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EC 8094 – SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Department: Electronics and Communication Engineering

Batch/Year: 2018-22/III & 2017-21

Created by:
Ms. B.JEYA POORNIMA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Dr.S.MAHBOOB BASHA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mrs.P.LATHA Associate Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mr.A.SIVAKUMAR Assistant Professor/ECE,RMKEC

Date:07.03.2022
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
No

1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 7

2 PRE REQUISITES 8

3 SYLLABUS 9

4 COURSE OUTCOMES 10

5 CO- PO/PSO MAPPING 11

6 UNIT II - LECTURE PLAN 12

6.1 - LECTURE PLAN 13

6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 14

6.3 - LECTURE NOTES 15

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE CRAFT TECHNOLOGY 16

PRIMARY POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS

19

ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL SYSTEMS

23

ORBITAL CONTROL 32

THERMAL CONTROL AND PROPULSION 34

TT & C SUBSYTEMS
35

COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEMS
39

ANTENNA SUBSYTEMS
53
S.No Contents Page
No

7 VIDEO LECTURE LINKS 59

8 E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS 60

9 ASSIGNMENTS 61

10 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 64

11 PART B QUESTIONS 72

12 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 75

13 REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS 77

14 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 79

15 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE 87

16 TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 89

17 MINI PROJECT 91
 1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made to:

Understand principle, working and operation of various sub systems of

satellite as well as the earth stations.

 2. PRE REQUISITES

Subject Name : Communication theory

Subject Code : EC 8491
Semester : 04
Reason : Students should be familiar with various modulation
schemes and analysis of noise distribution.

Subject Name : Digital communication

Subject Code : EC 8501
Semester : 05
Reason : Students should be familiar with Digital modulation
technology and various multiple access schemes

Subject Name : : Antenna and Microwave Engineering

Subject Code : EC 8701
Semester : 07
Reason : Students should be familiar with Antenna design and
microwave technology used for satellite communication.
 SYLLABUS LTPC

EC8094 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 3003

UNIT I SATELLITE ORBITS 9

Kepler's Laws, Newton's law, orbital parameters, orbital perturbations, station

keeping, geo stationary and non Geo-stationary orbits – Look Angle
Determination- Limits of visibility – eclipse-Sub satellite point –Sun transit outage-
Launching Procedures - launch vehicles and propulsion.

UNIT II SPACE SEGMENT 9

Spacecraft Technology- Structure, Primary power, Attitude and Orbit control,

Thermal control and Propulsion, communication Payload and supporting
subsystems, Telemetry, Tracking and command-Transponders-The Antenna
Subsystem.

UNIT III SATELLITE LINK DESIGN 9

Basic link analysis, Interference analysis, Rain induced attenuation and

interference, Ionospheric characteristics, Link Design with and without frequency
reuse.

UNIT IV SATELLITE ACCESS AND CODING METHODS 9

Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video, Analog – digital transmission

system, Digital video Broadcast, multiple access: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, DAMA
Assignment Methods, compression – encryption, Coding Schemes.

UNIT V SATELLITE APPLICATIONS 9

INTELSAT Series, INSAT, VSAT, Mobile satellite services: GSM, GPS, INMARSAT,
LEO, MEO, Satellite Navigational System. GPS Position Location Principles,
Differential GPS, Direct Broadcast satellites (DBS/DTH).

TOTAL:45 PERIODS
 4. COURSE OUTCOMES

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Level in
Course
Description Bloom’s
Outcomes
Taxonomy

Understand the satellite orbits and its trajectories with

K1,K2
the definitions of parameters associated with it.
C401.1

Understand principle, working and operation of various

K2
sub systems of satellite as well as the earth stations
C401.2

C401.3 Analyze and design satellite communication link K2,K3

Apply various communication techniques for satellite

K2,K3
applications
C401.4

Learn advanced techniques and regulatory aspects of

K1,K2
satellite communication
C401.5

C401.6 Understand role of satellite in various applications K2

 5. CO – PO/PSO MAPPING
Course outcome

Program
Specific
Level of CO

PROGRAM OUTCOMES Outcomes

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C401.1 K1,K2 2- 1- - 1- - 1- - - 1- -

