only
tens of amperes. Erosion by arcs is enhanced by the release of oxygen which is usually
present in the metal.
‰ Fortunately, arcs move very well on silver.
‰ Silver is more inclined to welding of contacts than copper.
‰ Silver contacts have found use in miniature low voltage circuit breakers where rapid
contact parting and rapid arc motion off the contacts prevents severe arc erosion and
contact welding.

12
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

6
High-conductivity metals - aluminum (Al)

‰ Aluminum is a metal that has a silvery gray

metallic color. It is the most abundant metal that
makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid
surface.
‰ Symbol: Al
‰ Aluminum is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and
malleable metal.
‰ It is a good thermal and electrical conductor.
‰ It can be easily machined, cast, and extruded.
‰ A mechanical property of pure aluminum is its
weakness, whereas aluminum alloys can have a
high mechanical strength. Therefore, structural
components made from aluminum alloys are vital
to the aerospace industry and very important in
other areas of transportation.
‰ Aluminum is remarkable for its ability to resist
corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation.
‰ Atomic number 13; atomic weight 26.98; melting
point 660°C; boiling point 2519°C; specific gravity
2.7; the valence of aluminium is 3.
13
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Electrolytic process for producing aluminium

‰ Charles Martin Hall discovered an inexpensive

method for the isolation of pure aluminium from its
compounds:
1. The bauxite (red-brown solid), which is aluminium
oxide mixed with impurities, is extracted from the
Earth.
Bauxite, a major aluminium ore.
2. The extracted aluminium oxide is then treated with
The red-brown colour is due to the
alkali, to remove the impurities. This results in a white presence of iron minerals.
solid called aluminium oxide (Al2O3) or alumina.
3. The purified alumina is mixed with cryolite (see next
slide).The mixture melts at a much lower temperature
than aluminum oxide would by itself. This reduces the
total costs of the process.
4. The mixture is then transported to huge tanks lined
with graphite, which acts as the cathode. Blocks of
graphite hang in the middle of the tank acts as anodes
anodes.
5. The hot molten mixture is electrolyzed at a low voltage,
but a high current of 50-150 kA. Aluminum ions are
reduced to aluminum metal at the cathode (the sides
and bottom of the electrolysis cell).
6. At the anode, oxygen is produced from the oxide ions.
The anode is carbon in the form of graphite, which also Electrolysis cell - Hall electrolytic process
is oxidized and must be replaced quite frequently. (Conversion of bauxite ore to aluminum metal)
14
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

7
Cryolite

‰ Cryolite (Na3AlF6, sodium hexafluoroaluminate) is

an uncommon mineral identified with the once
large deposit at Ivigtût on the west coast of
Greenland, depleted by 1987.
‰ It was historically used as an ore of aluminium
and later in the electrolytic processing of the
bauxite.
‰ The difficulty of separating aluminium from oxygen
in the oxide ores was overcome by the use of
cryolite. Pure cryolite itself melts at 1012 °C (1285
K), and it can dissolve the aluminium oxides
sufficiently well to allow easy extraction of the
aluminium by electrolysis.
‰ Substantial energy is still needed for both heating
the materials and the electrolysis, but it is much
more energy-efficient than melting the oxides
themselves.
‰ Now, as natural cryolite is too rare to be used for
this purpose, synthetic sodium aluminium fluoride Cryolite from Greenland
is produced from the common mineral fluorite.
‰ Cryolite is translucent to transparent with a very
low refractive index of about 1.34, which is very
close to that of water; thus if immersed in water,
15 cryolite becomes essentially invisible.
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity metals - aluminum (Al)

‰ Corrosion resistance is excellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminum oxide that
forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation.
‰ Because of the oxidation, great care must be taken when electrical contact has to be
made to aluminum. The oxide is thin but tough. Once the oxide film has been broken on
this soft material,
material low contact resistances can be achieved.
achieved Aluminum is often silver
plated to prevent oxide formation.
‰ For unplated aluminum, fretting is a serious problem. Bolted joints can be made with
pure aluminum if the interfaces are protected by special greases and the bolts are
spring loaded.
‰ Aluminum cannot be used where arcs may occur. Its low melting and boiling
temperatures permit severe erosion.
‰ In oxidizing environments the metal can even burn. Strong welds can form in non-
oxidizing atmospheres.

