MODULE 6 COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

FIRST FUNCTION: TO PROVIDE INFORMATION

That we live in an information age is given, and that providing information, a task we perform
hundreds of times each day, is undeniably the most common and important form of communication. A
lot of talking goes on in the world, and a large part of it is done to give instructions, provide facts, or
clarify ideas.

NATURE OF INFORMATIVE COMMUNICATION

Providing information usually deals with objects, processes, events, and concepts (Lucas, 2012).

1. Objects may include anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form. They may be nonliving
or living, such as places, structures, animals, and even people.
2. Processes may comprise any systematic series of actions that lead to a specific result or product.
Communication about processes explains how something is made, how something is done, or
how something works.
3. Events can be anything that happens or is regarded as happening.
4. Concepts may consist of beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, and the like. They are more abstract
than objects, processes, or events.

FORMAL SITUATIONS REQUIRING INFORMATIVE COMMUNICATION

In the world outside your school, speakers find a variety of opportunities for giving the following
types of informative talks: (a) public lecture, (b) status report, (c) briefing, (d) fireside chats, and (e) chalk
talk (Lucas, 2012).

1. The public lecture. As a result of a person’s special interest or expertise, he may be invited to
give a public lecture to a community group or club. Someone who had an intensive research on
herbal medicine, for example, might be invited to give a lecture to various clubs and
organizations interested in the topic.

2. The status report. Every business or social group must be kept up-to-date on its various
projects. Periodically, the group will ask a knowledgeable person to give a status report
indicating what has been accomplished so far, and what plan exists for the future. Suppose you
are the committee chair of a volunteer organization that works with senior citizens in your
community, and your committee is planning a formal dance for the seniors, you may be asked to
give the committee a status report on possible venues for affair.

3. The briefing. This is a very common informative speech used to tell members of a group about
changes in policy or procedure. For instance, you may need to tell the members of your
swimming team about how to order T-shirts for team or about a new layout plan.

4. The fireside chats. This usually features a group leader addressing the concerns, worries, and
issues at the moment. The principal of a senior high school (SHS), for instance, may schedule a
fireside chat with the parents of the SHS students to review school goals and policies.
 5. The chalk talk. The speaker giving a chalk talk relies on a visual aid (such as a chalkboard). As an
example, imagine a coach showing the team how to execute the person-to-person category of
team defense or a director outlining plans to present a stage play.

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS FOR INFORMATIVE SPEECHES (Nelson, 2012)

1. The Chronological Pattern. This pattern allows you to explain how someone or something has
developed over a period of time. With this pattern, you highlight the importance of each step in
that development.
2. The Spatial Pattern. This pattern allows you to describe the physical or directional relationship
between objects or places. The pattern works well with informative speeches about objects,
places, people, or any other living creatures. You can best use it to highlight certain locations,
areas, or spaces in a particular place.
3. The Topical Pattern. In the topical pattern, you divide your topic into subtopics that address the
components, elements, or aspects of the topic. If you want your audience to understand a
process, use the topical pattern to describe the main features of the process.
4. The Narrative Pattern. The narrative pattern used to retell a story or a series of short stories. It
has much in common with the chronological pattern, but it provides a stronger emphasis on the
dramatic unfolding of event.

GUIDELINES FOR INFORMATIVE SPEAKING

A common complaint about informational speaking is its being boring. To keep your audience’s
attention and to be both understandable and relevant, remember these guidelines for producing
comprehensible, effective messages (Jaffe, 2010).