C401.2 K2 2 1 1- - - - - 1- - - - - -

C401.3 K2,K3 3 2 1- - - - - - - 1- 1 - -

C401.4 K3 2 1 2- - - - - - - - - - - -

C401.5 K1,K2 2 2- - - - - - 1- 1- - 1 -

C401.6 K2 3 1 2- - - - - - - 12 1 - 1

C401 3 2 3 - - 1 - - 1 - 1 2 1 1 1
6:UNIT II - LECTURE PLAN
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT 2 –SPACE SEGMENT

Taxonomy Level
Proposed Date
No. of periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
Delivery
Mode
S.No Topic

of
1 1 CO2 PPT
Spacecraft
K2 through
Technology
Online
2 1 CO2 PPT
Structure,
K2 through
Primary power
Online
3 PPT
Attitude and Orbit 1 CO2
K2 through
control
Online
4 1 CO2 PPT
Thermal control
K2 through
and Propulsion
Online

5 1 CO2 PPT
Communication
K2 through
Payload
Online
6 communication 1 CO2 PPT
Payload
K2,K3 through
and supporting
Online
subsystems
7 Telemetry, 1 CO2 PPT
Tracking and K2 through
command Online

8 1 CO2 PPT
Transponders K2,K3 through
Online

9 The Antenna 1 CO2 K3 PPT

Subsystem through
Online

Total No. of Periods : 09

6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

UNIT 2

SPACECRAFT AND SUBSYSTEMS DESIGN TECHNOLOGY CARRIED

OUT IN NASA ISRO SAR MISSION(NISAR) –CASE STUDY
 6.3 LECTURE NOTES
UNIT 2
2 - INTRODUCTION

2.1. INTRODUCTION TO SPACECRAFT TECHNOLOGY :

An operating communications satellite system consists of several elements or

segments, ranging from an orbital configuration of space components to ground
based components and network elements. The particular application of the
satellite system, for example fixed satellite service, mobile service, or broadcast
service, will determine the specific elements of the system. A generic satellite
system, applicable to most satellite applications, can be described by the
elements shown in Figure 2.1. The basic system consists of a satellite (or
satellites) in space, relaying information between two or more users through
ground terminals and the satellite. The information relayed may be voice, data,
video, or a combination of the three.

FIGURE 2.1 : COMMUNICATION VIA SATELLITES

The user information may require transmission via terrestrial means to connect
with the ground terminal. The satellite is controlled from the ground through a
satellite control facility, often called the master control center (MCC), which
provides tracking, telemetry, command, and monitoring functions for the system.
The space segment of the satellite system consists of the orbiting satellite (or
satellites) and the ground satellite control facilities necessary to keep the
satellites operational. The ground segment, or earth segment, of the satellite
system consists of the transmit and receive earth stations and the associated
equipment to interface with the user network. Ground segment elements are
unique to the type of communications satellite application, such as fixed service,
mobile service, broadcast service, or satellite broadband, and will be covered in
later chapters where the specific applications are discussed. The space segment
equipment carried aboard the satellite can be classified under two functional
areas: the bus and the payload, as shown in Figure 2.2.

FIGURE 2.2 :COMMUNICATION SATELLITE SUBSYSTEM

Bus: The bus refers to the basic satellite structure itself and the
subsystems that support the satellite.

The bus subsystems are: the physical structure, power subsystem,

attitude and orbital control subsystem, thermal control subsystem,
and command and telemetry subsystem.

Payload :The payload on a satellite is the equipment that provides

the service or services intended for the satellite. A communications
satellite payload consists of the communications equipment that
provides the relay link between the up- and downlinks from the
ground. The communications payload can be further divided into the
transponder and the antenna subsystems.

In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the

connecting link between the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas
is referred to as the transponder.

The transponder forms one of the main sections of the payload, the
other being the antenna subsystems.

