Exploring the Antarctic

Space Applications Centre

Indian Space Research Organisation
Department of Space
Government of India
Ahmedabad - 380015
 Exploring the Antarctic

Exploring the Antarctic

Space Applications Centre

Indian Space Research Organisation
Department of Space, Government of India
Ahmedabad – 380015, India

February, 2020
Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad
 Exploring the Antarctic

Published by: Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, India

www.sac.gov.in

Copyright: © Space Applications Centre, ISRO,2020

This publication may be produced in whole or in part and in any form for education or non-profit uses,
without special permission from the copy right holder, provided acknowledgement of source is made. SAC
will appreciate a copy of any publication which uses this publication as a source.

Citation: SAC, (2020), Exploring the Antarctic, Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, India, ISBN :978 – 93 -
82760 – 37 - 5.
ISBN:

Available from: Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad-380015, India

Printed by: Chandrika Corporation, Ahmedabad

Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad
 Exploring the Antarctic

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION
SPACE APPLICATIONS CENTRE
AHMEDABAD-380015
DOCUMENT CONTROL AND DATA SHEET
1. Book no. SAC/EPSA/GHCAG/CSD/BOOK/01/2020
2. Date February 2020
3. Title Exploring the Antarctic
4. Category Scientific Book
5. No. of pages 143
6. Authors Polar Cryosphere Science Team

7. No. of figures 97
8. No. of tables 04
9. No. of 140
references
10. Original unit CSD/GHCAG/EPSA/SAC/ISRO
11. Abstract This book presents the highlights of various scientific studies in the Antarctic region undertaken
by Space Applications Centre (SAC-ISRO) using the earth observation data and decade long
experience (2009-2019) of participation in the expeditions to Antarctica coordinated by
National Centre of Polar and Ocean Research (ESSO-NCPOR). The studies include technique
development and analysis of sea ice, ice sheet and ice shelves using sensors launch by ISRO such
as AltiKa, SCATSAT-1, OSCAT, MSMR, RISAT, AWiFS, LISS-III, LISS-IV etc. Field studies include
measurements at Bharati and Maitri stations.
12. Key words Sea ice, ice sheet, ice shelf, Indian EO data, sea ice thickness, ice velocity, surface melt, sea ice
advisory, mass balance, energy balance, Antarctic expedition
13. Security Unrestricted
classification
14. Distribution General

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Polar Cryosphere Science Team

 Sandip R. Oza
 D. Ram Rajak
 P. Jayaprasad
 Sushil Kumar Singh
 Purvee Joshi
 Shweta Sharma
 Manish Kumar
 Kiral Ghodadra
 Rajendra Singh
 Lakshmipriya Prusty
 Nilesh D. Makwana
 Ananya Ray
 Maya R. Suryawanshi
 Rajkumar Kamaljit Singh
 Megha Maheshwari
 Deepak Maroo
 Ishmohan Bahuguna
 Ajay Singh Rajawat
 Raj Kumar

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 Exploring the Antarctic

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We express our sincere gratitude towards Secretory, DOS and Chairman ISRO, Dr. K. Shivan and former ISRO Chairmans Dr. K
Radhakrishan and Shri A. S. Kiran Kumar for their kind encouragement in Polar science activities taken up at SAC without which
we could not have made any progress in our scientific endeavour. We express our deep gratefulness to Secretary, Ministry of earth
Sciences, Dr. M. Rajeevan and former Secretary, Dr. Shailesh R. Nayak, for their kind support and encouragement for our
participation in the Indian Antarctic expeditions.

We would like to express our gratitude towards Dr. D. K. Das, Director, Space Applications Centre (SAC) and former Directors Dr.
R. R. Navalgund and Shri Tapan Misra for their kind direction and suggestions that have given a boost to the remote sensing
activities to study the Antarctic cryosphere. We are indebted to Shri Nilesh M. Desai, Associate Director, SAC for his meticulous
comments and suggestions in his various capacities, which has helped the team to develop Antarctic science knowledgebase at
SAC.

Our heartfelt appreciation goes to Shri Rajeev Jyoti, Deputy Director, SAC and other former Deputy Directors Dr. J. S. Parihar, Dr.
P. K. Pal, Dr. B. S. Gohil, Dr. S. S. Rana who have provided kind guidance, warm encouragement and support for the Antarctic
expedition activities and associated scientific research.

Inspiration and guidance received from late Dr. N. K. Vyas has helped in initiating the expedition activities and we are grateful to
him. We have been greatly benefited by the suggestions, support and guidance received from present and former Scientists Dr. V.
K. Agarwal, Dr. Abhijit Sarkar, Dr. Rashmi Sharma, Dr. Alok Mathur, Dr. Markand P. Oza, Shri D. B. Dave, Smt. Jolly Dhar, Shri Rakesh
Bhan and Shri Deepak Putrevu. Generous support received from Smt. Swati Duggal Shukla and Shri Deepak Putrevu is sincerely
acknowledged. We acknowledge the help received from Shri Naveen Tripathi, Shri Ritesh Agarwal, Shri Saurabh Tripathi and Shri
Ujjwal Gupta.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) is coordinating the entire program of Indian Scientific Expedition to
Antarctica. We owe our deepest gratitude to Dr. M. Ravichandran, present Director, NCPOR and former directors Dr. Prem Chand
Pandey, Dr. Rasik Ravindran and Dr. Rajan for giving us an opportunity to participate in the expedition and providing their
insightful comments and suggestions for the betterment of the science at Antarctica. Our deepest appreciation goes to Shri Mirza
Javed Beg and Dr. Rahul Mohan, Project Directors, NCPOR and their logistic and science team for their constructive comments and
generous support, without which we could not have been able to conduct the scientific experiments in the prevailing harsh
environment over the Antarctica.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Executive Summary

The coldest and the driest continent of the globe, Antarctica is Prior to satellite era, very limited and scattered information was
also the least explored and least understood continent. Without available on polar ice features. This limited information was
exploring its cryospheric features and involved processes, we available through the whalers or other ships that visited the
cannot understand the global climate in its entirety. The polar sea ice regions. All the traditional methods of data
Antarctic processes are extremely important to comprehend, collection over ocean and Polar Regions have certain limitations.
especially in this era of earth’s changing climate. The polar ice Insufficient data and time consumption are two of the major
regime consists of ocean, ice sheet, sea ice, ice shelf, atmosphere, concerns. The availability of useful data in Southern Hemisphere
polynyas etc. Because of the complex feedback mechanism is further poor in comparison to Northern Hemisphere. A major
amongst these components, improved knowledge of the physical emphasis of contemporary Antarctic science is to understand the
processes is required for better understanding of the potential earth system, its components, connections and feedbacks system.
changes in ice mass balance and global energy balance. Polar sea As far as the Antarctic science is concerned, we know far less than
ice has an important climate regulating impact by limiting we need to know about the past and present of it. Today, there
exchanges of momentum, heat and moisture between the ocean are more science questions than the answers before us, as far as
and atmosphere. It modulates the normal exchange of heat and the Antarctic, science is concerned. To answer the Antarctic
mass between the atmosphere and ocean by isolating sea surface science questions, the global scientists and policy makers will
from atmosphere. Subtle changes in surface fluxes can have require sustained and stable efforts towards:
intense long-term impacts on polar environmental conditions,  Access to all of Antarctica throughout the year;
which in turn influence physical processes at lower latitudes. The  Application of emerging technologies;
climate of the high latitude areas of the Arctic and the Antarctic  Strengthened protection of the region;
is more variable than that of tropical or mid-latitude regions.  Growth in international cooperation; and
High-latitude fluxes differ prominently from those in temperate  Improved communication among all interested parties.
regions.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

With the increasing availability of remotely sensed data, this and Bharati. Scientists from India visit Antarctic region every
situation is gradually improving. It has offered an opportunity to year for carrying out various experiments and field data
monitor these usually inaccessible regions in near real time. Now- collection through Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica
a-days sea ice records prepared based on satellite data include (ISEA). Participation of Space Applications Centre (ISRO) in the
sea ice extent, area, concentration, thickness and the age of the Antarctic Expedition for the exploration of remote sensing
sea ice. Similarly, a lot of information related to ice sheets, ice technology to understand the polar cryosphere processes started
shelves, polar glaciers, Arctic and Antarctic coastal regions etc. with the 28th Indian Scientific expedition to Antarctica in 2008-
became available after satellite era. The availability of vast 09. Since 28th Expedition, SAC has participated for eight times. In
amount of satellite data does not eliminate the need and addition, SAC scientists are involved in satellites data
requirement of in-situ data. The in-situ data provide training applications in various aspects of the Antarctic cryosphere
data to various models and satellite data analyses. It is also used studies.
to validate results obtained from model and satellite data
India’s Oceansat-1 Multi frequency Scanning Microwave
analyses.
Radiometer (MSMR) data was used for mapping of month-wise
A number of countries including many developed and developing sea ice extent and it was found that there was a marginal
nations have taken of the task of carrying out research in the increasing trend in the Antarctic. The analysis of QuikSCAT
direction of understanding the Antarctic processes and regular scatterometer data found the increasing and decreasing trend in
monitoring using satellites data as well as by carrying out the Antarctic summer sea ice cover during the period from 1999
scientific expeditions to Antarctica for collecting field data. India to 2009. Derivation of sea ice freeboard from Ka-band Altimeter
is among the countries who took this responsibility early and at (Satellite with ARGOS and AltiKa (SARAL))/AltiKa) over the
priority. It got in the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and thereafter Arctic region for 15 March–15 April 2013 (spring) and 15
obtained consultative status. Dakshin Gangotri, India’s first September–15 October 2013 (autumn) was demonstrated. SAC
committed research facility was established in 1983-84. Today, has been providing near real time sea ice advisories for safer ship
we have two all-round Indian Antarctic Research Stations, Maitri navigation since 2013 to the Indian Antarctic Expeditions. Sea ice

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 Exploring the Antarctic

area modelled using MITgcm was compared with that derived and other changes around Antarctic ice margin and preparation
from National Snow and Ice Data Centre (NSIDC) sea ice of an Antarctic region have been demonstrated. Applications of
concentration products. Sea ice trends were studied in the Arctic Scatsat-1 super resolution data for preparing daily sea ice images
as well as the Antarctic. An algorithm based on Advance have been explored and demonstrated. Some of the data
Microwave Scanning Radiometer-Earth observing system products generated by SAC using satellites data are made
(AMSR-E) data (89 GHz) was developed for estimating sea ice available to global community through the SAC web portal
thickness in the Arctic polynya, which was found valid up to the (http://vedas.sac.gov.in).
sea ice thickness of 10 cm. The potential of SARAL/AltiKa Ka-
The field data pertaining to ice feature identification over the
band altimeter data for the generation of ice sheet Digital
satellite images, GPS locations of various Antarctic ice features,
Elevation Model (DEM) has been demonstrated. The altimeter
multiple Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data over the
data from SARAL/AltiKa has been used for the assessment of
Antarctic sea ice and different parts of the Antarctic ice sheet,
change in surface elevations over Antarctic ice sheet. Intra-
Differential GPS data for glacier surface ice velocity have been
annual and inter-annual elevation changes over the 40 Hz
collected by SAC participants of 7 Indian Antarctic expeditions.
geophysical data record products for the period 2013-2016 were
The meteorological data related to atmospheric parameters
studied. Surface ice velocity of the Pine Island and Thwaites
(temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.) during ship voyages and
glacier using Moderate Resolution Image Spectroradiometer
at various locations in Antarctica along with atmospheric aerosol
(MODIS) data between 2000 and 2017 using feature tracking
optical depth, ozone content, water vapour content were
method based on Normalized cross correlation method were
collected.
derived. Spatial and temporal pattern of surface melting
observed over the Antarctic ice shelves using Ku-band QuikSCAT This book presents salient observations made during 7 Indian
and OceanSat-2 scatterometer (OSCAT) scatterometer data have Expeditions on the land and sea ice features, experiences gained
been studied. Potential uses of Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT-1) by SAC teams, potentials of Indian Earth Observations data and
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data for mapping of ice calving future scope of research.

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Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction 01
1.1 About Antarctica & the Arctic 02
1.2 Antarctic Science and Challenges 04

2.0 Antarctic Cryosphere 19

2.1 Land Ice Features 19
2.2 Sea Ice Features 60

3.0 Earth Observation Data Analysis 77

3.1 Remote Sensing of Polar Cryosphere: State of Art 77
3.2 Remote Sensing of Sea Ice 77
3.2.1 Sea Ice Area and Concentration 77
3.2.2 Sea Ice Thickness 79
3.3 Remote Sensing of Ice Sheet, Ice Shelf and Glacier 81
3.3.1 Estimation of Surface Elevation and Change Detection 82
3.3.2 Estimation of Ice Sheet and Glacier Velocity 83
3.3.3 Assessment of Surface Melting 83
3.3.4 Changes Around Ice Margins 83
3.4 Studies at SAC 84
3.4.1 Sea Ice Studies 84
3.4.2 Continental Ice & Ice Shelves Studies 94

4.0 Participation in Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica 100

5.0 Way Forward 124

References

Annexure: Glossary

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1.0 Introduction
Of all the continents on earth, Antarctica is the least explored changes in surface fluxes can have intense long‐term impact
and the least understood owing to its unique geographical on polar environmental conditions, which in turn influence
location and associated climatic, crustal and cryospheric physical processes at lower latitudes.
processes. It is extremely important to comprehend the
Because of the complex feedback mechanism between ice,
Antarctic processes, if we need to understand our earth’s
ocean and atmosphere in the Polar Regions, improved
changing climate. The climate of the high latitude areas of the
knowledge of the physical processes is required for a better
Arctic and the Antarctic differs markedly from mid‐latitude
understanding of the potential changes in the climate and
regions due to significant differences in the energy fluxes. The
mass balance. Prior to satellite era, availability of information
climatic significance of Polar Regions is far out of proportion
on polar ice features was scarce. Limited information was
to its geographic area.
available through the whalers, submarines or other ships that
The present climate and paleoclimate of Polar Regions has navigated through the polar sea ice regions.
been responsible for the occurrence of large ice sheets, ice
Conventional methods of data collection over Polar Regions
shelves and vast extents of sea ice. The huge extents of snow
have certain limitations. Harsh weather conditions cause
and ice in the Polar Regions are not only responsible for
excessive time consumption which results into insufficient in‐
governing the global climate system but also controlling the
situ data collection. Moreover, in many cases, incompatible
global sea level.
policies prevent neighbouring countries from sharing
Polar sea ice has an important climate, regulating impact by relevant data with each other. Upon comparison, we find that
limiting exchanges of momentum, heat and moisture between less amount of useful data is available for the Southern
the ocean and the atmosphere. It modulates the normal Hemisphere than the Northern Hemisphere. With the
exchange of heat and mass between the atmosphere and increasing availability of remotely sensed data, however, this
ocean by isolating sea surface from atmosphere. Subtle situation is gradually improving. A lot of information related

