Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com Current Opinion in

ScienceDirect Environmental Science & Health

Future-proofing plastic waste management for a circular

bioeconomy
Ana L. Patrício Silva

Abstract over the world have delineated strategies and initiatives

Environmental concerns related to plastic pollution have for a sustainable and circular bioeconomy [1]. Such
imposed a challenge to academia, industries and governments strategies and initiatives aim at promoting biobased so-
to promote alternative and sustainable solutions from interna- lutions, decoupling energy from fossil fuel, promoting
tional to subnational levels. Advances in biotechnology and local economies, ensuring ecological and human health
polymer chemistry have allowed obtaining carbon-neutral integrity while mitigating climate change, among other
building blocks from different feedstocks (biomass, waste and goals (e.g. see [1,2]). Despite these ambitions and
residues) and the synthesis of more versatile biobased plastics related actions, the transition to the bioeconomy remains
with improved properties and functionalities. Such recent de- at an early stage. The foundation and further success for
velopments permit their applicability in general and engineer- strategies and initiatives to engage the envisioned cir-
ing applications and ensure their recyclability through different cular bioeconomy relies on solid science and (bio)tech-
paths. However, biobased plastics can present distinct chem- nologies, along with the development of infrastructure
ical structures from fossil-based ones and disturb the current and capacity building, a coherent policy framework, and
recycling of plastics and hence inhibit the closure of plastic (equally important) a synergism and dialogue among and
cycles, which is undesirable, given the current focus on a between societal, academic and political stakeholders
transition towards a circular economy. This article provides a that remain so far poorly strengthened [3].
critical overview of the recent (bio)technological advances for
more sustainable production of biobased plastics. It also dis- An important step towards the transition to a circular
cusses the main challenges that such novel products might bioeconomy requires rethinking the entire plastic value
impose on current waste management streams and highlight chain, decoupling them from fossil fuel (i.e. raw mate-
potential strategies to overcome them. rials and energy for production) [4]. Plastics have a
pivotal role in modern society and a growing demand.
Addresses Approximately 99% of today’s plastics are fossil fuel
Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) & Department
based [5], most of them designed to be durable (i.e.
of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
resistant to degradation), which entail negative envi-
Corresponding author: Patrício Silva, Ana L ([email protected]) ronmental impacts and aggravated economic losses
when littered and leaked into natural environments [6].
Several international initiatives have been delineated to
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2021,
minimise plastic leakage [7] and move towards a more
22:100263
circular plastic economy, but they still lack a coordinated
This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental Toxicology ‘local’ action. In 2019, worldwide plastic production
2021: Disruptive Green Deal Innovations
reached 368 million metric tons (Mt) [5], resulting in
Edited by Neil J. Rowan and Robert Pogue w29.1 Mt of plastic waste with w17.8 Mt for short-life
For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial products (single-use plastics). A significant share of such
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2021.100263 plastic waste (w42%) was inefficiently treated, that is,
2468-5844/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. either littered or inadequately disposed of in dumps or
open landfills [8]. This is of particular concern in
developing countries, where landfilling is still the major
Keywords
Plastic pollution, Biobased plastics, Biorefinery, Recycling, Sustainable
technology for waste management, receiving 65e80% of
waste management. collected mixed waste [9].

Biobased plastics, that is, plastics based on renewable

feedstocks, are already in the market as carbon-neutral
Introduction alternatives to fossil-based plastics. Cradle-to-grave life
In the last two decades, policymakers of the European cycle assessment studies have shown that biobased
Union, the United States and several other countries all plastics’ production and use are generally advantageous

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2 Environmental Toxicology 2021: Disruptive Green Deal Innovations