1. Do an obstacle analysis of the audience. Identify the parts of the message that the audience
might find hard to understand and work on specific ways to make these sections clear. Also,
identify internal barriers that could prevent them from learning your materials. Plan ways to
deal with each obstacle.
2. Organize the material carefully. State your major points clearly, and build on sign posts, such as
“next” and “in addition” that can help them identify the flow of ideas.
3. Personalize your material to your audience. Help the listeners see the connection between
your topic and their experiences, goals, beliefs, and actions. If they find the information as
personally relevant, they will be more likely to listen and learn effectively.
4. Compare the known to the unknown. Start with what is familiar to your audience, and build on
this foundation, showing similarities and differences between your topic and what your listeners
already know.
5. Choose your vocabulary carefully. Avoid bewildering your listeners with technical information
and incomprehensible jargon by defining your terms and explaining them in everyday, concrete
images. Avoid words that could trigger unfavourable connotations which might set off negative
reactions in the audience.
6. Build on repetition and redundancy. Repetition means that you say the same idea several
times. Do this by developing it somewhat differently each time. Phrases, such as “in other
words” and “put simply” are ways to build on (or achieve) redundancy. Repeat and redefine the
critical parts of the message to reinforce these crucial points in your listeners’ minds.
 7. Strive to be interesting. Search for some ways to enliven your factual material. Examples and
detailed description, for instance, engage your audience in a conversational manner because
they invite your listeners to form mental images as you talk.

SECOND FUNCTION: TO PERSUADE

Persuasion is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people beliefs or actions.

The ability to speak and write persuasively will benefit you in every part of your life—from
personal relationships to community activities to career opportunities. It is also vital to your
being an informed citizen or consumer. Everybody is exposed to at least 150 TV commercials
(Lucas, 2012). Politicians and advertising sales people and interest groups, fund raisers, and
community activities—all vie for your attention, vote, money, time, and support. The more you
know of persuasion the more effective you become in using your power of critical thinking to
assess the barrage of persuasive messages you are exposed to everyday.
When you speak in persuade, you act as an advocate. Your job is to get listeners to agree
with you and perhaps to act on that belief. Your goal may perhaps be to defend an idea, to
refute an opponent, to sell a program, or to inspire people to action.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATIVE AND PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

Informative speakers fulfill the role of an expert on a topic and seek to facilitate audience
understanding about it. In contrast, persuasive speakers take the role of promoter or proponent,
advocating a particular view on a topic they want the audience to adopt. A persuasive speaker
not only becomes an expert of the topic, he also goes beyond arguing for a specific viewpoint
he wants the audience to accept. He voices a clear position on a topic, where as an informative
speaker, he remains “neutral”.
For example, in an information speech on music recording technology, the speaker would
make the audience know about the topic by describing the history of recorded music. On the
other hand, a persuasive speaker would advocate a particular view of the topic, perhaps arguing
that the sound quality of vinyl is superior to that of digital media.

ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION
Persuasive speeches are intended to influence others. Because of this, they require more
advanced building blocks to achieve that purpose. Aristotle, one of the first people to theorize
about persuasion, believes that persuasive messages rest on three elements or what he calls
proofs, namely, ethos, pathos, and logic (Lucas, 2012).

1. Ethos. This is the Greek word for “character”. Here, the speaker attempts to
persuade others by using authoritative and trustworthy course or support of the
message.

Example:
“As a mother of five healthy eaters, I can assure you that introducing vegetables
to babies as early as possible avoid fussy feedings.”

2. Pathos. This refers to the speaker’s appeal to emotions. A speaker might use pathos
to arouse the audience’s feelings, such as by displaying photos to convince them to contribute
to charitable organizations.
 Example:
“Imagine your children facing a future without you--- then, take the opportunity TODAY to
give up drugs and create a healthier YOU.”

3. Logos. This involves using logic to support a speaker’s statements and thereby, persuading
his audience. One way of doing this is by developing a coherent space that moves logically
through his argument, emphasizing reasoning (including statistics and appropriate data), then
moving in to a powerful conclusion.

Example:
“Drug addiction is a developmental disease. What do we mean by that? What we have
learned from many years of epidemiological studies is drug addiction develops during these
periods of our lives, during adolescence and early adulthood. This is a graph (or a digital slide)
that actually describes at what age individuals develop at first, a dependence on marijuana.
Similar graphs occur for cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol. You can see the peak in this case is
around age eighteen. By age twenty-five, if you have not yet become addicted to marijuana, the
likelihood that you will do so is very minimal. It’s not zero but it’s minimal.”