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 Exploring the Antarctic
to ice sheets, ice shelves, polar glaciers; polar coastal regions using Arc Globe module of ARCGIS. The ice in the Arctic Ocean
etc. have become available after the satellite era. The can survive for a long time due to the big oceanic gyre present
availability of space‐borne sensors over the Polar Regions has in the Arctic Ocean, which allows ice to grow and increase in its
offered an opportunity to monitor and generate forecasts for thickness. Ice rotates for years due to this gyre until it leaves
these usually inaccessible regions in near real time (Bhandari the basin through one of the straits/outlets. In the Arctic, there
et al., 2002; Cavalieri et al., 1984; Oza et al., 2017a). Now‐a‐ are two main large‐scale wind driven drift components, the first
days, sea ice products retrieved from the satellite data include is the Beaufort gyre, a clockwise rotation near the North Pole,
sea ice extent, area, concentration, thickness and the age of which results from an average high‐pressure system that
the sea ice. In spite of the availability of vast amount of creates the winds in the region. The second is the transpolar
remotely sensed data, the need and requirement of in‐situ drift, where ice moves from the Siberian coast across the Arctic
data cannot be eliminated. The in‐situ data provides training basin to the north coast of Greenland. This allows the flow of ice
dataset to various models for forecasting. In addition to that, into the North Atlantic through the Fram Strait between
it is very useful for validating the results obtained from Greenland and Svalbard. Arctic sea‐ice extent varies between 8
models and space‐borne sensor data derived products. to 15 million km2 during the annual cycle (Eicken and Lemke,
Hence, there is a need to prepare a digital database of in‐situ 2001). Figure 1.2 shows the geographical extent of the
data collected during the Antarctic expeditions that may be Antarctic Polar Regions and the surroundings. The Antarctic
further utilized by the global scientific community. region of the Southern Ocean is surrounded by a circumpolar
ocean current. Though the atmosphere in the Antarctic is colder
1.1 About Antarctica & the Arctic
than in the Arctic, the heat flux from the turbulent unprotected
When we talk of Antarctica, the first thing that comes to our
sea is much higher. This condition leads to the highly variable
mind is its proximity to the South Pole. In‐fact, the regions
sea‐ice cover. It is estimated that sea ice cover of up to 20
around the North Pole and the South Pole are called the Arctic
million km2 extent girdles the Antarctic continent during
and the Antarctic regions, respectively. The Figure 1.1 shows
winter (Eicken and Lemke, 2001) while it almost disappears in
the Arctic Polar Regions and the surrounding areas prepared
the summer which leads to the prevalence of lower ice
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 Exploring the Antarctic
thickness and higher ice drift as compared to the Arctic. In world sea‐level equivalent, with Antarctica accounting for 90%
summer, only patches of perennial ice, covering about 4 million of this. Greenland accounts for most of the remaining 10%, with
km2 area, remain in the Weddell Sea sector (60° W to 20°E), other ice bodies and glaciers accounting for less than 0.5%.
Amundsen Bellingshausen Sea sector (130° W to 60° W) and Ross Because of their size in relation to annual rates of snow
Sea sector (160° E to 130° W). Ice sheets are the greatest accumulation and melt, the residence time of water in ice sheets
potential source of global freshwater, holding approximately can extend to 100,000 or 1 million years. Consequently, any
99% of the global total (https://nsidc.org/ climatic perturbations produce slow responses, occurring over
cryosphere/sotc/ice_sheet.html). This corresponds to 70 m of glacial and interglacial periods.

Figure 1.1: Arctic Polar Region and its surroundings Figure 1.2: Antarctic Polar Region and its surroundings

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1.2 Antarctic Science and Challenges  How do Antarctic processes affect mid‐latitude weather
Recent observations indicate that the Polar Regions have been and extreme events?
amongst the most rapidly changing areas on the planet,  How have teleconnections, feedbacks and thresholds in
showing major shifts in cryospheric, oceanic and atmospheric decadal and longer‐term climate variability affected ice
processes. A major endeavour of contemporary Antarctic sheet response since the Last Glacial Maximum, and how
science is to understand the Earth system, its components, can this inform future climate projections?
connections and feedbacks mechanisms. As far as the Antarctic  Does past amplified warming of Antarctica provide
science is concerned, we know far less than we need to predict insight into the effects of future warming on climate and
about the past and present of it. Research in the Antarctic ice sheets?
requires facing the challenges of conducting science in one of  What processes and feedbacks drive changes in the
the most remote and extreme environments on the Earth. The mass, properties and distribution of Antarctic sea ice?
major challenges for the Antarctic science is to understand the  How has Antarctic sea ice extent and volume varied over
future scenario of (i) loss of ice mass from the ice sheets to decadal to millennial time scales?
ocean, leading to rise in the sea level; and (ii) variability in sea  How do changes in sea ice extent, seasonality and
ice cover influencing the air‐sea interaction and thereby properties affect Antarctic atmospheric and oceanic
influencing the global atmospheric and oceanic circulation. circulation?
Following are some of the major Antarctic science questions  What are the processes and properties that control the
identified by The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research form and flow of the Antarctic Ice Sheet?
(SCAR):  How will changes in surface melt over the ice shelves
and ice sheet evolve, and what will be the impact of these
 How is climate change and variability in the high Southern
changes?
latitudes connected to lower latitudes including the tropical
 How do oceanic processes beneath ice shelves vary in
ocean and monsoon systems?
space and time, how they modified by sea ice and do they

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 Exploring the Antarctic
affect ice loss and ice sheet mass balance? developing technology, policy and social responses to achieve
 How can natural and human‐induced environmental changes global sustainability, which is again a challenging task. To
be distinguished, and how will this knowledge affect answer the scientific questions pertaining to the Antarctic, we
Antarctic governance? will require sustained and stable efforts towards:
Though this is not an exhaustive list of the science questions  Access to Antarctica throughout the year;
related to Antarctic studies; there are more scientific questions  Application of emerging technologies;
than the answers with us. Lack of complete understanding of  Strengthened protection of the region;
the Antarctic system on one hand and prime importance of the  Growth in international cooperation;
Antarctic in global climate poses a number of serious  Improved communication among all interested parties.
challenges to human kind. One way of listing some major
challenges is to categorise the challenges in following five

classes: forecasting, observing, confining, responding, and
innovating. To improve the usefulness of forecasts of future
environmental conditions and their consequences for people is
of prime importance for human‐ and nature relationship. To
develop, enhance, and integrate the observation systems

needed to manage global and regional environmental change
is equally a big challenge for the scientific community.
Challenges of confinements refer to determine how to

anticipate, recognize, avoid and manage disruptive global
environmental change. Appropriate response to the changing
climate need to determine what institutional, economic and

behavioural changes can enable effective steps toward global
sustainability. Then we need to encourage innovation in
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Plate 1: Have you ever seen beautiful icy lotus leaf like structures floating on the ocean? Freezing of ocean water has already been
started with the formation of pancake ice observed near New Indian barrier (690 52’ 01’’ S, 110 33’ 19’’ E; 19 March 2016; 35
ISEA).

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Plate 2: Pancakes – Predominantly circular fragments of ice from 0.3 – 3 m in diameter, and up to 10 cm in thickness (unrafted),
with raised rims due to the fragments striking against one another. Top right shows Lazarev Ice Shelf and its ice front.
Top left portion shows greece ice formation in Southern Ocean (700 04’ 21’’ S, 120 42’ 07’’ E; 18 March 2017; 36 ISEA).
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Plate 3: Proceeding towards Antarctica, occurrence of sea ice starts initially in low concentration called marginal sea ice (630 22’
33’ S, 680 29’ 29’ E; 21 December 2013; 33 ISEA).

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Plate 4: Low concentration sea ice in marginal zone encountered while sailing towards Larsemann Hills (670 50’ 21’’ S, 730 22’
26’’ E; 16 January 2009; 28 ISEA).

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Plate 5: Sea ice fastened to continental ice front is visible along with appearance of melt pond on sea ice surface (690 37’ 49’’ S,
750 26’ 24’’ E; 02 February 2009; 28 ISEA).

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Plate 6: A section of East Antarctic coast having a number of leads, melt ponds over fast ice and coastal deformation (690 39’ 07’’
S, 740 49’ 13’’ E; 08 January 2014; 33 ISEA).

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Plate 7: An iceberg and its large size crevasses formed due to disintegration are seen in the foreground. (690 16’ 04’’ S, 760 07’
51’’ E; 29 January 2009; 28 ISEA).

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Plate 8: Continental ice front, in Schirmacher Oasis behind Maitri research station (700 46’ 40’’ S, 110 49’ 21’’ E; 06 March 2016;
35 ISEA).

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Plate 9: Melt ice drainage at Schirmacher Oasis (700 46’ 25’’ S, 110 47’ 09’’ E; 21 January 2014; 33 ISEA).

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Plate 10: Air bubbles are squeezed out and ice crystals enlarge, making the ice appear blue. Blue ice, the hardest ice structure
observed near Novo Lazarevasky Russian air field (700 48’ 32’’ S, 110 36’ 40’’ E; 04 March 2016; 35 ISEA).

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Plate 11: Advance planning is much needed to take up and successfully complete a task in Antarctica. Summer, winter and crew
team members are chalking out a plan to offload heavy machinery items for transporting it to Bharati station for
supporting construction (690 24’ 14’’ S, 760 12’ 11’’ E; 27 January 2018; 37 ISEA).

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Plate 12: Aurora Australis: Dancing curtains of lights. Hotness and coldness, both are relative terms… Antarctica is the land
where, coldness of an icy continent beneath your feet & hotness of “Natural Plasma” in the sky…simultaneously…!!!
Bharati Research Station comes under “Auroral Oval Zone” (06 March 2017; 36 ISEA).

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Plate 13: Penguins on Rookery Island (690 16’ 24’’ S, 760 50’ 10’’ E; 06 January 2014; 33 ISEA).

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2.0 Antarctic Cryosphere

Antarctic ice features may be broadly grouped under two and satellites images.
categories; land ice features and sea ice features. Some of the 2.1 Land Ice Features
major Antarctic ice features like ice sheet, ice shelf, ice berg, sea A number of ice features found abundantly on Antarctica are
ice etc. are shown in figure 2.1. This chapter introduces briefly largely unseen by the general public in their life time.
about these two categories along with their field photographs

Figure 2.1: Depiction of some major Antarctic ice features (www.antarcticglaciers.org)

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 Exploring the Antarctic
a) Ice Sheet A thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice
Antarctica is icy continent. It’s almost 97% area is covered by sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface is
ice. The ice cover has different names. A mass of glacier ice that called Ice Shelf. It is an extension of an ice sheet floating over
covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2, is ocean surface. It is therefore made up entirely of fresh water, in
called Ice Sheet. Ice sheets form in areas where snow that falls contrast to sea ice, which has some salt in it from the ocean. The
in winter does not melt entirely over the summer. Over Antarctica, Greenland and Canada are the only places where ice
thousands of years, the layers of snow pile up into thick masses shelves are found. The boundary between the floating ice shelf
of ice, growing thicker and denser as the weight of new snow and the grounded (resting on bedrock) ice that feeds it is called
and ice layers compresses the older layers. Currently, ice sheets the grounding line. The thickness of ice shelves ranges from
exist in Antarctica and Greenland only. The size of ice sheets is about 100 to 1000 m. In Antarctica, a total of 44% of its
more than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Ice mass covering less coastline has ice shelves attached. Their aggregate area is about
than 50,000 km2 area is termed as an ice cap. The Antarctic ice 1,541,700 km2. Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity‐
sheet of almost 14 million km2 is the largest single ice mass on driven pressure from the grounded ice. The flow continually
Earth. It contains almost 30 million km3 of ice. Around 99% of moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the
the fresh water on the Earth's surface is held in two ice sheets. shelf. The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was
The Antarctic ice sheet is divided by the Trans‐Antarctic thought to have been iceberg calving, in which a chunk of ice
Mountains into two unequal sections called the East Antarctic breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf. Typically, a shelf
Ice Sheet and the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The front extends forward for years or decades between major
Greenland ice sheet occupies about 82% of the surface of calving events. Snow accumulation on the upper surface and
Greenland i.e. about 1.7 million km2. The Greenland and the melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass
Antarctic ice sheets are losing mass due to melting and calving balance of an ice shelf. A study by NASA and university
from outlet glaciers and ice shelves. researchers ‐ published on the June 14, 2013 issue of Science ‐
found however, that ocean waters, melting the undersides of
b) Ice Shelf
Antarctic ice shelves, are responsible for most of the continent's
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 Exploring the Antarctic
mass loss (https://climate.nasa.gov/news/937/warming‐ outlet glaciers in Antarctica are undergoing rapid changes in
ocean‐causing‐most‐antarctic‐ice‐shelf‐mass‐loss). flow velocity and ice thickness. Climate changes and glacier
dynamics are found to be linked in a complex manner. The
The world's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the
regular monitoring of the global glaciers and their linkages with
Filchner‐Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica. In the last several
climate change are the need of time.
decades, glaciologists have observed consistent decrease in ice

shelf extent through melt, calving, and complete disintegration

of some shelve.

C) Glaciers
Glaciers are among the most impressive creation of nature.
They are found all over the world, from the equator (at the top
of Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa) to the poles (flowing from the
ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica). We call glaciers
advancing or growing / retreating or shrinking when the
amount of new snow is more / less than the amount of melt
(respectively) over a period of time. The glacier region where
more mass is gained than lost over a period of time is called
accumulation zone; while the region of higher loss than gain is
called ablation zone. The major processes like evaporation
surface water, sublimation of snow/ice, calving of icebergs,
melting of snow/ice etc. are responsible for advancing or
retreat of the glaciers. The Lambert Glacier in Antarctica is the
largest glacier in the world. It measures more than 400 km long
and up to 100 km wide. It has been observed that some of the
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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 2.2: A satellite view showing a part of the Antarctic Ice Sheet covering Schirmacher Oasis, Nivilisen Ice Shelf, a
number of ice rises, fast ice near New Indian Barrier, floating sea ice. (Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS; False Colour
Composite( FCC);432(R: Band 4, G: Band 3, B:Band 2);20 December 2015).


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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 2.3: A satellite view covering a part of Larsemann Hills area including Bharati research station, Fisher Island and
its surroundings (Resourcesat‐2; LISS IV; FCC432; 24 January 2016).


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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 2.4: A satellite view showing melt channels on ice shelf near Schirmacher Oasis (Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS, FCC532;
07 February 2018).

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Figure 2.5: Field photo of a melt channel on Antarctic Ice Sheet near Maitri station (690 52’ 50’’ S, 750 43’ 23’’ E; 02 February
2009; 28 ISEA).

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 2.6: A satellite view showing surface melt on ice sheet near Polar Record Glacier (Resourcesat‐2; LISS IV; FCC 432;
13 February 2018).

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Figure 2.7: A satellite view showing melt channel on ice shelf near Schirmacher Oasis (Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS; FCC 432;
05 February 2018).

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Figure 2.8: A ground based synoptic view of Maitri Station and surroundings including a section of ice sheet and number of
partially frozen lakes (700 46’ 00’’ S, 110 43’ 53’’ E; 28 February 2009; 28 ISEA).

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Figure 2.9: Maitri and its surrounding including Priyadarshini Lake, ice sheet, ice wall, Schirmacher Oasis, ISRO’s satellite
communication dome (700 46’ 00’’ S, 110 43’ 53’’ E; 20 February 2009; 28 ISEA).

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 2.10: An aerial view of Maitri station (constructed on Schirmacher Oasis, 1989) and its surrounding. The continental ice
sheet extending from top right to top left. Pre winter state of “Priydarshini” Lake (also known as “Zub” lake) at the
bottom left is seen which is the ultimate life line for drinking water (700 45’ 53’’ S, 110 43’ 31’’ E; 24 March 2017; 36
ISEA).
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Figure 2.11: A satellite view showing New Indian Barrier and Old Indian Barrier (Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS; FCC 532; 07 February
2018).

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Figure 2.12: Ship Ivan Papanin, anchored in between the rift structure of Nivilisen Ice Shelf and the location is referred as New
Indian Barrier (690 58’ 40’’ S, 120 04’ 21’’ E; 02 March 2016; 35 ISEA).

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Figure 2.13: A satellite view showing Fimbul Ice Shelf and coastal region (Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS; FCC 532; 13 February 2015).

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Figure 2.14: A satellite view showing Lazarev Ice Shelf and coastal region (RISAT‐1; CRS; RH; 23 February 2016).