16
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

8
Cooper (Cu) vs Aluminum (Al)

17
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Copper wire - aluminum wire junctions

‰ Copper is normally used for electrical wiring in residential and commercial buildings.
‰ However, between 1965 and 1973 the price of copper increased significantly, and,
consequently aluminum wiring was installed in many buildings constructed during this
period.
‰ An inordinately
y high
g number of fires occurred in these buildings,
g , and investigations
g
revealed that the use of aluminum posed an increased fire hazard risk over copper
wiring.

Photograph of two copper wire-aluminum

wire junctions (located in a junction box)
that experienced excessive heating. The
one on the right (within the yellow wire nut)
failed completely

18
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

9
Bimetal technology

‰ Fretting corrosion does not happen

in case of silver plated bimetal plate
clading on aluminium conductors.
‰ Outer contact surface of the
connection plate is silver-plated
copper, the inside surface is
aluminium.
‰ All connection zone are silver to
silver contact.

19
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

High-conductivity alloys

‰ Among the more important representatives of high-conductivity alloys are:

1. sterling silver (Ag-Cu),
2. silver-nickel (Ag-Ni), and
3. silver-cadmium (Ag-Cd).
( g )
‰ Pure silver is relatively soft for producing large functional objects. Therefore, silver is
commonly combined with other metals to produce more durable alloys.

What is an alloy?
• An alloy is homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a
metal
metal.
• It usually has properties different from those of its component elements. Alloying can
improve mechanical and chemical properties of the metal.
• Electrical conductivity and the melting temperature of alloys are somewhat lower than
the mean value of components which corresponds to the mixing ratio.

20
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

10
High-conductivity Alloys

‰ The most popular of these alloys is sterling silver, which consists of 92.5 % silver and 7.5 % copper.

‰ The nickel content in silver-nickel can range from 10% to 40% by weight. This material is quite hard
and its thermal and electrical conductivity decreases as the nickel content increases.

‰ The addition of copper

pp and nickel improve
p the metal’s hardness, its softeningg temperature
p is higher
g
as well as it’s resistance to welding, but its surface is not as resistant to oxygen.

‰ Silver cadmium alloy, with 20% of cadmium, has excellent resistance to welding, due to the oxidation
of cadmium after arcing. Any free cadmium on the surface will form an oxide before silver.

‰ There is a large number of alloys that consist of copper as the major constituent with other metals
added to increase its weld resistance and/or mechanical strength and/or lower the current at which
chopping occurs.

‰ Silver bronze is a copper alloy containing up to 4% silver and 1.5% cadmium. It is significantly
harder than copper and more resistant to high temperature
temperature. Due to the greater strength of oxide
surface films, it has higher contact resistance than copper. It is used for contacts in switches and
circuit breakers.

‰ The Cu-Bi (bismuth) binary alloy show a desirably low chopping current in vacuum interrupters.

‰ The Cu-Cr (chromium) contact has found wide usage in vacuum interrupters for medium voltage
circuit breakers.
21
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Chemically resistant metals and alloys

‰ Pertaining to this group are metals, which under normal conditions, are not covered
with surface layers. They are:
ƒ rhodium (Rh)
ƒ palladium (Pd)
ƒ ruthenium (Ru)
ƒ rhenium (Re)
ƒ osmium (Os)
ƒ iridium (Ir)
ƒ platinum (Pt)
ƒ silver (Ag), and
ƒ gold (Au)
‰ All of these elements are precious or semi-precious metals and very expensive.

NOTE: A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value.
Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster,
are softer or more ductile, and have higher melting points than other metals.