TYPES OF PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

Persuasive speeches address three types of questions: fact, value, and policy, and while
general purpose of these types of speeches is to persuade an audience, the kinds of outcomes
they will produce differ (Lucas, 2012).
1. Speeches on Question of Fact. A question of fact asks whether something is true or
false. The speaker tries to persuade an audience that something did or did not occur, or
that event did, in fact, cause another.

For example, in a criminal case, the persecution attempts to persuade the jury that the
dependent did engage in an illegal activity while the defense argues the defendant did
not.

Here, the speaker should present sound, credible evidence. He does not only use facts
and statistics but also uses examples, testimony, definitions, or narratives as supporting
evidences. It is his goal to make the audience “believe or agree with him that something
is true or false—focusing mainly on reinforcing or changing how people think, not on how
they behave.

Organizational patterns for speeches or questions of facts are chronological, spatial,

topical, and cause-and-effect.
Examples:

Organizational Pattern: Chronological

Topic: Worldwide Oil Production
General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To convince the audience that oil production in the world has
not yet peaked
Thesis: Recent evidence shows that worldwide oil production has
increased and will continue to increase.
Main points: Oil production has been highly variable throughout history.

I. Demand for oil has quadrupled in the past five years.

II. New sources of crude oil have been discovered, recently,
III. Despite competition from alternative energy industries oil production will
continue to increase.

Organizational Pattern: Spatial

Topic: Health Risks in International Travel
General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To convince the audience that they will encounter health
Risks when visiting foreign countries
Thesis: Visiting foreign countries brings various health risks.
Main points:
I. When visiting South America, you must consider certain health concerns.
II. When visiting East Asia, you should be aware of regional health risks.
III. US visitors to South Asia encounter specific health risks.
IV. US visitors travelling to Africa face several health risks.

Organizational Pattern: Cause and Effect

Topic: Handheld Cell-Phone Use While Driving
General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To convince the audience that banning handheld cell-phone
use while driving reduces accidents and saves lives.
Thesis: Statistics show that banning the use of handheld cellphones
while driving reduces accidents and saves lives.
Main points:
I. Many states have banned the use of handheld cell phones for drivers.
II. As indicated by traffic statistics, banning handheld cell-phone use while
driving reduces accidents and saves lives.
 2. Speeches on Question of Value. A question of value asks for a subjective
evaluation of something’s worth, significance, quality, or condition. Here, the speaker
argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly, boring or
engaging, funny or serious—all qualitative judgements about something’s significance. It
addresses individual opinion and cultural beliefs rather than proving something to be
objectively true or false. It may include a call for action, but it does not ask for explicit
changes in political or organizational policy.

Questions of value can address timeless issues, such as the morality of war, or more
contemporary concerns, like the personal or ethical uses of social networking websites.

The pattern for developing speeches or questions of value is either chronological

or topical.

3. Speeches on Question of Policy. While a question of value makes judgments about

a topic and promotes a speaker’s judgment of the significance of something, a question
of policy asks what specific course of action should be taken or how a problem should
be solved.

Questions of policy may reflect current controversies, such as U.S immigration

policies or less contentious topics, like getting more exercise. These questions also
range from the general, such as promoting democracy around the world, to the specific,
such as academic integrity policies on campus.

Speeches on question of policy ask the audience to personally take (or not take) a
particular action or support (or not support) a particular position. Speakers might request
immediate involvement, general support for a social or political movement of some kind,
disapproval of an idea, or a change in behavior.

For example, a speaker might propose any of the following:

a. College students should circulate a petition to ban junk food on campuses.

b. People should support the animal rights movement.

c. Local residents should not approve of changes in the zoning law.

d. Everyone should exercise more.

Organizational patterns for speeches on question of policy are the problem-solution pattern and
the problem-cause-solution pattern.
Examples:

Organizational Pattern: Problem-solution

Topic: Corporal punishment by parents
 General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience that parents should never
physically strike their children
Thesis: Because it’s harmful, parents should not strike their children
but use some other forms of discipline instead.
Main points:
I. Children suffer serious physical and psychological effects as a result of
corporal punishment.
II. Parents should use some other forms of discipline.