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Figure 2.15: A satellite view showing Polar Record Glacier and its crevasses (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432; 06 February 2018).

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Figure 2.16: A satellite view‐covering terminus of Dalk Glacier and its crevasses (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432; 10 January
2016).

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Figure 2.17: A satellite view covering Dalk Glacier and its surroundings (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432; 10 January 2016).

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Figure 2.18: A satellite view covering Polar Record Glacier and iceberg calved from its frontal part (RISAT‐1; CRS; RH; 05 January
2016).

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Figure2.19: Field photo of Polar Record Glacier full of multiple crevasses and melted glacier ice (seen in blue) (690 50’ 02’’ S,
750 43’ 33’’ E; 06 January 2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.20: Field photo of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (foreground) and Dalk Glacier front (centre right) full of crevasses,
terminating into the open ocean. (690 24’ 42’’ S, 760 29’ 59’’ E; 21 January 2017; 36 ISEA).

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d) Crevasses e) Rift
Deep cracks, or fractures, found in ice sheets or glaciers are A rift in any ice‐shelf is a tensional fracture through the
called crevasses. They are the results of the movements of entire thickness of the ice shelf. It propagates from sides
ice masses at different rates. Crevasses often have vertical into the shelf. Rifts can have significant effect on the
or near‐vertical walls. These walls sometimes expose layers dynamics of an ice shelf. Rifts contribute to marginal calving
that represent the glacier's stratigraphy. A crevasse may be of ice‐shelves. On the ice shelves fringing continental
several hundred metres long. Depth may vary from a few Antarctica, the largest calving events involve the release of
meters to around 40 meters. It may be as wide as 20 metres. tabular icebergs following the propagation of rifts, or
Transverse, Longitudinal, and Splashing crevasses are the crevasses that penetrate the full thickness of the shelf. Rifts
three major types of crevasses. The transverse crevasses are initiated in areas of high strain rates, such as where
stretch across the glacier transverse to the flow direction floating ice shears past grounded ice or land masses, or
while the longitudinal crevasses form parallel to flow where longitudinal or lateral spreading rates are high. Once
direction where the glacier width is expanding. Splashing or rifts have formed, a variety of factors can cause them to
Marginal crevasses form as a result of shear stress from the propagate across the shelf, eventually isolating tabular
margin of the glacier, and longitudinal compressing stress bergs, sometimes of immense size. Hence, rifts are a
from lateral extension. Crevasses are like rattlesnakes, not precursor to iceberg calving. They are deep enough to
a problem if you know where they are, but if you don't know penetrate the entire shelf thickness, and their spacings are
their presence and work in the region, they can be associated with parameters such as size and frequency of
dangerous. Crevasses are likely the biggest danger the iceberg calving events.
Antarctic Expedition teams face, and they are abundant
across the Antarctica. Crevasses are the major hindrance to

convoy operations. The danger of a crevasse is that it may
be covered by a snow bridge that conceals a wide space
below.
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Figure 2.21: A satellite view covering terminus of Disintegration Glacier and its crevasses (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432;
10 January 2016).

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Figure 2.22: Field photo of crevasse which has opened up to reveal the blue ice which probably runs very deep and long. No one
would dare to explore this. Would you be crazy enough to?(690 32’ 58’’ S, 760 11’ 56’’ E; 22 January 2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.23: Field photo indicates that during the movement of ice sheet, crevasses/fractures/cracks are developed due to shear
stress, and followed by snowfall. (690 48’ 37’’ S, 760 02’ 32’’ E; 02 February2018; 37 ISEA).

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Figure 2.24: A satellite view covering rift structure on Fimbul Ice Shelf, filled with snow (Resourcesat‐2, LISS‐III, FCC432, 05
February 2015).

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Figure 2.25: A satellite view covering multiple rift structure on Fimbul Ice Shelf, (Resourcesat‐2, LISS‐III, FCC432, 05 February
2015).

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Figure 2.26: Ice shelf, which is an extended cantilever part of ice sheet floating over the ocean. Field photo shows multiple parallel
rift structures observed at Lazarev Ice Shelf. (690 42’ 48’’ S, 130 14’ 02’’ E; 02 March 2016; 35 ISEA).

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Figure 2.27: A satellite view covering rift structure on Amery Ice Shelf and an iceberg detached from Polar Times Glacier (RISAT‐
1; CRS; RH;28 February 2016).

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Figure 2.28: A satellite view covering rift structure on Amery Ice Shelf and an iceberg detached from Polar Times Glacier
(Resourcesat‐2; AWiFS‐ Band 2, 30 December 2015).

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Figure 2.29: Rift structure, which is defined as the fracture along the entire thickness of ice shelf, makes open ocean visible. A
field photo of aerial view showing rift structure of third largest Amery Ice Shelf, being fed by the largest and the
fastest moving Lambert Glacier in the world (690 22’ 21’’ S, 740 32’ 23’’ E; 13 February 2016; 35 ISEA).

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f) Iceberg each iceberg larger than 19 km along at least one axis. A
A large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off an ice name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and
sheet or an ice shelf or glacier and is floating freely in open a running number. The letters used are as follows: A – 0° to
ocean is called an iceberg. They are pieces of land ice 90° W (Bellingshausen Sea, Weddell Sea) B –90° W to 180°
floating in an ocean. Icebergs come in all shapes and sizes, (Amundsen Sea, Eastern Ross Sea) C–90°E to 180°
from ice‐cube‐sized chunks to ice islands with the size of a (Western Ross Sea, Wilkes Land) D – 0° to 90° E (Amery Ice
small country. Typically, only one‐tenth of the volume of Shelf, Eastern Weddell Sea).
an iceberg floats above water because the density of pure
g) Ice Rise
ice is about 920 kg/m³ and that of seawater is about 1025
Locally grounded features in an ice shelf are called an ice
kg/m³. Icebergs generally ranges from 1 to 75 m above sea
rise. Ice rise is a mass of ice resting on rock and surrounded
level. The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or
either by an ice shelf, or partly by an ice shelf and partly by
broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Iceberg B‐
sea; without exposed rock. Ice rises often have a dome‐
15, photographed by satellite in 2000, measured 295 km
shaped surface; the largest known ice rise is about 100 km
×37 km, with a surface area of ~11,000 km2. The North
across. Ice rises play a key role buttressing discharge from
Atlantic and the cold waters surrounding Antarctica are
the Antarctic Ice Sheet and regulating its contribution to
home to most of the icebergs on Earth. Icebergs are
sea level. This feature typically rises several hundreds of
monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Centre (NIC),
meters above the surrounding ice shelf. Ice rises contain
established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts
rich histories of de‐glaciation and climate that extend back
of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay ice
over timescales ranging from a few millennia to beyond the
conditions.
last glacial maximum.
The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all
icebergs (https://www.antarcticreport.com/articles/the‐
national ice‐centre‐naming‐antarctic ‐icebergs).It assigns

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Figure 2.30: A satellite view covering huge floating iceberg in an open ocean (Resourcesat‐2, LISS‐IV, FCC432).

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Figure 2.31: A satellite view covering iceberg UK235, UK325 calved from Lazarev Ice Shelf (RISAT‐1; MRS; RH; 10 March 2016).

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Figure 2.32: Parting ways. A gap between the break off iceberg (UK235, Bottom right) and the Lazarev Ice Shelf (Top left) can be
seen very clearly in the field photo, which extends over many kms. Can you delineate between Icebergs (UK235 &
UK325) and Lazarev Ice Shelf identified by RISAT‐1 of ISRO for the first time? (690 33’ 26’’ S, 130 49’ 59’’ E; 18 March
2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.33: A satellite view covering large number of icebergs trapped in fast ice near Larsemann Hills (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV;
FCC432; 10 January 2016).

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Figure 2.34: The 33rd ISEA, ship reached a region where iceberg was available visibly. (620 22’ 20’’ S, 640 27’ 47’’ E; 21
December 2013, 33 ISEA).

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Figure 2.35: An iceberg, which is in an elephant shape…!!! The nature creates innumerous crafts in its cradle but one needs the
heart and mind to interpret which one can only do by being with the nature…!!!(680 38’ 30’’ S, 730 15’ 20’’ E; 17
February 2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.36: A satellite view covering ice rise near Lazarev Ice Shelf (RISAT‐1; MRS; RH; 20 February 2016).

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Ice rise

Figure 2.37: Ice rise, locally grounded ice due to bathymetry beneath it. An aerial view of ice rise near Nivilisen Ice Shelf is visible.
(700 05’ 16’’ S, 120 22’ 46’’ E; 22 February 2016; 35 ISEA).

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2.2 Sea Ice Features because it contains concentrated droplets called brine that are
Some of the major sea ice features found in the Antarctic are: trapped in pockets between the ice crystals, and so it would not
sea ice floe, fast ice, lead, deformed sea ice, polynya etc. Sea ice make good drinking water. As ice ages, the brine eventually
is nothing but the frozen ocean water. On an average, it covers drains through the ice, and by the time it becomes first‐year
about 25 million km2 area of the Earth, i.e. about 8 fold of ice, majority of the brine content is gone. Multiyear ice is the
geographic area of India. Sea ice, which is about 7% of the sea ice survived during more than one summer. Sea ice can also
Earth’s surface, covers about 12% of the world’s oceans. The be classified according to whether or not it is attached to the
density of sea ice is less than that of water and hence it floats shoreline or grounded to icebergs. If attached, it is called fast
on the ocean's surface. Sea ice forms, grows, and melts in some ice (word fast from fastened). If not attached and is free to
of the oceans. In contrast, icebergs, glaciers, ice sheets, and ice move with currents and winds, it is usually known as drift ice,
shelves all originate on land from precipitation. Sea ice regions which occurs further offshore in very wide areas. The physical
in Northern Hemisphere covers Arctic Ocean, some areas just boundary between fast ice and drift ice is the fast ice boundary.
below it and some other cold oceans, seas and gulfs. In the A small fraction of human population actually is able to see the
North, it also exists at much higher latitude in Bohai Bay, China sea ice during their lives because we don’t live near poles and
(which is actually about 700 km closer to the Equator than it is other sea ice regions. However, it is an extremely important
to the North Pole). In the Southern Hemisphere, sea ice only part of our environment and climate. A brief description of
develops around Antarctica almost up to 550 south latitude. major sea ice features is presented below.
Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice
a) Pan Cake
packs in the Earth's Polar Regions. Due to the action of winds,
Pancake ice is a term used to describe generally circular ice
currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic,
formations that range from 30 cm to 3 m across and up to 10
leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. One of the
cm thick. Size increases due to grouping of multiple pancakes.
classifications of sea ice is based on its age based on the
Smaller pancakes generally formed from grease ice, which is a
development stages. These stages are: new ice, nilas, young ice,
thin layer of ice that gathers on the surface of agitated water
first‐year, and multi‐year sea ice. New ice is usually very salty
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(such as swelling seas) and often includes frazil ice and slush. Any sea ice that is not fastened to any solid object like
If the ocean is rough, the frazil crystals accumulate into slushy shoreline, shoal, grounded iceberg, ice‐shelf etc., is called drift
circular disks, called pancakes or pancake ice, because of their ice. It has got its name because it is carried along by winds and
shape. Far from an isolated phenomenon, pancake ice occurs sea currents and keep on drifting. Drift ice consists of several
among a wide variety of ice formations and behaviours. A floes, individual pieces of sea ice 20 metres or more across.
signature feature of pancake ice is raised edges or ridges on the
d) Fast Ice
perimeter, caused by the pancakes bumping into each other
Sea ice "fastened" to either coastline or any grounded iceberg
from the ocean waves and winds. If the motion is strong
is known as fast ice or land‐fast ice (also land fast ice) or shore‐
enough, rafting occurs. If the ice is thick enough, ridging occurs,
fast ice. It forms in two ways: by freezing of surface sea water
where the sea ice bends or fractures and piles on top of itself,
near the coast or by freezing pieces of drifting ice to the shore
forming lines of ridges on the surface. The accumulation of
or other anchor sites. Unlike drift ice, it does not move with
slush and frazil ice, which is a collection of ice crystals that take
currents and winds and remain stationary due to its
shape on moving water, also contributes to the raised edges of
attachment with the land or iceberg / ice‐shelf. The presence
pancake ice.
of this ice zone is usually seasonal and depends on ice
b) Floe thickness, topography of the sea floor, sea surface state etc.
Size of sea ice increases due to consolidation of multiple large‐ Seaward expansion is a function of a number of factors e.g.
sized pancakes. A large pack of floating sea ice, often defined as water depth, shoreline protection, time of year and pressure
a flat piece having size of about 20 m across at its widest point, from the pack ice etc. Its extent may range from a few meters
and up to more than 10 km across, is called a sea ice floe. to several hundred kilometres. This zone lies usually between
There are names for various floe sizes: small – 20 m to 100 m; a coastline and drift ice zone; however sometimes there may
medium – 100 m to 500 m; big – 500 m to 2,000 m; vast – 2 km not exit any drift ice zone.
to 10 km; and giant – more than 10 km. e) Ice Foot
c) Drift Ice The ice foot refers to ice that has formed at the shoreline,

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through multiple freezing of water between ebb tides, and is cover, and they share several characteristics. They are the
separated by the remainder of the fast ice surface by tidal areas or pockets of persistent open water where we normally
cracks. expect to find sea ice. They are different in fundamental ways.
A sea‐ice lead is defined by the World Meteorological
f) Bottom Fast Ice
Organisation (WMO) as a rectilinear or wedge‐shaped crack in
Further, away from the coastline, the sea ice may become
the sea‐ice cover. According to this definition, a lead is wider
anchored to the sea bottom‐it is then referred to as bottom fast
than 50 m and ranges from several kilometres to hundreds of
ice.
kilometres in length. Leads are narrow, linear features, while
g) Pack Ice polynyas are generally more uniform in shape and larger in
The term pack ice is used either as a synonym to drift ice or to size. Polynyas tend to be roughly oval or circular in shape, but
designate drift ice zone in which the floes are densely packed. they can be of any regular or irregular shape of open water
As per one definition, when drift ice is driven together into a surrounded by sea ice cover. The polynyas are of two types,
large single mass (>70% coverage), it is called pack ice. It can differentiated by the mechanism of ice removal: Sensible heat
be very flat (because the ocean is flat), but it is usually covered polynya, and Latent heat polynya. One process often dominates
with very rough areas caused by the movement of floes of ice in a given polynya, but both can occur. A sensible‐heat polynya
against one other. This collision can increase the thickness of forms when water that is above freezing up wells, or moves
the ice from just a few inches or centimetres to tens of meters from the lower depths of the ocean to the surface. A latent‐heat
thick. Although pack ice moves with ocean currents and wind, polynya forms as a result of winds blowing in a persistent
it is not free‐floating like ice‐floes, and it is not always direction that push the ice away from a barrier, such as the
continuous. At times it can be very broken, with leads (cracks coast, fast ice, a grounded iceberg, or an ice shelf. Leads form
of open water) opening up without warning. because of the motion of the ice, when ice floes diverge or shear
as they move parallel to each other; while polynyas form from
h) Leads and Polynyas
either upwelling warm water or persistent winds. During
Leads and polynyas are regions of open water within sea ice
winter, open water remains in leads for only a short time before
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it begins to refreeze, while polynyas usually remain unfrozen pack ice. A stamukha is a grounded accumulation of sea ice
for long periods of time. Leads play very important role in rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast
ocean‐atmosphere interaction. They are important for marine ice and the drifting pack ice, or Stamukhi tend to occur in belts
life. Seals, whales, penguins, and other animals rely on leads for that are parallel to the shoreline, along coastal shoals, usually
access to oxygen. Polar bears in the Arctic often hunt near leads, at water depths of about 20 to 50 m. Their height may reach 10
because they know that their prey is likely to come to the m or more above the waterline. Although they remain pinned
surface in such areas. Leads are also important for navigation. to the seabed, these features can be subject to small
Even when they freeze, leads tend to contain thinner and displacements, either due to thermal expansion or to the
weaker ice that allows submarines to move easily to surface pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice. Since
through the ice and icebreakers to more easily traverse the ice. Stamukhi extend downward into the seabed, they present a
Similarly, Polynyas are important for various reasons. Like risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables
leads, they are a source of heat and moisture to the atmosphere, that cross the shoreline.
so they modify the weather in surrounding areas. Polynyas are
2.3 Sea Ice Deformation
also important resources for marine life. They provide access
Sea ice is not a continuous, uniformly smooth sheet of ice, but
between the ocean and atmosphere for a variety of animals,
rather a complex surface that varies dramatically across even
including seals and penguins. Because polynyas persist for
short distances. The continuous interaction between ice floes
longer time periods than leads, and because overturning ocean
as they are driven against each other due to currents and winds
water brings nutrients to the surface, phytoplankton thrives in
produces deformed sea ice deformations. The sea ice
polynyas. During the summer, Antarctic polynyas are one of the
deformations may result in three types of features: (i) Rafted
most biologically productive regions in the world's oceans.
ice, when one piece is overriding another; (ii) Pressure ridges,
i) Stamukha a line of broken ice forced downward and upward; and (iii)
Stamukhi (plural of stamukha) are made of broken sea ice Hummock, a hillock of broken ice that forms an uneven surface.
resulting from the interaction between fast ice and drifting While the in‐situ field observations were made during the

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expeditions, good amount of earth observation data was ice at synoptic scale, RISAT‐1 and Advanced Wide Field Sensor
collected through Indian and foreign satellites over the (AWiFS) sensors could capture the finer details in comparison
Antarctic. Various ice features in Antarctica and the Antarctic to scatterometer. Some glimpses of various ice features as seen
sea ice region were captured in these satellites data. While the by earth observation data are presented here in the form of
scatterometer data at coarse resolution could observe the sea figures (Figure 2.38 to Figure 2.50).