22
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

11
Chemically resistant metals and alloys

‰ Chemically resistant metals and alloys are mostly used

in electronics and in low voltage technology.
‰ Undoubtedly, the most well known precious metals are
gold, silver and platinum.
‰ The
Th mostt expensive
i precious
i metal
t l is
i rhodium.
h di
‰ The least expensive is palladium, which is sometimes
used in high voltage technology for less loaded contacts
in an aggressive atmosphere.
‰ Due to the purity of their surface, these metals are not
resistant to welding.
‰ With the exception of gold, their conductivity is relatively
low.
‰ A typical
t i l representative
t ti off chemically
h i ll resistant
i t t alloys
ll iis
silver-palladium (Ag-Pd). With the increase in the
percentage of palladium, its conductivity decreases, but
hardness and resistance to welding and erosion
increases.

23
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Refractory metals

‰ Refractory metals are a class of metals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and
wear.
‰ They are characterized by extremely high melting points (above 2100 K), which range
well above those of iron and nickel.
‰ Th
These metals
t l are usually
ll hhard
d and
d very resistant
i t t tto welding
ldi and
d erosion
i caused
dbby th
the
electric arc.
‰ These properties make them useful in high-power switching equipment.
‰ Refractory metals are poorly resistant to oxidation and corrosion. Therefore this class of
material is not commonly used where fretting would be a problem. Because of their
surface oxide films they are not suitable for conductive contacts, although their
conductivity is relatively high.
‰ Twelve metals constitute the group of refractory metals having melting points above
2100 K
K.
‰ Primary representatives of refractory metals are:
ƒ tungsten (W, the melting point 3683 K) and
ƒ molybdenum (Mo, the melting point 2896 K)
‰ Other refractory metals are: rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), tantalum (Ta), molybdenum
(Mo), iridium (Ir), niobium (No), ruthenium (Ru), hafnium (Hf), zirconium (Zr), vanadium
24 (V), and chromium (Cr).
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

12
Sintered materials

‰ Sintered materials are known also under

the name of pseudo-alloys.
‰ Because of their high melting point,
refractory metal components are never
fabricated by casting. The process of powder
metallurgy is used. Powders of the pure
metal are compacted, heated using electric
current, and further sintered by pressing.
‰ It is possible to infiltrate a sintered refractory
matrix with silver, copper or their various
alloys.
‰ Sintering technology has been explained in W/Cu 80/20%
detail in Course I_Lecture 07_Contact
Erosion (p(part II).
)

25
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Sintered materials

‰ Sintered materials are known as pseudo-alloys.

‰ Refractory metals cannot be alloyed by casting, but they can be sintered. In addition, they
can also be attached to non-metals, e.g. graphite, or chemical compounds such as oxides
and carbides.
‰ Technological
g processes and production of sintered materials are veryy complex and rather
expensive. Therefore, sintered materials are not used to make entire contacts but only
those parts that are most exposed to the arc, arcing contact tips.
‰ Sintered materials can have a wide range of composition. Some examples are: W/Ag,
W/Cu, WC/Ag, WC/Cu, Mo/Ag, Mo/Cu, W/Ni-Cu. The copper containing materials have
similar properties to those containing silver.
‰ They can only be used, however, in non-oxidizing environments such as SF6 or oil. High
voltage and medium voltage SF6 circuit breakers use W/Cu contacts. Oil and minimum-oil
circuit breakers also use W/Cu contacts. For medium voltage magnet blast air breakers
W/Ag or WC/Ag contacts are used.