Organizational Pattern: Problem -cause-solution

Topic: Junk food on campuses
General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To encourage the audience to sign a petition banning the
sale of junk food on campuses
Thesis: Junk food should be banned on campuses because it
contributes to obesity, poor nutrition, and immune-system
problems.
Main points:
I. Many college students are overweight, eat poorly, and have weak
immune system.
II. Junk food is a strong contributing factor to these problems.
III. We must work to ban the sale of junk food on campuses.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR PERSUASIVE SPEAKING

The following principles should be followed by persuasive speakers (Parsh, 2014).
1. Be careful about whom you trust. Listeners like you need to watch whom you trust, and
speakers need to provide credentials to show they are trustworthy. They need to
demonstrate their sound credibility.
2. Analyze and evaluate messages for reasonableness, truth, and benefit to you and
the community. As a critical thinker you will want messages to meet standards of
reasonableness.
3. You and your message are persuasive if you have a long positive history. Try to
establish credibility anytime you deal and speak to people. This will always be a part of your
life.
4. Always be respectful of your audience. Following the “Golden Rule” will help you avoid
ethical problems.
5. Avoid fallacies. If you always strive to use sound reasoning tempered by critical thinking,
you can skillfully avoid short circuits to reasonable thoughts that are known to be fallacies.
THIRD FUNCTION: TO ENTERTAIN, HONOR, OR PRAISE, AND SO ON
This function refers to some other purposes of communication, specifically those that mark the
day-to-day life—high points that stand out above the ordinary routine. Christenings, weddings, funerals,
graduations, award ceremonies, inaugurals, retirement dinners—all these are occasions, and they are
very special to the people who take part in them. Being special, speeches delivered in these events differ
from the information and persuasive speeches in the following aspects.

1. Purpose. The primary purpose of informative speech is teach while that of a persuasive speech
is to change behaviors or beliefs. These purposes are just secondary to that of a special-occasion
presentation whose primary purpose is to perform a ritual—a ceremonial act that is
characterized by qualities or procedures that are appropriate to the occasion.

The ritualistic nature of special-occasion speeches helps bring certainty and comfort to
otherwise stressful events. They communicate to the audience what to expect, and they allow
them and the attendees to share a common collective experience, such as accepting an award
or wishing a newly wedded couple good tidings.

2. Style. While informative and persuasive speeches use stylistic devices, like narratives,
metaphors, similes, or analogies, special-occasion speeches use highly stylistic or ornamental
language.

3. Organization. Though special-occasion presentations, like any other speeches, have

introduction, body and conclusion, they have less-obvious transitions between the main points.
Instead, their ornamental styling may suggest more subtle and creative ways, and they are
relatively short.

4. Formality. They are a bit more formal, but formality refers more to the degree of
professionalism used by the speaker to share his ideas with his listeners.

GENERAL TYPES OF SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEECHES

Special-Occasion speeches are classified and subclassified into courtesy (speeches of

introduction, presentation, and acceptance), ceremonial (commencement, commemorative – like
testimonials and tributes, and eulogies), and contest speeches (original oratory, extemporaneous, and
dramatic and humorous interpretation).

COURTESY SPEECHES
1. Speech of Introduction. This speech is designed to tell us about the person being introduced
and to help establish his ethos—in this case ethos might include credentials and/or goodwill.
This is typically brief, but its greater part is devoted to the person’s biography or some other
information relevant to his credibility. It may also include the reasons for his being asked to
speak. Usually an interview of the person to be introduced is conducted to seek information
about his qualifications, biography, and some other pertinent information about him.

The following approach may be adopted:

a. Introduction: Use an anecdote or some story to establish the speaker being introduced.
 b. Body: Discuss his biography and qualifications. Focus on qualifications most relevant to the
occasion and on some other interesting facts about him.
c. Conclusion: Summarize his qualifications and use that summary to explain why he was asked
to speak. End by welcoming the speaker and inviting the audience to join the welcoming by
applauding.