in saving fossil resources and reducing greenhouse gas Biorefinery as a sustainable approach to
(GHG) emissions [10,11]. Notwithstanding, biobased obtain value-added building blocks for
plastics have been mostly applied in packaging and biobased plastics
agriculture with a <2% share of the total production of Around 3.7
10 billion t of agricultural residues and
plastics (w7.4 of 348 million Mt in 2017; [5]) owing to 1.3
10 billion t of food residues are produced annually
the low-cost fossil feedstock that goes untaxed despite worldwide [12], potentially lost at different stages of the
its carbon content, and high need for biomass. supply chain (i.e. production, after harvest, handling and
storage, processing and packaging, distribution and
Recent advances in biotechnology and polymer chemistry retail). The carbon footprint of these specific losses is
have been applied to produce biobased plastics from estimated at 3.3 billion t of carbon dioxide (CO2)
different biomass and residues, with improved design to equivalent of GHG released into the atmosphere, along
achieve desired properties and functionalities for their with a direct economic loss of USD $750 billion per year
successful implementation in the market and their (excluding fish and seafood) [13].
recyclability after ending their purpose (Figure 1).
However, with such great achievement comes great re- However, lipids, flavonoids, cellulose, lignin and phenolic
sponsibility, particularly when considering current waste compounds, among others, can be extracted from such
management streams. Biobased plastics often present wastes to produce high value-added biobased products
distinct chemical structures from fossil-based ones and via bioprocessing within a biorefinery concept [14].
can disturb the current recycling of plastics. This will Several comprehensive reviews address the green valor-
inhibit the closure of plastic cycles, which is undesirable, isation of agroindustrial residues [15], forest residues
given the current focus on a circular economy transition. [16] and food waste [17], highlighting their advantages
This article provides a critical overview of the recent and limitations. The use of by-products and wastes as raw
(bio)technological approaches that pave the way for more materials in a biorefinery provides a substantial ecological
sustainable production of biobased plastics. It also ad- advantage while reducing arable land pressure. For
dresses the main challenges that such novel products may example, lignocellulosic residues can be retrieved from
impose on specific waste streams (e.g. polyethylene agricultural and forestry wastes, constituting a major
terephthalate (PET) recycling) and delivers recommen- source of polysaccharides and lignin for aliphatic and ar-
dations towards a more efficient and higher rewardable omatic chemicals used to formulate biobased plastics.
waste management.

Figure 1

Schematic representation of plastics (production and recycling) in a circular bioeconomy.

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 Innovative plastic waste management for bioplastics Patrício Silva 3

The production of biobased plastics from biomass for short-life products (e.g. packaging) [23]. Thus, in
streams alternative to plant-based biomass has also the absence of a sustainable recycling route towards a
gained momentum. For instance, algae-based biopolymer circular economy, biobased plastics can equally lead to
over other feedstock (including plant-based one) has plastic pollution and subsequent threats to environ-
earned attention among researchers as an alternative mental and human health, as their petrochemical
approach to achieving a sustainable circular economy counterparts.
around the world [18]. Microalgae possess rapid growth
and increased plasticity to diverse environments/growth Biotechnological advances have to improve the produc-
media (which decreases cultivation costs and does not tion, performance and properties of biobased plastics,
compete with land use as in plant-based feedstock) and which are becoming more competitive and similar in
autotrophy that reduces the GHG emission (by taking up their appearance to petrochemical plastics. Physical
to 1.8 lb of CO2 and releasing more than 75% of oxygen similarities between biobased and fuel-based plastics
[19]). Besides, algae-based biopolymers can also be will turn manual sorting and separation by ordinary cit-
modified by adding plasticisers and additives, which izens a challenge unless based on a clear label consid-
usually requires compatibilisers to promote polymerisa- ering their nature (i.e. biobased or not) and disposable
tion reaction, to improve certain characteristics (e.g. options. Several international standards (e.g. EN
flexibility, durability, mechanical strengths) [20,21]. In 16848:2016; EN 13432, ASTM D6400; OK Biodegrad-
addition, microalgae can be being used as biofillers to able SOIL/WATER) set the requirements for biobased
improve mechanical properties in novel thermoplastic end-of-life options, but when considering their biode-
biocompounds from gluten [22]. Two polymers that gradability, standards reveal shortcomings in experi-
can be synthesised from microalgae are the poly- mental procedures (e.g. unrealistic scenarios, controlled
hydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and homopolymers such as conditions, insufficient replicates) that limit predictions
polyhydroxybutyrates that can present similar physico- in natural environments and correct labelling [24,25].
chemical properties as petrochemical plastics applied in, This, allied to the unfamiliarity of most consumers with
for example, industrial, agriculture and packaging appli- the concept of biobased and biodegradable or com-
cations (e.g. polypropylene, polyethylene and poly- postable [26,27], can increase incorrect disposal with
ethylene terephthalate), with increased potential for the potential to contaminate current recycling streams
biodegradation when desired [18,20]. (e.g. PET bottles) or the environment. In this sense, it
is crucial to adapt existing standards urgently (see the
The conversion of biomass feedstocks (plant-based, study by Kjeldsen et al. [24]) and to invest in public
microorganism-based) also allows access to a diversity of education to increase the perception/familiarisation of
novel structures not easily obtained from fossil re- key concepts such as biobased, biodegradable, com-
sources, such as furan-based monomers and isosorbide. postable and recyclable, to make an informed disposal
For instance, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid, produced by choice and contribute to efficient waste management
the oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, is a building systems [28]. The implementation of pictograms on the
block of high interest for the production of a new preferred disposal route for each plastic type can also
recyclable fully biobased product d poly(ethylene help citizens sorting on-site and improve the in-
furanoate) (PEF), which presents outstanding thermal frastructures and workflows (e.g. increment in the
properties and superior barrier properties (more than six number of disposal containers/dedicated facilities;
times higher for O2 and twice as high for CO2 and water) higher coordination between stakeholders, authorities
compared with its competitor d PET [29]. and local workers).