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Figure 2.38: A satellite view showing formation of sea ice near Fimbul Ice Shelf. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432; 13 February
2015).




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Figure 2.39: Rafting of pan cakes (700 03’ 42’’ S, 120 26’ 00’’ E; 20 February 2009; 28 ISEA).

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Figure 2.40: A satellite view covering large floes and polynyas. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS IV; FCC432; 10 January 2016).

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Figure 2.41: A large sea ice floe (extending from centre and right top to bottom right) and its edge showing sea ice thickness,
which is an important parameter for safer ship navigation. Open ocean centre left bottom to top left. (05 January
2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.42: A satellite view covering large number of icebergs trapped into fast ice and polynya. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV;
FCC432; 10 January 2016).

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Figure 2.43: Lead propagation through the sea ice (05 January 2017; 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.44: A satellite view covering 37th ISEA ship wakes approaching to Bharati Station. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432;
06 February 2018).

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Figure 2.45: A satellite view covering location of ship, navigating in pack ice and lead during 35th ISEA. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS IV;
Band 2; 15 January 2016).

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Figure 2.46: A large canvas of sea ice showing multiple linear fractures with varying widths making open ocean visible known as
leads extended over several kilometres. Large number of sea ice melt ponds can be seen as we progress towards
summer. (690 19’ 06’’ S, 760 04’ 20’’ E, 06 January 2017, 36 ISEA).

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Figure 2.47: Ivan Papanin, ice class vessel surrounded by drifting large chunks of ice referred as pack ice zone. Presence of linear
or straight opening in sea ice making open ocean visible referred as lead. (690 16’ 44’’ S, 760 07’ 02’’ E; 09 Jan 2016;
35 ISEA).

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Figure 2.48: A satellite view covering large number of floes. (Resourcesat‐2; LISS‐IV; FCC432; 28 February 2015).

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Figure 2.49: Medium concentration sea ice will be encountered as one moves further towards Antarctica. Floes of various size
are visible in the field photograph. (660 16’ 03’’ S, 750 40’ 09’’ E; 22 December 2013; 33 ISEA).

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Figure 2.50: Process of snow melting during day and refreezing during night over floe is visible in the field photograph. (690 08’
02’’ S, 760 01’ 15’’ E; 24 December 2013; 33 ISEA).

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3.0 Earth Observation Data Analysis

3.1 Remote Sensing of Polar Cryosphere: State of Art Sea ice is one of the most seasonally varying geophysical
As discussed earlier, major components of the polar cryosphere features on Earth. It covers 7% of the Earth’s surface at the
are sea ice floating over ocean, ice sheet grounded over minimum and 13% at the maximum level. In simple words, sea
continent and extended portion of the ice sheet or glaciers ice can be considered as any form of ice found at sea and has
floating over ocean in the form of ice shelves or ice tongue. Sea originated from the freezing of seawater (below ‐1.80 C
ice type, area, concentration, thickness and transport are the temperature). One of the most important properties of sea ice
important parameters that define the sea ice distribution, its is that it is less dense than the seawater and therefore it floats
dynamics and thermodynamics. Important ice sheet over the ocean surface. According to its stage of development,
parameters include surface elevation, ice velocity, calving front, there are various types of sea ice. First‐year ice is not more than
crevasses and rift structures. The ultimate goal of the polar one winter's growth, developing from young ice, with a
cryosphere studies is to understand the role of polar ice cover thickness of 30 cm or greater while 'The old (multi‐year) ice is
in regulating the global ocean and atmosphere circulation and defined as sea ice that has survived at least one summer's melt.
the rise in sea level. Considering the vast remote area and harsh Its topographic features are generally smoother than those
environment, establishing large network of sites for in‐situ data observed over first‐year ice. However, due to the harsh climate
collection is rather impossible. Thus, remote sensing becomes and the remoteness of the polar oceans, sea ice features are
the only viable tool for continuous monitoring in the Polar among the least understood regions of the planet. The thin sea
Regions. Since, the Arctic and the Antarctic are located in ice layer over the ocean surface just accounts for the 0.1% of
Northernmost and Southernmost regions of Earth, they face the Earth’s permanent ice volume but covers the 70% of the ice
prolonged periods of darkness. Hence, microwave remote areal extent.
sensing is the most popular technology for scientists working
3.2.1 Sea Ice Area and Concentration
in the field of polar ice applications and modelling.
A number of studies have been carried out for the assessment
3.2 Remote Sensing of Sea Ice of sea ice concentration using passive microwave remote
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 Exploring the Antarctic
sensing techniques due to its all‐weather and day‐night sensing equation using a simple mixing algorithm considering two end
capability. Vyas et al. (2004) utilized the Oceansat‐1 Multi‐ members, ice and water. They considered only one category of
frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) data for sea ice and assumed that brightness temperature varies
the mapping of month‐wise sea ice extent in the Arctic. They linearly with ice temperature. Considering the presence of
found a marginal increasing trend in the Antarctic wide sea ice significant multi‐year sea ice in the Arctic, Parkinson et al.
extent. Using the QuikSCAT scatterometer data, Oza et al. (1987) proposed the formulation with three end members,
(2010c) found that some of the regions showed increasing ocean, multi‐year ice (MYI) and first year ice (FYI) respectively.
trend, whereas some showed decreasing trend in the Antarctic There are two known algorithms for the derivation of sea ice
summer sea ice cover during the period from 1999 to 2009. concentration using multi‐channel, multi‐polarised passive
Based on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer microwave radiometer data, namely, (i) National Aeronautics
(MODIS) time series data, Fraser et al. (2012) concluded that and Space Administration (NASA) Team algorithm and (ii)
fast ice extent across the East Antarctic coast showed a Bootstrap algorithm. Originally, NASA team algorithm was
statistically‐significant (1.43±0.30% yr 1) increase. Regionally, developed for Nimbus‐7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave
there is a strong increase in the Indian Ocean sector (20° E to Radiometer (SMMR) data (Calvalieri et al., 1984), subsequently
90° E, 4.07 ± 0.42% yr 1), and a non‐significant decrease in the modified for Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)
Western Pacific Ocean sector (90° E to 160° E, 0.40 ±0.37% Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSMI) (Cavalieri et al.,
yr 1). Among the most useful sea ice parameters derived from 1991). The bootstrap technique was first proposed by Comiso
passive microwave data is sea ice concentration (Comiso et al., (1995). Active microwave scatterometers have also shown
1997), useful to retrieve ice extent, ice area and the area of open potential to study the sea ice. Yueh et al. (1997) attempted sea‐
water within the ice pack. Various ice types and the emissivity ice identification using dual polarized Ku‐band scatterometer
of water differ at different microwave frequencies and forms data. They found that the higher salinity and the reduced air
the physical basis for the retrieval of sea ice properties from bubble density cause the scattering by the first year ice to be
microwave radiometer. Zwally et al. (1983) derived the dominated by surface scattering whereas the scattering from
Antarctic sea ice concentrations using radiative transfer the multi‐year ice is dominated by the volume scattering.
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 Exploring the Antarctic
Remund and Long (1999) developed an automatic ice‐ocean microwave emission from sea ice is mostly restricted to a layer
discrimination algorithm using NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) of the top few centimetres, which depends on the wavelength
data for the Arctic region. De Abreu et al. (2002) found that the of the radiation. Notwithstanding, previous work suggests that
retrieved ice edge successfully maps pack ice areas having ice microwave radiometric signals carry information on ice
cover higher than 70% but it fails in case of the areas having thickness for thin ice. Generally, ice with a thickness <0.3 m is
thin ice or ice with low concentration. Automatic identification referred to as thin ice. It includes nilas (thickness <0.1 m) and
of sea‐ice edge and its validation using enhanced resolution young ice (0.1–0.3 m of thickness) according to the World
QuikSCAT data has been carried out by Haarpaintner et al. Meteorological Organization (WMO) nomenclature. Troy et al.
(2004). As mentioned earlier, Scatterometer data has shown its (1981) reported that the emissivity increases from nilas to
potential in delineating the sea ice extent (Oza et al., 2010d; young and to first‐ year ice (>0.3 m). Tucker et al. (1991) also
Rivas and Stoffelen, 2011; Rivas et al., 2018; Haarpaintner et al., presented similar results, while Eppler et al. (1992)
2004). Li et al. (2016) have demonstrated the potential of summarized results from various field and laboratory
Chinese HY‐2A Scatterometer for sea ice monitoring. Lindell experiments. It was observed that a polarization ratio and a
and Long (2016) suggested that combining data from both related brightness temperature ratio between vertical and
active and passive sensors can improve the performance of MY horizontal polarization correlate well with sea ice thickness.
and FY ice classification. Algorithms are developed for classification of thin ice (Steffen,
1991; Cavalieri, 1994) and for estimation of thin ice thickness
3.2.2 Sea Ice Thickness
(Drucker et al., 2003; Martin et al., 2004; 2005). Naoki et al.
Sea ice thickness estimation using remote sensing data is a
(2008) examined the extent to which the relationships of
tricky task. Optical remote sensors cannot provide any direct
thickness with brightness temperature and with emissivity
estimation of sea ice thickness. Active microwave sensors like
hold for thin sea ice, (approximately <0.2–0.3 m), and how
Synthetic Aperture Radar also have limited scope in
those relationships may arise from changes in brine
determining sea ice thickness. It is difficult to attain thickness
characteristics through modification of dielectric properties
information from passive microwave radiometry since the