2. Speech of Presentation. This speech is used when a person is publicly presented with a gift or an
award. It is usually brief, and the length depends on the formality of the occasion. Typically, a
speaker of presentation is speaking on behalf of some group, and he should reflect the shared
feelings of the group.

The following guidelines generally apply.

1. State the person’s name early in the presentation (unless building suspense is appropriate).
2. Explain the award’s significance as a symbol of the group esteem.
3. Explain how the person is selected for the award.
4. Highlight what makes this person unique. Use anecdotal information and a brief list of
achievements.
5. Hand the award to the recipient.

3. Speech of Acceptance. This speech is delivered by individuals who have been recognized,
honoured, or awarded. These people know that they will be publicly recognized, so they will
have enough time to prepare their speech.

When accepting an award, the speaker needs to follow some general rules. He should
bear in mind the following:
1. To be thankful and humble. First, he must thank the people who helped him succeed. He
must minimize personal accomplishment, demonstrating a sense of perspective, even
humility.
2. To be succinct. Brevity is the soul of wit, so he must keep his remarks brief.
3. To contextualize the award. He may provide a context for the award by describing what he
did that led to the award, or tell a story related to the occasion. His comments, often
emotionally touching and inspiring, personalize the award and help the audience feel more
connected with him, the recipient.

CEREMONIAL SPEECHES
Addresses known as ceremonial speeches are usually part of a formal activity. They help bring
the audience to the past, present, and future together. Examples are commencement addresses and
commemorative speeches, like tributes and eulogies.

1. Commencement Address. A commencement address is also known as a graduation speech. A

speaker in a graduation both acknowledges the importance of the ceremony and honors the
graduates. This type of speech pays respect to the past but focuses on the future of the
graduates.
The speaker should choose examples and illustrations that celebrate the collective
experiences of the audience. Humor, if appropriate, can ease the tension and make the
ceremony more enjoyable.
 2. Commemorative Speech. This is a speech of praise or celebration. Examples are tributes,
dedication, and eulogies. The speech aims to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an
institution, or an idea.

The fundamental purpose of this speech is not to inform the listeners but to inspire
them to assure and heighten their appreciation of or admiration for the person, institution, or
idea that is being praised.

When speaking to commemorate, the speaker wants to express feelings, to stir

sentiments—joy and hope when a new building is dedicated or conceptualized, good wishes at a
commencement celebration, sorrow and consolation at a funeral, or admiration and respect at a
testimonial dinner.

3. Tributes. Tributes are commemorative speeches that highlight and reinforce cultural beliefs,
values, and behaviors. A tribute praises the qualities of a person, thing, idea, organization,
event, or group.

A tribute for a living subject should focus on the person’s character and achievements; a
tribute to a historical character should balance the subject’s virtues and accomplishments.

Some guidelines for a tribute include the following:

1. In the introduction, mention why the subject is significant and worthy of praise.
2. Highlight praiseworthy characteristics, ideas, and behaviour that benefit society.
3. Consider using a statement of reason pattern. For example, a basketball fan’s tribute to the
basketball great, Robert Jaworski, gives three reasons to praise Jaworski, such as patriotism,
perseverance, and charity.
4. Develop each point with illustrative incidents from the person’s life.
5. Though not an informative speech, include information about the subject.

4. Eulogies. A eulogy is generally thought of as a speech given to praise or honor someone who has
died. The speaker, therefore, should try to relate to the audience the significant meaning in that
person’s personality and the virtues he embodied before focusing on his feelings and his
experiences on comforting the mourners.

Most eulogies take place much closer to home. This means that family members and
friends often find it appropriate to eulogize deceased loved ones at funeral ceremonies.