Efforts have also been underway to produce other high- Biobased plastics can be either biodegradable (e.g.
value monomers from renewable resources, such as PHA) or durable (e.g. the drop-in biopoly(ethylene
isoprene, propylene, styrene, acrylic acid and tereph- terephthalate), biopoly(ethylene)), blended or not with
thalic acid, for commodity plastics [11]. Nevertheless, other polymers, additives or plasticisers; which de-
any green polymer entering our economy struggles with termines the end-of-life options, that is, if they pursuit
high production costs when targeting the manufacture organic recycling (industrial or home composting,
of a single product; thus, integrated biorefinery based on anaerobic digestion), chemical or mechanical recycling
biomass with multiple product recovery will overcome (Figure 1, Table 1). Mechanical recycling is generally
the need for petrochemical resources. performed by screw extrusion, injection moulding or
compression moulding, whereas chemical recycling
usually requires pyrolysis, gasification and enzymatic
Sustainable waste management of hydrolysis. The major advantages of mechanical recy-
biobased plastics to ensure a circular cling over chemical recycling are lower processing costs,
economy less nonrenewable energy demand and lower GHG
The market share for biobased plastics forecasts a emission, which can lower the effect of global warming
growth of 13% in 2024, with >50% of their market share [29,30]. Chemical recycling can require high
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Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2021, 22:100263

4 Environmental Toxicology 2021: Disruptive Green Deal Innovations

Table 1

Industrial sector and recycling options (according to Taufik et al. [26]) for commercially available (or will be in a short-term) biobased plastics.

Polymer type Origin Industrial sector Recycling option

Biodegradable polymers
Starch Obtained from polysaccharides extracted Food packaging, compostable films and bags, IC, DfS, AD, IwER
from plant feedstock (e.g. corn) disposable eating utensils. For example, Mater-Bi/
Novamont.
PLA Lactic acid obtained by fermentation of Packaging, 3D printing polymers, textiles, electronics. MR, CR, SbR, IC, DfS, AD, IwER
plant-derived sugars For example, Ingeo/NatureWorks; Luminy®/Total
PHA/PHB Obtained from microalgae, bacteria and Medical applications, packaging, agricultural foils. For MR, CR, IC, IwER, Syngas + AD
archaea example, Minerv-PHATM/Bio-On; PHBH™.
PBS Obtained from microbial production or Films and sheets for food packaging and agriculture, CR, IC, IwER, Syngas + AD
fermentation compost bags, fishing nets, automotive industry. For
example, BioPBS™, Skygreen®
Nonbiodegradable polymers
Bio-PA11 11-Aminoundecanoic acid from castor oil Automotive, electrical and electronics, consumer goods, MR, CR, IwER
sports and leisure. For example, Vestamid® TERRA/
Evonik.
PEF Ethylene glycol and furan dicarbonic acid Under development. MR, CR, IwER
obtained from fructose sugar from many Competitor of PET for packaging applications and
plant feedstocks fibres. For example, Synvina/Total-Corbion
Bio-PET Ethylene glycol obtained from fructose Packaging. For example, PlantBottle™/Coca Cola MR, CR, IwER
sugar from many plant feedstocks
Bio-PE Bioethanol derived from the fermentation Mainly packaging, films and bags. For example, I’m MR, CR (pyrolysis), IwER
of biomass green™/Braskem

AD, anaerobic digestion; Bio-PA11, biopolyamide 11; Bio-PE, biopoly(ethylene); Bio-PET, biopoly(ethylene terephthalate); CR, chemical recycling; DfS, direct fuel substitution in plants; IC, industrial
composting; IwER, incineration with energy recovery; MR, mechanical recycling; PLA, polylactic acid; PHA/PHB, polyhydroxyalkanoate/polyhydroxybutyrate; PBS, polybutylene succinate; PEF,
polyethylene furanoate; SbR, solvent-based recycling.
Bold representations indicate the optimal recycling route.
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 Innovative plastic waste management for bioplastics Patrício Silva 5