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 Exploring the Antarctic
Radiometer (AVHRR) data (Emery et al., 1991),
near the ice surface. Altimeter data are in use for the retrieval
Seawinds/QuikSCAT enhanced resolution data (Haarpaintner,
of sea ice thickness for the thicker ice, generally with thickness
2006) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data (Kwok et al.,
higher than 0.7 m. The difference in the elevation of sea ice floe
1990; Geiger and Drinkwater, 2005). The pattern and
from surrounding ocean forms the basis for the retrieval of
variability of Antarctic sea‐ice drift in the Indian Ocean and
height of the floating part of sea ice, known as freeboard.
Western Pacific sectors have been investigated by Heil and
Utilisation of SARAL/AltiKa altimeter data for the estimation of
Allison (1999). They analysed the data from 39 satellite‐
sea ice freeboard and thickness was demonstrated by various
tracked buoys, deployed during various seasons from the year
researchers (Joshi and Oza, 2018; Maheshwari et al., 2015a).
1985 to 1996 in the sea ice of the Southern Ocean, off East
3.2.3 Sea Ice drift and advisory. Antarctica between 20° and 160°E longitude. They found that
The measurements of sea ice motion started with ship's the dominant features of the ice motion in the region are a
observations (the Nansen’s expedition in 1893‐96) and some westward drift parallel to the bathymetry near the Antarctic
manned drifting stations. Since the 1990’s, the sea ice drift can continent, a cyclonic circulation cell in Prydz Bay. As discussed
be estimated from satellite data, with daily and global coverage by them, the oceanic circulation along the coast is generally
of the polar oceans. In order to determine an ice cover barotropic and the ice drift is well correlated with bottom
displacement, surface patterns compatible in size with the topography. They observed that the daily average ice‐drift
sensor's spatial resolution and satellite repeat cycle must speed was 0.23 ms 1 (19.8 km d 1) in the westward flow, with
persist for several days. A major difference between satellite considerable spatial and temporal variability. The eastward
and buoys measurements is that buoys are representative of flow averaged around 0.17ms 1 (15.1 km d 1). Safer sailing
single point displacement while satellite sensor provides through ice covered ocean requires integrated sea ice
information over the entire footprint area. For limited time information. Safe shipping depends on a number of factors
duration, demonstration, and/or local or regional studies, high related to sea state, weather conditions and ship’s own
spatial resolution satellite sensors have been used to estimate characteristics. The ship routing for a scientific expedition may
sea ice drift, for example use of Advanced Very High Resolution differ a lot than that from a cargo ship and is a little more
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 Exploring the Antarctic
complicated due to an additional factor of achieving scientific seas and for producing optimal routes for small and medium
objectives. Research Vessels or ships on a scientific mission size ships. Shigeaki et al. (2010) created a numerical navigation
may not necessarily follow the shortest route or the most system for a small ship sailing in coastal waters with Simulating
economic route with least fuel consumption because of the WAves Nearshore (SWAN), Resource Investment Optimization
scientific objectives / targets that are to be met. Navigation in System (RIOS) and Manoeuvring Modelling Group (MMG)
Polar Regions through sea ice is perhaps the most tedious task models which concluded that it is possible to achieve an
and requires a lot of extra information on sea ice condition for optimum route by numerical simulation of winds, waves, and
routing through path of least resistance. Continuous processes tidal currents. The basic isochrone method was attempted to
of sea ice melting, freezing and drifting warrants near real time obtain an optimal route on the basis of the dynamically
information on sea ice condition. Traditional ship routing does changing weather, which could be forecasted by the coupled
not provide adequate real time information on sea ice status. atmosphere wave‐ocean model (Zhang and Huang, 2007).
The availability of remote sensing data over ocean offers an
3.3 Remote Sensing of Ice Sheet, Ice Shelf and Glacier
opportunity to derive and use near real time information
Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram showing polar
needed for ship routing (Rajak et al., 2011b, Rajak et al.,2015).
cryospheric features and their interaction with ocean and
Attempts have been made to develop an algorithm and to
atmosphere. Ice sheet is the continent‐wide cover of very thick
numerically model the problem of ship routing (Tsou and
layer of ice. Ice flowing from centre to outward direction
Cheng, 2013; Mannarini et al., 2013; Al‐Hamad et al., 2012;
towards the ocean adds fresh water into the ocean leading to
Shiotani et al., 2010; Kotovirta et al., 2009). A prototype
the sea level rise. Ice shelf is the extended portion of ice sheet
Decision Support System for an operational ship routing using
floating over an ocean. At many places around Antarctica, ice
time‐dependent meteoro‐oceanographic fields was presented
shelves extend almost 250 km or more over the ocean. An ice
by Mannarini et al. (2013). Another prototype system for
shelf acts as a sensitive indicator of climate change. The degree
optimizing routes through the ice field was presented by
to which ice sheets and glaciers are changing is reported as
Kotovirta et al. (2009). Vlachos (2004) presented a method for
“mass balance” and is measured by assessing the net inputs and
manipulating the POSEIDON system, forecasts for the Greek
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 Exploring the Antarctic
net losses. The total of precipitation, accumulation, ablation, derived from CryoSat‐2 altimetry (Slater et al., 2017) by
melting, run‐off, sublimation/ evaporation and iceberg calving carrying out spatio‐temporal analysis of data acquired between
needs to be investigated over the course of each year to July 2010 and July 2016. The two main approaches (Xiaoli et al.,
compute the net balance either as a gain in mass (positive) or 2016) to derive elevation changes over the ice sheet are (i)
negative loss in mass (negative). There are indications of the crossover method (Wingham et al., 1998; Davis et al., 2004) and
rapid changes taking place particularly around the margins of ii) repeat track method (Legresy et al., 2006). Davis et al. (2004)
the Greenland and the Antarctic Ice Sheets (Oza et al., 2011d; used a crossover method and observed a strong negative trend
Rignot et al., 2006). in elevation change of West Antarctic glacier outlets consistent
with increased basal melting at glacier grounding lines caused
by ocean thermal forcing. Helm et al. (2014) derived new DEMs,
elevation change maps (using the repeat track method) and
volume change estimates for both Antarctic and Greenland ice
sheets using CryoSat‐2 (Ku band) data from January 2011 to
2014. These elevation changes, when compared to ICESat
(2003‐2009) data, revealed that in West Antarctica volume loss
Figure3.1: Schematic diagram showing polar cryosphere
has increased by a factor of 3, which is partly compensated by
elements and their interactions.
anomalous thickening in Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica.
3.3.1 Estimation of Surface Elevation and Change Detection ICESat data acquired between 2003 and 2008 over the
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of Antarctica are important Antarctic Ice Sheet indicated that snow accumulation exceeded
datasets required for the planning of fieldwork, numerical ice loss from ice discharge by 82±25 Gt a‐1. Their study found
sheet modelling and the tracking of ice motion. Measurements positive mass balance in East Antarctica and negative mass
of ice sheet topography are needed as a boundary condition for balance in the Antarctic Peninsula and West Antarctic near‐
numerical projections of ice dynamics and potential sea level coastal region (Zwally et al. 2015). Utilisation of SARAL/AltiKa
contributions. A new Digital Elevation Model of Antarctica was altimeter data for the assessment of elevation change was
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 Exploring the Antarctic
demonstrated by Suryawanshi et al. (2019). viable tool for the continuous monitoring is utilisation of
microwave remote sensing data due to its cloud penetration
3.3.2 Estimation of Ice Sheet and Glacier Velocity
and all season observation capabilities. Passive microwave
During the last decade, ice velocity mapping at continental scale
radiometer data (Ridley, 1993; Kunz and Long, 2006; Liu et al.,
(Joughin et al., 2010; Rignot et al., 2011; 2012) has allowed
2006; Picard and Filly, 2006; Trusel et al., 2012; Wang et al.,
major advances in the study of Polar Regions by providing
2018; Tedesco, 2009) and scatterometer data (Oza et al.,
complete and accurate observations of the complex flow
2011d; 2015; Bothale et al., 2014; 2015) have been used widely
pattern of the ice sheets from coastal regions to the deep
for the monitoring of surface snowmelt over Antarctic ice
interior. This has considerably enhanced our understanding of
shelves.
the physics of ice flow, the estimation of the mass balance of ice
sheets, and their influence to sea level. Satellite borne 3.3.4 Changes Around Ice Margins
observations in particular have made it possible not only to The changing position of the margin of the Antarctic ice sheet,
map ice motion but also to detect significant changes in ice both floating and grounded, is currently being mapped as part
dynamics over the last 40 years. of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Coastal‐change
and Glaciological Maps of Antarctica programme (Williams and
3.3.3 Assessment of Surface Melting
Ferrigno, 1998). As part of this programme, a comprehensive
Antarctic ice sheet surface melting can regionally influence ice
time‐series of ice front changes around the Antarctic Peninsula
shelf stability, mass balance, and glacier dynamics, in addition
was compiled from sources dating from 1940 to 2002 (Cook et
to modulating near‐surface physical and chemical properties
al., 2005). The time‐series further reveals changes in glacier, ice
over wide areas (Trusel et al., 2012). Ice shelves over the
shelf and other ice fronts and is published as hardcopy maps
Western Antarctica have shown consistent surface melting and
with detailed accompanying reports (Ferrigno et al., 2006;
East Antarctic ice shelves are prone to warming (Trusel et al.,
2008) and digital data (Scientific Committee on Antarctic
2012; Oza et al., 2015; Bothale et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016;
Research, 2005).
2018). Hence, continuous monitoring of Antarctic ice is the key
component to understand the climate change and the only
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 Exploring the Antarctic
3.4 Studies at SAC Vyas et al. (2001). Dash et al. (2001) and Vyas et al. (2001)
Remote sensing of polar ice was conceptualized at SAC during demonstrated the capability of MSMR in capturing the sea‐ice
the planning phase of ISRO’s Oceansat‐1 utilization programme distribution over the Antarctic Circumpolar Sea, as well as land‐
in 1998. The studies of polar ice characteristics were initiated ice signatures matching with some known geomorphological
using the brightness temperature data from space‐borne features on the continent of Antarctica. Bhandari et al. (2002)
SMMR and SSM/I passive microwave radiometers. The further discussed the results obtained from microwave remote
activities received a boost after the launch of Oceansat‐1 sensing data for sea ice studies in the Antarctic. Oza et al. (2008)
carrying MSMR on board, in May 1999. Oceansat‐1 was placed carried out five‐year moving trend analysis of sea ice
in a near circular, polar, sun‐synchronous orbit at an altitude of concentration and demonstrated that ice concentration is
720 km. The MSMR operated at (6.6 GHz, 10.65 GHz, 18 GHz consistently declining in the Arctic. They have also
and 21 GHz), having both, vertical and horizontal polarizations. demonstrated the use of long‐term database of melt‐ onset
dates to identify the regions, which are prone to ice‐free
3.4.1 Sea Ice Studies
condition in subsequent summers. Indian studies on advances
Oza et al. (2008; 2010b) presented a review on the polar sea ice
in Antarctic sea ice were discussed in details by Oza et al.
observations and analysis using space‐borne passive
(2011a; 2012a; 2013; 2017) and Rajak et al. (2014; 2015a;
microwave radiometer region from MSMR. Vyas and Dash
2015b; 2015c). Investigation of linkage between changes
(2000) \ concluded that the MSMR has high potential for the
observed in the Polar Regions with that observed over the
study of polar ice features. SAC jointly with National Centre for
tropical area is still a grey area for research. Kumar et al. (2017;
Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) centre carried out an
2018) have attempted to address this teleconnection topic
extensive study and published an atlas of Antarctic sea ice using
using MITgcm sea ice modelling. Most of the studies presented
Oceansat‐1 MSMR passive microwave data (Vyas et al., 2004).
in this chapter were carried out under PENGWIN (Polar
The atlas of sea ice maps has served as a useful reference source
Environment processes, Global Warming effects and their
for researchers in India and abroad. The large scale Antarctic
Indian teleconnection) theme of Meteorology and
features captured by MSMR were investigated and reported in
Oceanography – phase III (MOP‐III) program of ISRO. Rajak et
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 Exploring the Antarctic
al. (2014a; 2015b) discussed the result of comparison of observed. Data for the monthly sea ice trends is available on the
MITgcm based modelled sea ice concentration with the sea ice VEDAS web‐site (http://vedas.sac.gov.in). Trends observed are
concentration product obtained from National Snow and Ice also supported by the findings from long term analysis of sea
Centre (NSIDC) (Figure 3.2). The simulated sea ice area trends surface temperature data (Singh et al., 2012; 2013, Maheshwari
were quite similar to satellite derived area trends; however, et al., 2012a; 2012b; 2013). Some preliminary studies have also
model overestimated the rate of decrease of sea ice area. Sea ice been taken‐up for the retrieval of sea ice melt‐onset dates
monitoring capability of Scatterometer launched by India were (Singh et al., 2014a); long‐term analysis of melt‐onset dates
utilised by Oza et al. (2011d; 2012a; 2012b; 2013) and Singh et (Oza et al., 2011b) and sea ice–albedo feedback analysis
al. (2014a; 2014b; 2014c; 2018). Inter‐comparison of OSCAT (Srivastava et al. 2010; Das et al., 2011a). Singh et al. (2011)
and QuikSCAT Ku‐band backscatter signatures for polar sea ice have also developed an algorithm for the estimation of thin sea
was attempted by Oza et al. (2010a). An attempt was also made ice thickness (Figure 2.7) in the Arctic polynya from 89 GHz
to estimate the sea ice concentration using OSCAT (Ku‐band) channel data of AMSR‐E and found that the algorithm is valid
and ASCAT (C‐band) Scatterometer data (Singh et al. 2014c). In up to the sea ice thickness of 10 cm. Demonstration of altimetry
the study carried out by Oza et al. (2010d), various values of peaks at sea ice (Oza et al., 2011c) was published online on the
Active Polarisation Ratio (APR) ranging from (‐0.01) to (‐0.04) AVISO website (http://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/es/idm/2011/
at 0.005 interval were used to arrive at the optimum APR jul‐2011‐altimetry‐peaks‐at‐sea‐ice.html). They have studied
threshold for sea ice detection in the Arctic and the Antarctic the sea ice extent using altimeter data of 2009 and 2010 for the
regions. The recent work carried out by SAC using SCATSAT‐1 investigation of year‐to‐year variations (Figure 3.7).
Scatterometer is shown in Figure 3.4. Oza et al. (2009a; 2009c, Scatterometer derived sea ice extent of 2009 was also
2010c; 2012a) have discussed the trends in sea ice during compared with altimetry‐deduced sea ice cover for the same
summer and winter of the Arctic and Antarctic (Figure 2.6). year and it was found that both are closely following each other.
Statistically significant declining trend in majority of the Arctic Maheshwari et al. (2014;2015b) demonstrated the first use of
Ocean was observed during the Northern summer. However, in SARAL/AltiKa Ka‐band altimeter data for the estimation of sea
the Antarctic, anomaly of positive and negative trends was ice freeboard (Figure 3.8).
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Table3.1: List of Indian sensors utilized and their specifications.
Sr. Satellite Sensor Characteristic Potential Applications
No.

1 ResourceSAT‐ AWiFS Band 2/Green 0.5‐0.59 µm 1.Polar ice albedo
2/2A Band 3/Red 0.62‐0.68 µm 2.Sea ice advisory
Band 4/NIR 0.77‐0.86 µm
Band 5/SWIR 1.55‐1.70 µm
Spatial 56 m
resolution
2 ResourceSAT‐ LISS‐III Band 2/Green 0.5‐0.59 µm 1.Polar ice albedo

2/2A Band 3/Red 0.62‐0.68 µm 2.Sea ice advisory
Band 4/NIR 0.77‐0.86 µm
Band 5/SWIR 1.55‐1.70 µm
Spatial 23.5 m
resolution
3 ResourceSAT‐ LISS‐IV Band 2/Green 0.5‐0.59 µm 1.Polar ice albedo
2/2A Band 3/Red 0.62‐0.68 µm 2.Sea ice advisory
Band 4/NIR 0.77‐0.86 µm 3. Change around ice margins

Spatial 5.8 m
resolution
4 RISAT‐1 RISAT‐1 Operating Azimuth Range 1.Mosaic of Polar Regions
Mode 2. calving front delineation
HRS 1 m 0.67 m 3. Estimation of ice sheet and Glacier
FRS‐1 3 m 2 m velocity
FRS‐2 3 m 4 m
MRS 21‐23 m 8 m
CRS 41‐55 m 8 m
5 SARAL AltiKa Ka band : 35.75 GHz 1.Estimastion of sea ice thickness
2. Estimation of ice sheet elevation
and change detection
6 SCATSat‐1 OSCAT‐2 Ku band : 13.515 GHz 1.Assessment of surface Melting
2. sea ice extent

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 3.2: Comparison of MITGCM derived sea ice concentration with PMR based concentration products.

Figure 3.3: SIE derived using 10‐day 12.5km Figure 3.4: SCATSAT‐1 derived sea ice extent
gridded OSCAT data (a) November (Source: http://vedas.sac.gov.in).
2009 and (b) February, 2010.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 3.5: Decadal (2000‐2009) polar sea ice trends derived using scatterometer data over various polar seas (1) Chukchi (2)
Okhotsk (3)East Siberian (4)Laptev (5)Barents (6)East Greenland (7)Weddell (8)Indian (9)Ross (10)Amundsen
(11)Bellingshausen.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 3.6: Thin sea ice thickness in Arctic polynya derived using AMSR‐E data.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Figure 3.7: Sea ice cover deduced from altimetry echo shapes for the austral winter of 2009 and 2010 (yellow sea ice cover for
both winters, red only 2009, blue only for 2010). Source: htts://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/es/news/idm/2011/jul‐
2011‐altimetry‐peaks‐at‐sea‐ice.html.

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Figure 3.8: Freeboard derived using SARAL/AltiKa in the Arctic region for the spring season 15 March ‐15 April, 2013.

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An attempt was made (Gupta et al., 2016; Maheshwari et al., for characterisation of sea ice and ice sheet features by using
2015b) to derive sea ice freeboard from Ka‐band Altimeter the AltiKa altimeter data (Das et al., 2011b; Oza et al., 2011c;
(SARAL/AltiKa) data. Maheshwari et al. (2015b) studied sea ice 2014a; Raj Kumar et al., 2017). Singh et al. (2015a; 2015b)
freeboard in the Arctic region using AltiKa data for the spring have demonstrated the improved characterisation by
season from 15 March to 15 April 2013 (Figure 3.8) and autumn concurrent use of AltiKa with OSCAT scatterometer and SSMIS
(15 September –15 October 2013) period. A waveform passive microwave radiometer data.
template matching technique was employed for classification of

leads and floe pixels. The estimated sea ice freeboards were
found in close agreement with “Operation Ice Bridge quick
look” freeboards (RMSD 0.30 m). The differences between the

two freeboards were largely due to snow layer over sea ice
(RMSD 0.8). The estimated freeboards were of the order of
0.08–0.15 m during the two seasons. Maheshwari et al. (2015a)

have also tried to demonstrate how to derive sea ice thickness
using AltiKa derived freeboard. Joshi and Oza (2018) have
suggested an improved procedure for estimation of sea ice

thickness from AltiKa altimeter waveform data as shown in
figure 3.9. Estimation of thickness in the polynya region, where
the effective thickness is very low, can also be used for safer
ship navigation. We can also observe (figure 3.10) one obvious
phenomenon that fast ice is much thicker than marginal sea ice,
as fast ice is supported by coastal ice shelf/glacier for
deposition and growth both. Moreover, fastened ice does not

come into the contact of warmer ocean. Attempts were made
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 Exploring the Antarctic

(a) (b)

(c)
Effective
SIT (m)
6
4.5
3
1.5
0

Figure 3.9: Map (a), (b) & (c) show sea ice thickness images for quarter‐4 (Oct‐Nov‐Dec) for 2016, 2017 and 2018 respectively
at spatial resolution of 10 km.