CONTEST SPEECHES
Each year, thousands of students participate in various speech competitions sponsored by either
their schools or some other schools. Rules that govern speech contests vary from one school to another
and from one sponsoring organization to another.
Speech events fall into categories of public speaking and interpretation. Popular events include
original oratory, extemporaneous speaking, and dramatic and humorous interpretation.
Original Oratory. In this speech contest, the speaker is allowed to choose his topic and write his
own speech about it. The speech, which needs careful and complete preparation, is memorized and
limited to a ten-minute delivery.
 Extemporaneous Speaking. In extemporaneous – speaking competitions, participants are
required to choose one topic from several given topics and prepare a five- to seven – minute speech on
the topic. The topic options are usually based on current issues and are presented in question form.

Examples of questions asked are:

1. Do politicians have the right to privacy?
2. How can we win the war on drugs?
3. What can parents do to prevent their two-year-old children from using gadgets, like
cellphones and tablets?
4. How can we better provide for the senior citizens in our nation?

Contestants are allowed 30 minutes to prepare their speeches. They are given access only to
documents or background information that they have brought to the contest. They can use one note
card to guide them through the speech.

Dramatic and Humorous Interpretation. It is a competitive interpretation event where

participants are permitted to choose the materials they want to perform. Dramatic interpretation and
humorous interpretation may be done separately or combined. This kind of performance gives the
participants an opportunity to share their acting talents.

When joining this kind of activity, a participant must select the type of material that is most
suitable for him in terms of not only his personality but also his ability as a performer.

TYPES OF SPEECHES BASED ON DELIVERY

The easiest approach to speech delivery is not always the best. Unless you devote substantial
work to carefully prepare an interesting and ethical message, you can “mess it up” by simply reading it
word for word. Once you do this, you miss out on one of the major reasons for studying public speaking:
to learn ways to “connect” with your audience and to increase your confidence in doing so. You already
know how to read, and you already know how to talk. But public speaking is neither reading nor talking.

Speaking in public is more formal than talking. During a speech, you should present yourself
professionally. This does not mean wearing a suit or “dressing up” (unless your instructor asks you to),
but it means making yourself presentable by being well groomed and wearing clean, appropriate
clothes. It also means being prepared to use language correctly and appropriately depending on the kind
of audience you have and topic to be discussed.

While speaking has more formality than talking, it has less formality than reading. In speaking,
you can have meaningful pauses, eye contact, small changes in word order, and vocal emphasis. But in
reading, you say the words more or less exactly as they appear on paper without using any nonverbal
interpretation. Speaking, as you will realize if you think about excellent speakers you have seen and
heard, provides a more animated message.

There are four types of speeches according to the mode of delivery that can help you balance
between too much and too little formality when giving a public speech. These are impromptu,
extemporaneous, manuscript (or read), and memorized.
 Impromptu Speech. For instance, while attending your best friend’s 18 th birthday the guests
begin chanting your name followed by the words “speech, speech, speech!” Since you are frightened at
the possibility that they will not stop yelling at you and because you are the best friend of the
celebrator, you reluctantly get on stage and begin chattering. You might talk about your friendship, your
bonding moments together, your crushes and the like. Pat yourself on the back because you just
performed an advanced impromptu speech. This is a speech that has no earlier planning or practice.

These situations call for an impromptu speech.

1. Classroom discussion when the professor asks you to answer a question or comment on an
issue.
2. Ambush interview where you answer on-the-spot questions.
3. Question-and-answer portion in a beauty contest.
4. Self-introduction in group settings.
5. Giving a toast on a special occasion.

When such situations arise, never panic; no one expects you to deliver a perfect speech, but you
can do away with unwarranted fears and surprises by doing the following suggestions (Fletcher &
Crochieve, 2001).

1. Anticipate that you may be called upon to speak. Always do a little preparation before
attending any event by thinking of at least two or three ideas about a topic or the event.
2. Stay updated on the development in your field. Read regularly both popular and
professional publications in your field. If your field is education, you can read journals or
magazines on teaching strategies.
3. Be prepared with a few stories and remarks. It is handy to be ready with a variety of jokes,
strange statistics, and several experiences. All these become helpful when delivering
impromptu speeches. Search the Internet or buy a book that contains a collection of these
materials.