26 Sintered materials are brazed, diffusely merged or electron beam welded

to a suitable metal base Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

13
Sintered materials – silver-cadmium oxide contacts
‰ Silver-cadmium oxide contacts can be made of an Ag-Cd alloy by heating the material
under high-pressure oxygen. This process results in the internal oxidation of the cadmium
to produce very fine CdO sites.
‰ It is also possible to internally oxidize Ag-Cd powder and then manufacture the material
directly by pressing and sintering the powder.
‰ Silver-cadmium oxide has found a wide usage in low voltage applications. Its contact
resistance does not increase as the contact structure is eroded.
‰ It is very resistant to arc erosion for currents up to 3 kA. It has arc erosion significantly
lower than silver and silver-graphite contact material.
‰ It is close to being the best contact material for low voltage load switches, low-current
circuit breakers and motor contactors.
‰ The following sintered silver-metal oxide materials have been designed to replace
Ag/CdO: copper
ƒ A /S O2
Ag/SnO
ƒ Ag/NiO
ƒ Ag/ZnO
ƒ Ag/BiO
ƒ Ag/SnO/WO2, etc. silver-cadmium oxide

‰ However, their properties are usually inferior to those of Ag/CdO.

27
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Correlation between erosion and current for different contact materials

‰ The figure illustrates that arc erosion

of sintered materials is far below that
of pure metals.
‰ Silver and copper have the highest
erosion, as well as Cu-Ag-Cd (silver
bronze) and Cu-Cr (copper with some
chromium which increases
mechanical strength).
‰ W and Mo have significantly lower
erosion due to their high melting and
boiling points.
‰ In most cases, the erosion of sintered
materials lowers with the increase in
the difference between melting and
boiling points of components included
in the composition of contact material.
‰ In general, the erosion of composite
materials, particularly at higher
currents, is typically lower than the
erosion of any of its component
28 materials.
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

14
Properties of contact materials

‰ The following sequence lists different contact materials in the order of their resistance
to arc erosion, from worst to best:

1. Ag

2. Cu

3. Ag-Cu

4. Ag/C (2-5% C by weight)

5. Ag-Ni

6. Ag/CdO, Ag/SnO2, Ag/ZnO

7. W/Ag, WC/Ag, W/Cu.

‰ All sintered contact materials have a stabilizing effect on the arc root, are unfavorable
for its mobility and have long immobility time.

‰ In order to achieve optimum mobility of the arc on a contact surface, the, may be used.
asymmetrical contacts, contacts in which electrodes are made of different materials
29
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Factors affecting the erosion of contact materials

‰ One of the main features of contact materials is their resistance to erosion due to
arcing.
‰ Factors affecting the erosion of contact materials are the following:
a) physical properties of contact b) operating conditions
materials ƒ purpose of contacts (to carry
ƒ electrical conductivity current, making, breaking, arcing
ƒ thermal conductivity contacts, main contacts, ...)
ƒ thermal capacity ƒ type of load (current magnitude,
rated voltage, frequency of
ƒ softening temperature operation, ...)
ƒ melting point ƒ medium (air, oil, vacuum, SF6, ...)
ƒ boiling point ƒ type of application (circuit
ƒ mechanical strength breakers contactors,
breakers, contactors switches,
switches
ƒ hardness disconnectors, ...)
ƒ surface tension of melted contact
material
ƒ ratio of boiling points of
components for heterogeneous
materials
30
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

15
Properties of contact materials

‰ Contact materials play a vital role in the switching performances of all switching
equipment.
‰ They are called upon to meet very stringent requirements that are generally contrasting
in nature.
‰ Some
S mechanical,
h i l metallurgical
t ll i l and
d electrical
l t i l requirements
i t they
th have
h to
t fulfill
f lfill are:
ƒ good mechanical strength
ƒ good thermal conductivity
ƒ low weld break forces
ƒ low erosion due to arcing
ƒ good electrical conductivity
ƒ low chopping currents

31
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

Requirements set for contact materials

‰ There are a number of requirements set for contact materials. Table shows features of
some contact materials with regard to different requirements set out for the duration of
the work of contacts.
‰ The choice of contact material, bearing in mind all the different requirements, comes
down to a compromise solution depending on the type and purpose of switching device.
‰ In high voltage switches and circuit breakers, due to the high making and breaking
power, materials resistant to arc erosion are used for arc contacts.
‰ Their unfavorable features related to normal load current conduction are usually
compensated for by main contacts which carry the current in closed position.

32
Prof.dr. Mirsad Kapetanovic

16