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 Exploring the Antarctic
6
Q4 Effective SIT 2016 Q4 Effective SIT 2017 Q4 Effective SIT 2018
5

Effective SIT (m)

4

0
-64 -65 -66 -67 -68 -69 -70
Lattitude (Degree decimal)

Figure 3.10: Transect profile of sea ice thickness.

3.4.2. Continental Ice & Ice Shelves Studies
Oza et al., 2017b have demonstrated the use of SARAL/AltiKa changes in ice dynamics and surface mass balance.
Ka‐band altimeter data for the generation of ice sheet DEM Suryawanshi et al. (2017a; 2017b; 2019) utilised the
(Figure. 3.11). Elevations data are regularly being generated SARAL/AltiKa altimeter data for the assessment of change in
and available on the web portal of SAC surface elevations over Antarctic ice sheet (Figure. 3.12). They
(http://vedas.sac.gov.in). Derived 10km gridded elevation presented intra‐annual and inter‐annual elevation changes
image is 3x3 median filtered image of 4000 Hz. The footprint over the Antarctic ice sheet using the AltiKa radar altimeter’s
size is ~2 km for the flat surface with along‐track spacing of 175 40 Hz geophysical data record products for the2013‐2016.
m for a 40 Hz dataset (Remy et al., 2014). Details of the Slope correction was applied on the elevations using a Digital
SARAL/AltiKa Level‐2 product formats are provided in the Elevation Model (DEM) available from NASA’s Ice, Cloud and
handbook (SARAL/AltiKa product handbook, 2013). Changes land Elevation Satellite (ICESat). Comparison of elevations
in surface elevations of Polar Ice Sheets are the result of from AltiKa and ICESat DEM yielded correlation, bias and root‐
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 Exploring the Antarctic
mean‐square‐deviation values of the order of 0.99, ‐2.88 m and Lake. Suryawanshi et al. (2018) discussed the utilisation of
23.04 m, respectively, indicating the first‐level accuracy of a AltiKa data for the assessment of ice shelf grounding zone.
former dataset. Further comparison of Airborne Topographic Grounding zone is the buffer lie beyond which the ice sheet
Mapper dataset with AltiKa derived elevation yielded 0.4 m extends over ocean from the continent.
root‐mean‐square‐deviation over a part of Vostok Subglacial

Elevation
(m)

Figure 3.11: Surface height classified at 200m interval Figure 3.12: Elevation change indicating loss of ice mass
derived using AltiKa data for winter season observed during one decade between 2003‐05
2013‐14 (Cycle‐13, 14, 15). and 2013‐16. Thin and thick black lines are Ice
flow and ice divide lines obtained from Radarsat
Antarctic Mapping Project dataset.

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Ice velocity is one of the important parameter in the derived surface velocity of Pine Island Glacier ranges between
glaciological studies. The Western part of Antarctica is 2000 and 3000 my‐1, and that of Thwaites Glacier ranges
constantly changing and the two important glaciers of Western between 2500 and 3500 my‐1. The speed of glaciers keeps on
Antarctica region are Pine Island Glacier and Thwaites Glacier. accelerating since last 3 decades, which enhances the
Darji et al. (2017) presented the surface ice velocity of the Pine importance of these glaciers and demand constant monitoring.
Island and Thwaites Glacier using Moderate Resolution Image In addition to surface melting, there are many factors, which
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data between 2001 and 2017 are responsible for the high surface velocity of Pine Island and
(Figure. 3.13). They derived the ice velocity using Normalised Thwaites Glaciers. There is a need to investigate further to
cross correlation method based feature tracking method. The understand the real cause for mass loss.

Figure 3.13: Time series of ice velocity and calving events of Pine Island Glacier, West Antarctica.

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Figure 3.14 shows the Average Melt Intensity (AMI) observed Darji et al. (2017) documented the year‐to‐year changes in the
over the study region using SCATSAT‐1 BT data. As observed, position of ice front of the Pine Island Glacier, West Antarctica
large sized Ronne and Ross Ice S helves (Figure 3.14a) are (Figure 3.15). Darji et al. (2018) studied the propagation‐
showing lower AMI compared to relatively small‐sized ice widening of five active rifts and future potential calving zones
shelves like Larsen‐C, West and Shackleton. This supports the on Amery Ice Shelf (AIS), East Antarctica, between 2000 and
findings of other researchers who studied melt using 2017 using moderate resolution image spectroradiometer
backscatter data or passive microwave data (Bothale et al., (MODIS) data. Darji et al. (2019) discussed, whether the Pine
2014; Oza, 2014b; Oza et al., 2009b;2016). Island glacier, Antarctica calving triggered by earthquakes and
tsunamis?

Figure 3.14: Average melt observed using SCATSAT‐1 BT data
over (a) Antarctic ice shelves for the study period
(b) region covering Amery Ice Shelf, (c) region

covering Antarctic Peninsula and (d) region Figure 3.15: The advance and retreat of frontal portion of Pine
covering Fimbul Ice Shelf. Island Glacier (2001‐ 2017).

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At SAC, various studies have been carried out (Figure 3.16) breaking of Larsen‐C Ice Shelf monitored using high resolution
demonstrating the utilization of RISAT‐1 SAR for the mapping space‐borne data. They also discussed the MOSAIC prepared
of ice calving and other changes around Antarctic ice margin using RISAT‐1 SAR data. However, much more work needs to
(Jayaprasad et al., 2014; 2016; 2017a, Patel et al., 2016a; 2016b, be carried out at SAC using high resolution optical and SAR data
Shah et al. 2016a; 2016b; 2017). Jayaprasad et al. (2017b, for the assessment of changes around ice margins.
2018) and Suryawanshi et al. (2016) have also reported the

Figure 3.16: Typical results of SAR data utilization for the identification of changes around margin including (a) RISAT mosaic of
Antarctica; (b) Calving of icebergs from Polar Record Glacier and (c) UK235 Iceberg calved from Lazarev Ice Shelf.

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Energy balance is one of the approach to study the mass series of the net energy fluxes obtained shows remarkable
balance of the ice sheet. An attempt has been made to study the separation in net fluxes over Maitri and Bharati. From October,
long‐term variations observed in energy fluxes over the Indian the separation starts increasing and reaches to a maximum
Antarctic stations Maitri and Bharati using parameters from during December. From January, it starts decreasing and
European Centre for medium range weather forecasts vanishes in March (Figure 3.17).
(ECMWRF) Reanalysis‐Interim (ERAI) dataset. Monthly time

Figure 3.17: The month wise (October ‐ March) net energy fluxes over Maitri and Bharati during 1979‐2017. Vertical black line
is drawn to visualize the changes after the year 2000.

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4.0 Participation in Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, station, Bharati, is India's third Antarctic research facility and
has been identified by Government of India as the nodal agency one of the two active Indian research stations. It is situated on
for execution and coordination of expeditions to Antarctica by a rocky promontory fringing the Prydz Bay between Stornes
Indian teams. India got involved in the Antarctic science and Broknes peninsula in the Larsemann Hills area. It is located
expeditions during 1980s. On 19 August 1983, India was approximately midway between the eastern extremity of the
admitted to the Antarctic Treaty and thereafter obtained Amery Ice Shelf and the Southern boundary of the Vest fold
Consultative Status. Hills. Since its completion, India has become one of the nine
nations to have multiple stations within the Antarctic Circle.
India's first committed research facility, Dakshin Gangotri (70°
05′37″S, 12°00′00″E) was established during the third Indian Maitri and Bharati research stations have been platform for
Expedition to Antarctica in 1983‐84. The station was built in conducting experiments in glaciology, geology, geography,
eight weeks by team of eighty‐one expeditioners and the medicine, climate change and many other fields. The
construction was completed late in January 1984. The Indian communication with Maitri and Bharati stations is through
team spent first winter in Antarctica to carry out scientific dedicated satellite channels provided by Indian Space Research
experiments and data collection. The station was abandoned in Organization (ISRO).
1988‐1989 after it got buried under the ice. In the year 1989
Participation of SAC, ISRO in the Antarctic Expedition started
the Second Indian Antarctic Research Station, Maitri (70o45’ S,
with the 28th Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA)
11o43’ E) was commissioned which has been built on an ice
in 2008‐09 to understand the polar cryospheric processes
free, rocky area on the Schirmacher Oasis (Queen Maud Land).
using remote sensing technology. The major goal of SAC in 28th
It serves as a gateway to one of the largest mountain chains in
expedition was to explore the possibility of remote sensing
central Dronning Maud land, located southward of
technology for polar science studies. From 32nd expedition
Schirmacher. It is situated about 100 km from the Antarctic
onwards, SAC started providing advisories for safer ship
shore at an elevation of about 50 m. Indian Antarctic research

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navigation. In 33rd expedition, feasibility study of getting sea installing stakes over the ice sheet and glaciers and first
ice thickness observation were experimented. Thirty‐fifth measurement of displacement was recorded in subsequent 37th
expedition onwards retrieval of sea ice thickness information expedition. Detailed snow surface characterization using snow
became possible using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data. fork attempted in 37th expedition along with detailed
Another important work component of glacier velocity hyperspectral studies.
measurement was taken‐up from 36th expedition onwards by

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Figure 4.1: Bharati research station and Ivan Papanin ship (surrounded by fast ice in the Quilty Bay) ‐ An aerial view captured
during 36 ISEA.

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Figure 4.2: Maitri research station along with a part of the Antarctic ice sheet seen in the background – As seen from Summer
Modules during 36 ISEA.

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Table 4.1: Brief details on participation of SAC in Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.

ISEA No. Year Participants Major Task

Dr. Sandip R. Oza &  Meteorological observation
28ISEA 2008‐09
Mr. Dipak A. Maroo  Hyperspectral observation
29ISEA 2009‐10 Dr. R. K. Kamaljit Singh  Meteorological observation
32ISEA 2012‐13 Ms. Megha Maheshwari  Laser profilometer measurement
Dr. D. Ram Rajak &  GPR survey
33ISEA 2013‐14
Mr. P. Jayaprasad  Aerial survey
Mr. Manish Kumar &  GPR survey
34ISEA 2014‐15
Dr. R. K. Kamaljit Singh
Mr. Rajendra Singh &  GPR survey
35ISEA 2015‐16
Ms. Maya Suryawanshi  Aerial survey
 GPR survey
Ms. Kiral Ghodadra &  Differential Global Positioning System
36ISEA 2016‐17
Ms. Purvee Joshi (DGPS) measurement
 Aerial survey
 GPR survey
Dr. Sushil K Singh &  DGPS measurement
37ISEA 2017‐18
Ms. Lakshmipriya Prushty  Snow fork and Spectroradiometer
observations
Mrs. Shweta Sharma  CR & ARC installation
38ISEA 2018‐19 Mr. Ananya Ray  DGPS measurement
Mr. Nilesh Makawana  Reflectometry

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Figure 4.3: A typical expedition route, followed by the Indian Expeditioners to reach Antarctica.

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28th ISEA
The participation of scientists from SAC in Indian Scientific
Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA) during 2008‐09 was first
attempt towards understanding the Antarctic ice features and
exploring the feasibility of Indian remote sensing data to study
land ice and sea ice variations. The field data were collected
using Met Observation Kit and hyper spectral radiometer.

Figure 4.5: Snow pit observation during 28th ISEA.

29th ISEA
The 29th ISEA was an important expedition because it was
during the time when construction work of the third Indian
Antarctic research base, Bharati station, just started. One can
say the focus of that expedition was clearly the establishment

of this new base. Surface meteorological parameters namely,
Figure 4.4: Hyperspectral radiometer Observation during 28th
air pressure, air temperature, wind speed and direction, were
ISEA.
noted on a 3‐hourly interval during the 29th ISEA. These surface
The highlights of this expedition include insight into the meteorological observations were done at ~30 m above sea
scientific areas where remote sensing can play a significant level (ASL). Besides these parameters, dry bulb/wet bulb
role; sites were selected from polar ice region which have temperatures for relative humidity calculations, sea surface
different backscattering properties in Ku band Scatterometer. temperature (SST) and information on cloud coverage (in

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 Exploring the Antarctic
scales of okta) including weather conditions were also
collected. SST measurements were done twice daily, one in
morning (0900 GMT or 1200 GMT) and the other at afternoon
(either at 1500 GMT or 1800 GMT) during the onward journey
from Cape Town to the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and
during the stay at the Larsemann Hills, during the 29th ISEA.
Moreover, several snow‐pack samplings were done in the polar
ice sheets for ground‐truth investigations. Certain regions
showing distinctive roughness features have been identified
and the satellite backscattering signatures from such features
are used to study in detail. Early stages of the formation of sea Figure 4.7: Air temperature measurement during 29th ISEA.
ice have been recorded which is very useful in any polar ice
32nd ISEA The contribution summarized by participants in the
studies.
following manner. From the first day on ship, collection of
meteorology and ocean parameters such as wind speed, wind
direction, pressure, humidity etc., were carried out with the
help of instruments fitted in the ship. The sensors in the ship
were installed at a height of 40 m from sea level. It took 11 days
to reach to the newly constructed Indian base station Bharati
and members of 32nd ISEA reached there on February 02, 2013.
To determine the surface roughness laser profilometer had
been and hand held weather tracker to get weather condition
of the site such as wind speed, direction, pressure, humidity etc.

The snow pit was also dug to know snow depth, snow layer and
Figure 4.6: Snow pit in Antarctic ice cap during 29th ISEA.
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grain information. Post processing of collected measurements minimum roughness in the interior ice sheet surrounded by
suggested that around the Bharati, roughness was in the range hummocks.
0.7‐1.2 cm. Snowfall and wind introduced fluctuations in
surface roughness measurements.

Figure 4.9: A photograph of instrumental set up (laser

profilometer mounted on a tripod) at a location
Figure 4.8: GPS observation during 32nd ISEA.
(71.47° S, 12.29° E) on 4th March 2013 around
Snow depth of the area varied from 3.5 to 18 inch. at 69°29’ S Maitri station.
76°19’ E and altitude 427 m, snow pit was dug and an ice slab
33rd ISEA
was found of 11 inch which contained three different layers of
A large in‐situ dataset of vital importance was prepared from
snow. The temperature was ‐8.2 0C with wind speed 2.5 m/s.
the observations made at different locations of Antarctica
Around the Maitri station roughness measurements were
covering ice sheet, ice shelf and sea ice regions. The
collected with varying latitude.
observations pertain to various parameters needed for
Measurements around Maitri showed that different ice surfaces calibration and validation studies to be carried out under MOP‐
have different values of roughness (0.6‐1.4 cm), with the III project were collected. The experience gained was very
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useful for providing sea ice condition advisory for ship routing
during second leg of 33rd ISEA.

Figure 4.11: GPR observation on continent during 33th ISEA.

34th ISEA
Figure 4.10: GPR observation on sea ice during 33th ISEA.

The analysis of data obtained from two frequency GPRs was

carried out. Observed sea ice thickness was found of the order
of 1.0 to 1.4 m thickness along with a snow pack thickness
varying 10 to 50 cm. The depth of snow over sea ice could be
estimated using the GPR data at multiple locations. Handheld
GPS was used to collect location coordinates of study sites and
to track the ship route during voyage. In this edition of the
Expedition, the main thrust was given to the observation of sub‐
surface ice features in Antarctica (ice sheet and fast ice) using a
non‐invasive technique‐ the GPR. Figure 4.12: GPR observation on ice sheet during 34th ISEA.

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The SAC team carried two GPRs: Pulse Ekko Pro working at
central frequency of 1000 MHz and a step‐ frequency (between
250‐750 MHz) GPR assembled at SAC.