temperature (150e200  C) and pressure (5e1000 kPa) presence would undermine rPET quality. Notwith-
to decompose polymers into monomers, but it allows the standing, potential intrusions of PLA and PEF (mainly
recovery of virgin monomers for production of value- applied in bottles and other packages) on PET recycling
added materials [31]. Notwithstanding, mechanical streams can be reduced through an adjustment/
recycling generally transforms plastic products into a improvement in near-infrared spectroscopy sorting and
less demanding product as it does not retain the same its mandatory implementation in sorting centres,
quality as the virgin biopolymer material, which is including in floatation tanks. Another option is the
intensified when considering biobased options [32]. For explicit labelling of PLA or PEF bottles/packages (with
example, mechanical recycling of PHA material reduces chemical markers) to detect them in automatic sorting.
the tensile strength up to 50% [33]. For PLA-obtained plant-based feedstock, mechanical
recycling is more advantageous than chemical recycling
For this reason, the recycled PAH polymers from the in terms of environmental health and use of resources
mechanical recycling stream is often blended with virgin (due to land use); but similar to PHA, recycled PLA will
biopolymer material and applied in noncritical applica- decrease in quality compared with PLA that is chemi-
tions (e.g. bin bags, nonpressure pipes). Other alterna- cally recycled [36]. When obtained from algae feed-
tives to close the loop on PHA-based products is through stock, PLA chemical recycling (via hydrolysis and
gasification (chemical recycling), that is, via conversion alcoholysis, [29]) turns more advantageous [18].
to syngas that can subsequently be used in biological
recycling (anaerobic digestion) and which To produce a clear benefit to society, the end of life of
intermediate products such as volatile fatty acids can be biobased polymers must be considered from conception,
used to produce new polymers [33]. Alternatively, avoiding interference with conventional plastics recy-
through biological recycling by several bacteria and cling or overburdening waste management with an
fungi, under aerobic (composting) or anaerobic (anaer- excessive number of streams. In addition, policies
obic digestion) conditions, resulting in CO2, water and should prioritise (more tightly) plastic prevention and
methane. Biodegradation procedures are still time- overall reduction [37].
consuming, but they can be improved by screening
and developing microbial strains with enhanced hydro-
lytic capacities [11]. Gases collected and purified from Final remarks
industrial composting and anaerobic digesters can be The core principles of the circular economy and bio-
used for heat and electricity, retributing society’s ben- economy are complementary and should integrate sus-
efits [34,35]. tainable approaches elaborating holistic resource
utilisation. Regulations and policies should encourage
Several drop-in biobased plastics are already on the manufacturers to develop safe-by-design biobased
market, such as biopoly(ethylene terephthalate) and plastics and stakeholders to use life cycle assessment as
biopoly(ethylene), which can follow the same end-of- a communication tool to show their environmental
life options as their counterparts PET and PE (i.e. fit performance, and as an integrated tool for the (re)design
into the existing recycling processes) owing to their of such biobased plastic products. Novel biobased
similar chemical structure and technical properties plastics should be suitable for reuse and recycling
(e.g. density, melt temperature) [29]. The optimal (mechanically, chemically or organically) or, ultimately,
recycling route for drop-in biobased options should be for energy recovery (bioenergy). It is also important that
reused whenever possible, followed by mechanical the introduction of novel plastics in the market is well
recycling for as long as possible. Only when facing lower guided from a systems perspective and with a particular
grade products should it be considered their chemical eye on incompatibilities with current recycling plastics.
recycling for its depolymerisation to achieve a circular Thus, future-proofing waste management of biobased
economy. Polylactic acid (PLA) (and PEF shortly) can plastics relies, among other examples previously
be applied in transparent bottles (visually similar to discussed, on labels/guidelines that determined the best
PET bottles) and can end up on PET recycling streams, way for their management and disposal; development of
which can limit PET mechanical recycling. At the sort- technologies and methods for valorising biobased prod-
ing centres, near-infrared spectroscopy can positively ucts/waste/residues, in conjunction with existing
detect PET bottles (86e95%), but some PLA (or PEF) composting and anaerobic digestion infrastructure as
fragments can still follow PET streams towards me- parts of biorefineries, and separation/sorting methods to
chanical recycling, causing contamination (as reviewed collect biobased products from other plastic waste to
by Alaerts et al. [32]). For instance, PLA has a different ensure their effective chemical recycling.
melting and glass transition temperature from PET, and
even considering a 2% contamination, it would interfere The transition towards a circular bioeconomy will be
with drying and processing steps, resulting in poor- accelerated by supporting research and innovation,
quality recycled PET (rPET) [32]. As PEF is still under dispelling the myth of high costs of renewable and
development, it remains unclear to which extent its biobased polymers, creating synergisms between
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6 Environmental Toxicology 2021: Disruptive Green Deal Innovations

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