Figure 4.14: GPR observation on sea ice during 35th ISEA.

Seventeen locations were pre‐selected based on Radar Imaging

Satellite (RISAT)‐1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data
Figure 4.13: Ground observation using the ground penetrating
interpretation, for in‐situ measurement using GPR over the
radar (GPR) on 7 February 2015 at 69°26’S,
area surrounding the Indian Antarctic stations. GPR
76°16’E.
measurements have been successfully done on various ice
35th ISEA features like ice sheet, ice shelf, iceberg and sea ice etc. The
Geotagged camera, Handheld GPS, meter scale and mainly two profiles available from the two GPRs (500 MHz and 1000 MHz)
GPR at two different frequencies: 1. In‐house designed and differ from each other due to different spatial resolution and
developed GPR with central frequency of 500 MHz and 2. penetration capabilities. However, the overall patterns of the
Commercial GPR with frequency 1000 MHz, for estimating two GPRs are almost same for the similar features. Wet snow
snow depth and understanding stratigraphy of Antarctic snow was observed over fast ice in Quilty Bay while very dry snow
and ice have been utilized. was observed over Amery ice shelf. Bare blue ice observed near

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Russian Air Field in Schirmacher Oasis. Participants have also measure surface root mean square roughness using
witnessed blizzard on 30th January 2016 and Advanced profilometer (designed and fabricated in house in association
Scatterometer (ASCAT) observed wind speed of same day near with Mechanical Engineering Systems Area, MESA SAC, ISRO).
Bharati station coast was greater than 13 m/s. In addition, (5) To capture the geotagged field photos using DSLR camera.
stratification of iceberg UK235 was also observed which was
separated from Lazarev ice shelf up to few meters.

Figure 4.16: GPR observation on sea ice during 36th ISEA.

Antarctic ice margins between Larsemann Hills and Amery Ice
Figure 4.15: GPR observation on iceberg UK235 during 35th
Shelf is a potential region for ice loss as there are a number of
ISEA.
glaciers in this area. The surface ice motion rate serves as a
36th ISEA
control parameter to determine the mass balance of ice sheets
The objectives of SAC in 36th ISEA are (1) To measure glacier ice
and furthermore helps to understand the climate changes. Ice
movement near Bharti stations using DGPS measurement (2)
velocity measurements of the Antarctic ice sheet indicate how
To measure snow depth over sea ice, ice shelf and change in ice
ice is transported from the interior of the continent to the
(3) layer thickness for mass balance study, using GPR survey
oceans through glacier calving process. The ice velocity of Polar
(1000 MHz, 500 MHz, 400 MHz) (4) Exploratory study to
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Record Glacier increases rapidly seaward, from ∼ 200 ma 1 in during 36th ISEA. DGPS data were also utilized for validating
inland areas to >700 ma 1 at the front of the glacier tongue. elevation change data derived from SARAL/AltiKa on Antarctic
Hence being fast moving glacier, ice sheet locations were Ice Sheet. SAC team has utilized GPRs having different
attempted which is feeding Polar Record Glacier for surface ice frequencies (1000 MHz, 500 MHz and 400 MHz) to understand
velocity measurement. Antarctic ice features near Bharati research station and Maitri
research station. Stratification of ice over various locations
were observed. Hyperbolic signature from frozen water
channel and unknown objects beneath the blue ice were also
scanned using multi frequencies GPRs. All GPRs were unable to
penetrate through blue ice. Average snow depth measured near
Bharati and surrounding is more as compared to Maitri. GPR
measured snow depth is found to be overestimated as
compared with actual field measurement done with meter
scale.

SARAL/AltiKa (35.75 GHz) derived elevations were compared
Figure 4.17: DGPS observation on glacier ice during 36th ISEA.
with in‐situ DGPS (Differential Global Positioning System)
Sea ice conditions in the Prydz Bay are controlled by the measurement on feeder ice sheet of polar record glacier in east
presence of Dalk Glacier. This glacier produces large icebergs Antarctica near Bharati station during 36th ISEA. SARAL/AltiKa
in this context, Dalk Glacier has been chosen for measuring derived elevations were obtained using 40 Hz Geophysical Data
glacier ice movement. SAC team has installed five bamboo logs Record (GDR) data set and were w.r.t. WGS84. Elevations were
on ice sheet independently and three bamboo logs on Dalk corrected for various atmospheric and tidal correction. Further
Glacier along with Geological Survey of India (GSI) team and elevations were gridded and corrected for slope‐induced
took DGPS measurement for 30 minutes on each location correction using direct method. Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation

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Satellite (ICESat) derived Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was was compared at nearest time domain and nearest spatial
used to obtain slope at required location. However, after domain of SARAL/AltiKa pass and footprint as mentioned in
applying slope correction, elevation differences were reduced Table 4.2. Another factor in order to improve results is, direct
but still there is considerable difference between SARAL/AltiKa method for slope correction have been used instead of
derived and In‐situ measurement. This is because, in‐situ data relocation method that works better.

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Table 4. 2: Comparison of SARAL/AltiKa derived elevation with in‐situ measurement on feeder ice sheet of Polar Record Glacier
during 36 ISEA.

Distance In-Situ Measurement SARAL/AltiKa Measurement

between and Cycle105
(14th January, 2017)
In-situ and
SARAL/ (Pass No. 26 (27th December, SARAL/
2017) and 45 (28th December,
AltiKa AltiKa Slope
2017)) Slope
measurement Corrected
(m) (degree) Elevation

Longitude Latitude Elevation Longitude Latitude Elevation (m)

(degree (degree (m) (degree (degree (m)
decimal) decimal) decimal) decimal)

6551.71 75.35 ‐70.42 1396.68 75.50 ‐70.39 1396.24 0.45 1357.07

2433.60 75.51 ‐70.44 1421.90 75.56 ‐70.43 1441.35 0.66 1400.76

650.52 75.57 ‐70.43 1415.21 75.56 ‐70.43 1437.85 0.57 1397.07

3273.02 75.64 ‐70.41 1396.14 75.56 ‐70.43 1440.97 0.57 1412.94

9594.01 75.67 ‐70.31 1297.27 75.44 ‐70.35 1358.61 0.34 1285.61

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37th ISEA our scientific objectives, DGPS measurements were taken of the
Team could reach Bharati station on 27th January 2018 and GPR bamboo stacks, installed during 36th ISEA, at feeder ice sheet of
survey using 500 & 1000 MHz antenna was carried out to Polar Record Glacier and Dalk Glacier as shown in Table 4.3.
collect data to assess sea ice conditions in view of voyage
movement. First task of our team was to help in offloading
heavy machines weighing 12 & 32 metric ton, which was
required to help in constructions for proposed Data Receiving
Station (DRS) at Bharati by NRSC and ECIL team.

Figure 4.20: DGPS observation on glacier ice during 37th ISEA.

One bamboo stack of approximately 1.25 m height was lost due

to solid precipitation in polar record glacier and only four
stacks out of five could be found. Elevation change has also been
observed as shown in figure 4.19. GPR survey using two
Figure 4.19: GPR observation on sea ice during 37th ISEA. different frequencies i.e. 500 MHz antenna (in‐house
developed) and 1000 MHz (commercially available) was
Lot of team efforts, manual work has been carried out to place
carried out over different targets such as sea ice thickness, blue
heavy logs for designing track to take load and GPR survey for
ice & ice sheet near disintegration glacier, airfield of progress
evaluating sea ice conditions. Field observations were executed
runway etc. Snow fork instrument was used to estimate
to safely offload machines from ship to Bharati station. To meet
wetness and density of snow at different sites.
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Radiometric measurements were also carried out on top layer terrain in Larsemann Hills along with meteorological
of snow over sea ice, melt‐freeze layer over sea ice, rocky observations using sun photometer & ozonometer.
(a) Exposed height (b) Exposed height
1.25 m as on 14 Jan 2017, 0.25 m as on 02 Feb 2018,
36 ISEA 37 ISEA

Figure 4.21: Field photo of DGPS measurement on feeder ice sheet of Polar Record Glacier installed bamboo log (a) exposed (a)
exposed height 1.24 m as on 14 Jan 2017(36 ISEA) (b) exposed height 0.25 m as on 02 Feb 2018 (37 ISEA).

Table 4.3: Measured displacement/year in polar stereographic south pole projection using DGPS on feeder ice sheet of Polar
Record Glacier and Dalk Glacier.

Locations P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Displacement
(m/year)

Feeder ice sheet of Polar Buried 18.25 20.61 23.67 41.98

Record Glacier

Dalk Glacier 5.744 141.4 3.851 ‐ ‐

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38th ISEA feedback was provided to the team for finalizing the
The highlight of the work carried out during 38th ISEA is the installation. Based on this feedback, participants from SAC have
installation of Corner Reflectors (CR) around Bharati and Maitri finalized the site and fine‐tuned the geometrical configuration
stations (Figure 4.22). Calibration of the space‐borne SAR of CR for best response in the Sentinal‐1 SAR data, which can be
sensors is one of the key activity to ensure the highest quality utilized to calibrate the sensor. Attempt has also been made to
of backscatter data. CR is widely used equipment for the check the feasibility of installation of CR and Active Radar
calibration of SAR data. Initially team has identified the sites (at Calibrator (ARC) over the Antarctic Ice Sheet. This activity is
different land targets) that are suitable for CR installation towards the establishment of CAL/Val network over Antarctica,
around the stations. The response from the CRs on the SAR which can be utilized to calibrate the forthcoming Indian SAR
images, at different land targets, were investigated at SAC and missions.

Figure 4.22: Installation of Corner Reflector (CR) (a) at Indian Antarctic Stations Maitri and (b) Response CR observed on
Sentinel‐1 SAR data. (c) CR installed at Bharati. Feasibility of installation of (d) CR and (e) ARC over Antarctic ice
sheet.

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Sea Ice Advisory for Safer Ship Navigation
The actual route to be followed by ship can be determined only for safer ship navigation during Indian Expedition to
based on near real time sea ice condition. Voyage Leader of 32nd Antarctica. They have also suggested that the use of sea ice
ISEA requested the first satellite based sea ice advisory in occurrence probability (Rajak et al. 2015a) can be utilized as
December 2012. This has initiated task of providing sea ice climatic information for the pre‐planning of the possible voyage
advisory to NCAOR (now named as NCPOR) for safer ice route. An attempt was made to provide the information of sea
navigation. Passive microwave based sea ice concentration ice drift by visual interpretation of time series of MODIS data
(SIC) products were investigated and trend analysis was (Figure 4.25) during 34th ISEA. Figure 4.26 and Figure 4.27 are
carried out to generate an image showing showing some of the example of RISAT based information
increasing/decreasing SIC trends (Figure 4.23). Region with provided (34th ISEA) on various sea ice features and SIC based
decreasing trend could be an indicative of reduced impact from likely routes for safer ship navigation.
sea ice and could be preferred for the safer ice navigation.
Subsequent to 32nd ISEA continuous improvement undergone
for the betterment of the advisory. During first leg of 33rd ISEA
(December 2013) information was enriched by (i) AltiKa
derived sea ice freeboard data and (iii) MODIS based optical
data (Figure 4.24). In addition to the data, SAC has suggested
three routes for the Ship to enter into the sea ice region for
heading towards Indian Antarctic station “Bharati”. At the same
time near‐real time SAR data from RISAT‐1 indicated the
presence of large‐size ice berg, which was located on the
potential route, hence this information was also passed on to
the voyage leader. Rajak et al. (2014a; 2014b; 2015a) describe
the attempts made by SAC for the generation of sea ice advisory
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Figure 4.23: Advisory on sea ice condition to NCAOR, MoES during 32nd ISEA in December 2012 showing (a) Sea ice
concentration and (b) result of trend analysis (increasing trend in red and decreasing trend in green).

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Figure 4.24: Integrated sea ice advisory provided during 33rd ISEA in December 2013. (a) OSCAT based SIC; (b) AMSR‐2 SIC
product; (c) AltiKa based sea ice freeboard; (c) RISAT‐1 image showing ice berg and (e) Potential routes for safer
ice navigation based on MODIS data.

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A: Feb 23, 2014

B: Mar,2014
C: Mar 05,2014
D: Mar 10, 2014
E: Mar 15, 2014
F: Drift Path

Drift path is based

on 12 dates data
Feb 23, Feb 28,
Mar 01, Mar 02,
Mar 03, Mar 05,
Mar 06, Mar 07,
Mar 08, Mar 10,
Mar 12, Mar 15.

284.4 km drift in 20
days i.e. 14.2
km/day.

Figure 4.25: Sea ice drift monitored using MODIS data (Feb 23 to March 15, 2014).

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Figure 4.26: A RISAT‐1 SAR scene (March 8, 2014) show in different polar ice features (35th ISEA).

Figure 4.27: Likely safe ship entry points to reach New Indian Barrier (sea ice advisory sent to NCAOR on March 7, 2014).

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Subsequent to 34th expedition every year, sea ice advisories are derived sea ice extent (SIE), AltiKa derived sea ice thickness
provided using sea ice concentration products, AltiKa based ice (SIT) and SIC product. SIT and SIC data was processed to their
freeboard and inferences drawn by visualizing the RISAT, weighted version with an indigenously developed individual
AWiFS, LISS3, LISS4 and MODIS data. Based on the experience weighting schemes. Weights are given such a way that higher
gained and feed‐back received from these expeditions, an the weights, high suitability for ship navigation (Figure 4.28).
attempt was made during 2018‐19 (38th ISEA) for the The procedure will improve by implementing the feedback
development of Graphical User Interface (GUI) based Web‐GIS received from the expedition team.
application to automatize the procedure using SCATSAT‐1


Input parameter: Ice Concentration
& Ice Thickness
Output Layer: Weight Image Suitability condition

Very Low (>80% SIC)

Low

Intermediate
(60-80% SIC)

High (<60% SIC)

Figure 4.28: Suitability map for safer ship navigation.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

5.0 Way forward

As far as the Antarctic science is concerned we know far less velocity, calving processes, sea ice deformation will get boost
than we need to know about the past and present of it. Today, by using L & S band SAR data. TRISHNA thermal bands will
there are more science questions than the answers before us. enable us to recognise melt‐freeze cycle over polar ice regions.
We have been in the development phase of utilising earth One of the important instruments required on board satellites
observation data from orbital platforms for monitoring the is multi‐channel Microwave Radiometer which will help in
elements of Polar cryosphere. Based on the experience gained retrieval of snow depth, sea ice concentration and atmospheric
so far, the importance of multiple sensors on board multiple corrections. Another potential area of research lies in the use of
missions has been realised to address all dimensions of hyperspectral data in order to identify various classes of sea ice
Antarctic cryosphere. Two operational sensors of ISRO i.e. and ice features on ice sheets.
Scatterometer and Altimeter have immensely utilized in
To validate various science products retrieved from Space
knowing the status of Polar Ice Sheets and sea ice. Now, the
borne Sensors, enormous instrumentations are needed in the
continuity of such missions is required to comprehend the
field. We have already initiated process of infrastructure
processes of mass changes of ice sheets and sea ice.
development for calibration sites in Antarctica. Airborne flights
Future work is required for forecasting of sea ice conditions are envisaged using multi‐frequency GPRs, Thermal camera
during expeditions for safer ship navigation. Another thrust and altimeters to infer topography above or below the ice
area is energy balance studies over ice sheets and sea ice which surfaces. These kinds of tasks can be accomplished only by
will enable scientists to accurately estimate the energy fluxes cooperation of multiple organisations in the country. As far as
governing the climate. Coupled modelling comprising field data collection is concerned, any single country may not
interactions between ice and atmosphere is a vital area of be able to collect data from various locations well spread over
research. Towards achieving these goals ISRO has planned the continent, without getting support from other countries.
various missions such as NASA‐ISRO L & S band SAR, TRISHNA, Hence, international collaboration is the need of an hour. Large
OSCAT on board OCEANSAT‐3. Ice dynamics studies such as Ice areas of the Southern Ocean and ice sheet remain data void due

Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad 125

 Exploring the Antarctic
to difficult and expensive logistics and inclement weather. To address these questions, we need to model the
thermodynamics and dynamics of ice sheet and sea ice
For selecting a safer and optimum navigation ship route, near
components of the polar cryosphere. The ice sheet and sea ice
real time information of sea ice, atmosphere and ocean
model coupled with atmosphere and ocean models will be able
conditions are needed. Timely information on the spatial
to provide the present and future scenario of loss of continental
distribution of icebergs is also needed for safe ship navigation.
ice volume and sea level rise.
Satellite based active and passive sensors with finer resolution,
higher temporal frequency and more spectral bands offer a
solution to overcome these problems. SAC is planning to

develop a tool to support a Decision Support System (DSS) for

providing near real time sea ice advisories to ISEA. It will use
meteorological parameters (surface winds speed, wind
direction, atmospheric pressure, surface temperature, air

temperature etc.) and ocean surface parameters (e.g. surface
currents, wave height) along with the sea ice conditions derived
from near real time remote sensing data.

In the long run the key science question that needs to be

answered are:
(i) how much of ice volume from ice sheet getting added to the
ocean to rise the sea level?
(ii) how much change we expect in sea ice volume and
distribution, which cover/expose the ocean surface with the
atmosphere and thereby contributing into the global
cooling/warming.
Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad 126
 Exploring the Antarctic

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Annexure: Glossary
[A] Land Ice 5. Calve: The formation of an iceberg from a glacier. Once the
ice flowing from a glacier reaches a body of water it begins to
1. Ablation: The removal of material from a glacier, melting,
float and may crack at the "hinge zone", once free of the glacier
evaporation, or calving (bits dropping off the end into the sea
a piece of ice becomes an iceberg and the glacier has calved.
to form icebergs). Opposite of accumulation. That portion of a
glacier where more material is lost (by melting or evaporation) 6. Crevasses: A deep, usually vertical, crack or split in a glacier
than gained by snowfall is called ablation zone. occurs as a result of the brittle ice flowing over a uneven surface
beneath the ice. Crevasses can easily become covered by blown
2. Accumulation: The addition of material to glaciers, snow,
snow, even very wide ones. Great care must be taken when
rain, material blown by wind, and avalanches. Opposite of
crossing ice and snow fields to avoid them as falling down one
ablation. The region of the glacier where mass is only added (as
is really going to hurt.
snow or rain), no mass is lost. Usually this area is near the origin
of the glacier at higher altitudes is called accumulation zone. 7. Firn: A transitional stage between snow and glacial ice, a
type of snow that has survived a summer melting season and
3. Blizzard: A cold storm with winds of at least 56 kilometres
has become more compact than freshly falling snow.
per hour (35 miles per hour) and temperatures below ‐ 6.7°C
(20°F). Usually also characterized by poor visibility due to 8. Fjord (fiord): A long, narrow, steep‐walled, u‐shaped coastal
snow blowing around. Little snow may actually fall during a inlet. Fjords typically have been excavated by glaciers.
blizzard, the high winds pick up snow from the ground and
9. Glacier: A mass of ice predominantly of atmospheric origin,
carry it around, and visibility is often greatly reduced.
usually moving from higher to lower ground. A seaward margin
4. Blue ice: A bare ice section of any ice shelf or ice sheet where of a glacier that is aground, the rock basement being at or below
air bubbles are squeezed out, ice crystals are enlarged and it sea‐level, is termed an ice wall. The projecting seaward
appears blue in colour. extension of a glacier, which is usually afloat, is termed a glacier

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tongue. In the Antarctic, glacier tongues may extend over many much moisture so ice crystals are readily formed in Antarctica).
tens of kilometres. Ice crystals account for the majority of the accumulation of
glacial ice on the Polar Plateau. They may also be referred to as
10. Grounding line: The point a glacier that is flowing into a
ice needles, even though they are not needle shaped.
sea or lake loses contact with seafloor and begins to float as an
ice shelf. 15. Ice rise: An ice shelf touching the ground or having a
ground support.
11. Iceberg: A massive piece of ice of varying shape, protruding
more than 5 m above sea‐level, which has broken away from a 16. Ice sheet: A large mass of ice that is thick enough to cover
glacier or an ice shelf, and which may be afloat or aground. the landscape beneath it so appearing as a smooth coating of
Icebergs by their external look may be subdivided into tabular, ice. Ice sheets can deform and move with gravity, they are
dome‐shaped, sloping and rounded bergs. larger than ice caps. Ice sheets cover much of Greenland and
Antarctica.
12. Ice cap: A large dome‐shaped mass of ice that is thick
enough to cover all the landscape beneath it so appearing as a 17. Ice shelf: A large flat‐topped sheet of ice that is attached to
smooth coating of ice. Ice caps are smaller than ice sheets, land along one side and floats in the sea or a lake. A floating ice
usually under 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 square miles). sheet of considerable thickness showing 2‐50 m or more above
Ice caps can deform and flow with gravity and spread outward sea level, attached to the coast or a glacier. Usually of great
in all directions. horizontal extent and with a level or gently undulating surface.
Nourished by annual snow accumulation at the surface and
13. Ice cliff: Walls of ice where glaciers meet the sea. Ice cliffs
often also by the seaward extension of land glaciers. Limited
occur because icebergs calve from the front of them giving a
areas may be aground. The seaward edge is termed an ice front.
continually breaking edge the full height of the glacier.
18. Nunataks: An isolated peak of bedrock that sticks above
14. Ice crystals: Tiny particles of ice that grow on all surfaces
the surface of an ice sheet. They are the peaks of hills and
when the air is supersaturated with water (cold air doesn't hold
mountains standing above the ice sheet which flows around
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them. They offer important information about ice covered 4. Dark nilas: Nilas, which is under 5 cm in thickness and is
regions as they provide a sample of the rocks that lie under the very dark in colour.
ice.
5. Fast ice: Consolidated solid ice attached to the shore, to an
19. Sastrugi: Irregular ridges of snow on a small scale (rarely ice wall or to an ice front. It forms by freezing to the shore of
more than 1 foot, 30cm) that lie parallel to the direction of the the ice cover forming in the coastal zone or as a result of
wind. Sastrugi can make travel very awkward or difficult; they freezing of drifting ice of any age category to the shore or fast
can be quite soft or as hard as ice. ice. Vertical movement may be observed during tidal
oscillations. It can be preserved without fracturing for two or
20.White-out: A weather condition in which the horizon
more years transforming from first‐year ice to multiyear ice
cannot be identified and there are no shadows. The clouds in
and even shelf ice. The fast ice width can vary from several
the sky and the white snow on the ground blend ‐ described as
hundreds of meters to several hundreds of kilometres. That
like walking along inside a ping‐pong ball. White out conditions
part of fast ice presenting a narrow fringe of ice directly
are potentially dangerous because it is difficult to find a point
attached to the coast with a shallow bottom and unresponsive
of reference and it is very easy to walk over a cliff or fall down
to tidal oscillations that remains after the fast ice has moved
a crevasse in such conditions.
away is called the Ice foot. Fast ice at the initial stage of
[B] Sea Ice formation consisting of nilas and young ice with a width up to
100‐200 m is called young coastal ice. When coding and
1. Bare ice: Ice without snow cover.
depicting fast ice on ice charts, total concentration is not
2. Compact pack ice: Floating ice in which the concentration is indicated as this is always equal to 10/10 in accordance with
10/10 and no water is visible. the definition.

3. Consolidated ice: Floating ice in which the concentration is 6. First-year ice: Sea ice of not more than one winter's growth,
10/10 and the floes are frozen together. developing from young ice; thickness 30 cm to 2 m, and

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 Exploring the Antarctic
sometimes slightly more. May be subdivided into thin first‐year currents and of forces transferred through the ice cover from
ice/white ice, medium first‐year ice and thick first‐year ice. other regions. The drift direction and velocity of a specific ice
feature or ice cover area depends at any specific moment on the
7.Flaw lead: A passage‐way between pack ice and fast ice
magnitude of the external forces, on the feature is
which is navigable by surface vessel. [Note: shore lead is used
characteristics (size, concentration and upper and lower
in the Antarctic]
surface roughness), on its position relative to the coastline and
8. Floe: Any relatively flat piece of sea ice 20 m or more across. on the seabed relief.
Floes are subdivided according to horizontal extent as follows:
14. Light nilas: Nilas which is more than 5 cm in thickness and
Giant ‐ Over 10 km across; Vast - 2 to 10 km across; Big ‐500
rather lighter in colour than dark nilas. Young ice is in the
to 2000 m across; Medium ‐100 to 500 m across; and Small -
transition stage between nilas and first‐year ice, 10‐30 cm in
20 to 100 m across.
thickness. May be subdivided into grey ice and grey‐white ice.
9. Frazil ice: Fine spicules or plates of ice, suspended in water.
15. Lead: A more than 50 m wide rectilinear or wedge‐shaped
10. Grease ice: A later stage of freezing than frazil ice when the crack from several kilometres to several hundreds of
crystals have coagulated to form a soupy layer on the surface. kilometres in length. At below freezing temperatures, new,
Grease ice reflects little light, giving the sea a matt appearance. nilas and young ice forms at the surface of leads.

11. Grey ice: Young ice 10‐15 cm thick. Less elastic than nilas 16. Multi-year ice: Old ice up to 3 m or more thick that has
and breaks in swell. Usually rafts under pressure. survived at least two summers' melt. Hummocks are even
smoother than in second‐year ice and attain a look of mounds
12. Grey-white ice: Young ice 15‐30 cm thick. Under pressure
and hills. The surface of multiyear ice fields in places not subject
it is more likely to ridge than to raft.
to deformations is also hillocky due to non‐uniform multiple
13.Ice drift: Displacement of ice floes and other ice features melting. The ice is almost salt‐free. Its colour, where bare, is
resulting from the impact of wind and currents including tidal usually blue. As a result of melting, round puddles appear at its

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 Exploring the Antarctic
surface in summer and a well‐developed drainage system is the action of winds, currents and tides. As a result of the
formed. dynamic processes (drift, divergence, convergence), the total
and partial concentrations of drifting ice constantly change.
17. New ice: A general term for recently formed ice, which
includes frazil ice, grease ice, slush and shuga. These types of 22. Pancake ice: Predominantly circular plates of ice from 30
ice are composed of ice crystals which are only weakly frozen cm to 3 m in diameter, and up to about 10 cm in thickness, with
together (if at all) and have a definite form only while they are raised rims due to the pieces striking against one another. It
afloat.
may be formed on a slight swell from grease ice, shuga or slush
18. Nilas: A thin elastic crust of ice, easily bending on waves or as a result of the breaking of ice rind, nilas or, under heavy
and swell and under pressure, thrusting in a pattern of swell, of grey ice.
interlocking 'fingers' (finger rafting). Has a matt surface and is
23.Polynya: A stable ice‐free water space in or at the boundary
up to 10 cm in thickness? May be subdivided into dark nilas and
of fast ice. Polynyas may contain very open broken and brash
light nilas.
ice or be covered with new ice, nilas or young ice. A polynya is
19. Old ice: Sea ice which has survived at least one summer's sometimes restricted by the shore from one side and is termed
melt; typical thickness up to 3m or more. It is subdivided into a shore polynya. If it is restricted by fast ice, then it is termed a
residual first‐year ice, second‐year ice and multi‐year ice. flaw polynya. If it recurs in the same position every year, it is
termed a recurring polynya [Note: polynyas can form in the
20. Open water: A large area of freely navigable water in which
pack, e.g. in the Weddell Sea].
sea ice is present in concentrations less than 1/10 and ice of
land origin is absent. 24. Residual first-year ice: First‐year ice that has survived the
summer melt and is now in the new cycle of growth. It is 30 to
21. Pack ice: Any ice at the sea surface except for fast ice and
180 cm thick depending on the region where it was in summer.
stamukha regardless of its age, form, origin and other
After 1 January (in the Southern Hemisphere after 1 July), this
characteristics that has a possibility of movement (drift) under
ice is called second‐year ice.
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25. Sea ice: Ice, which has originated from the freezing of sea 29. Shuga: An accumulation of spongy white ice lumps, a few
water. It presents the main kind of floating ice encountered at centimetres across; they are formed from grease ice or slush
sea. and sometimes from anchor ice rising to the surface.

26. Sea ice concentration: The ratio of the area of ice features 30. Slush: Snow which is saturated and mixed with water on
to the total area of a sea part (zone) delineated on the chart, land or ice surfaces, or as a viscous floating mass in water after
expressed in tenths. The total concentration includes all stages a heavy snowfall.
of development and the partial concentration includes areas of
31.Stamukha (Grounded hummock): A thick hummocked
ice of specific age or arrangement which comprise only part of
grounded ice formation. Stamukhas form from floe bergs and
the total concentration. Concentrations within 0‐1/10 to 10/10
hummocked grounded ice fragments. They are distinguished by
from instrumental observations can be expressed in
a large height (up to 10 m and more above sea level) and steep
hundredths.
slopes. There are single grounded hummocks and lines (or
27. Second-year ice: Old ice which has survived only one chains) of grounded hummocks. Stamukhas forming at the
summer's melt; typical thickness up to 2.5 m and sometimes same place from season to season are termed recurring
more. Because it is thicker than first‐year ice, it stands higher Stamukhas.
out of the water. Ridged features as a result of melting during
the preceding summer attain a smoothed rounded shape. In
summer, numerous puddles of extended irregular shape form
on its surface. Bare ice patches and puddles are usually

greenish‐blue.

28. Shore lead: A lead between pack ice and the shore or
between drift ice and an ice front.

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References of Glossary

1. WMO SEA ICE NOMENCLATURE, Version 1.0, prepared by Dr A.V. Bushuyev, Russian Federation.
http://www.aari.ru/gdsidb/docs/wmo/nomenclature/WMO_Nomenclature_draft_version1‐0.pdf
(WMO_Nomenclature_draft_version1‐0.pdf).
2. WMO Sea‐Ice Nomenclature, volumes I, II and III. WMO‐No.259.
https://www.jcomm.info/index.php?option=com_oe&task=viewDocumentRecord&docID=14598.
(Sea_Ice_Nomenclature_March_2014.pdf).
3. Cryosphere Glossary. National Snow & Ice Data Centre (NSIDC).
https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/glossary.

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 Exploring the Antarctic

Front Cover:
Part of Resourcesat‐2 LISS‐III FCC of 06‐02‐2018 covering region around Bharati Research Station in East Antarctica (location indicated by
red dot).

Back Cover:
Man's tryst with the wilderness (Upper Left): The nature creates innumerous crafts in its cradle but one needs the heart and mind to
interpret which one can only do by being with the nature…!!!(Field photograph captured on 17‐02‐2017 during 36 ISEA; Geo location: 680
38’ 28.23’’ S, 730 15’ 13.40’’ E).

Descending into the sublime (Upper Right): The first sighting as one descends is an amazing formation of ice crystals hanging delicately
from the cave roof. (Field photograph captured on 18‐03‐2017 during 36 ISEA; Geo location: 700 45’ 51.76’’ S, 110 37’ 47.83’’ E).

Future in quandary (Lower): Tabular iceberg calved from the continental ice sheet, says a lot…!!! (Field photograph captured on 17‐01 ‐
2017 during 36 ISEA; Geo location: 690 11’ 59.12’’ S, 760 29’ 26.90’’ E).

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