A satellite may have more than one payload. The early Tracking and
Data Relay Satellites (TDRS), for example, had an ‘Advanced Westar’
communications payload in addition to the tracking and data payload,
which was the major mission of the satellite.
2.2. PRIMARY POWER:
 The primary electrical power is from solar cells.
 Arrays of cells in series-parallel connection are required to generate more
power

 The radiation on a satellite from the sun has an intensity averaging about 1.4
kW/m2.
 Solar cells operate at an efficiency of 20–25% at beginning of life (BOL), and
can degrade to 5–10% at end of life (EOL), usually considered to be 15
years. Because of this, large numbers of cells, connected in serial-parallel
arrays, are required to support the communications satellite electronic
systems, which often require more than one to two kilowatts of prime power
to function.
 The spin-stabilized satellite usually has cylindrical panels, which may be
extended after deployment to provide additional exposure area.
 A cylindrical spin-stabilized satellite must carry a larger number of solar cells
than an equivalent three-axis stabilized satellite, because only about one-
third of the cells are exposed to the sun at any one time.
 The three-axis stabilized satellite configuration allows for better utilization of
solar cell area, because the cells can be arranged in flat panels, or sails,
which can be rotated to maintain normal exposure to the sun – levels up to
10kW are attainable with rotating panels. Higher powers can be achieved in
the form of rectangular solar sails.
 All spacecraft must also carry storage batteries to provide power during
launch and during eclipse periods when sun blockage occurs.
Individual cells can generate only small amounts of power, and therefore, arrays
of cells in series-parallel connection are required.

FIGURE 2.3:THE SOLAR CELL PANELS FOR THE HS 376 SATELLITE

MANUFACTURED BY HUGHES SPACE AND COMMUNICATIONS
COMPANY.

Figure 2.3 shows the solar cell panels for the HS 376 satellite manufactured by
Hughes Space and Communications Company. The spacecraft is 216 cm in
diameter and 660 cm long when fully deployed in orbit. During the launch
sequence, the outer cylinder is telescoped over the inner one, to reduce the
overall length. Only the outer panel generates electrical power during this phase.
In geostationary orbit the telescoped panel is fully extended so that both are
exposed to sunlight. At the beginning of life, the panels produce 940 W dc
power, which may drop to 760 W at the end of 10 years. During eclipse, power is
provided by two nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) long-life batteries, which will deliver
830 W. At the end of life, battery recharge time is less than 16 h.The HS 376
spacecraft is a spin-stabilized spacecraft and the gyroscopic effect of the spin is
used for mechanical orientational stability. Thus the arrays are only partially in
sunshine at any given time, which places a limitation on power.
Higher powers can be achieved with solar panels arranged in the form of
rectangular solar sails. Solar sails must be folded during the launch phase
and extended when in geostationary orbit.

FIGURE 2.4 - HS 601 SATELLITE MANUFACTURED BY HUGHES SPACE

AND COMMUNICATIONS COMPANY

Figure 2.4 shows the HS 601 satellite manufactured by Hughes Space and
Communications Company. As shown, the solar sails are folded up on each side,
and when fully extended, they stretch to 67 feet (20.42 m) from tip to tip. The
full complement of solar cells is exposed to the sunlight, and the sails are
arranged to rotate to track the sun, so they are capable of greater power
output than cylindrical arrays having a comparable number of cells. The HS 601
can be designed to provide dc power from 2 to 6 kW. In comparing the power
capacity of cylindrical and solar-sail satellites, the cross-over point is estimated
to be about 2 kW, where the solar-sail type is more economical than the
cylindrical type (Hyndman, 1991).
FIGURE2.5: SATELLITE ECLIPSE TIME AS A FUNCTION OF THE
CURRENT DAY OF THE YEAR. (Courtesy of Spilker,1977.Reprinted by
permission of Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ)
The earth will eclipse a geostationary satellite twice a year, during the spring
and autumnal equinoxes. Daily eclipses start approximately 23 days before and
end approximately 23 days after the equinox for both the spring and autumnal
equinoxes and can last up to 72 min at the actual equinox days.
Figure 2.5 shows the graph relating eclipse period to the day of year. In order
to maintain service during an eclipse, storage batteries must be provided. Ni-
Cd batteries continue to be used, as shown in the Hughes HS 376 satellite, but
developments in nickel-hydrogen (Ni-H2) batteries offer significant
improvement in power-weight ratio. Ni-H2 batteries are used in the Hughes HS
601 (e.g., the SATMEX-5 and Anik-F2 satellites and were introduced into the
Intelsat series with INTELSAT VI (Pilcher, 1982) and INTELSAT VII (Lilly, 1990)
satellites.
 A power conditioning unit is also included in the power subsystem, for the
control of battery charging and for power regulation and monitoring. The power
generating and control systems on a communications satellite account for a
large part of its weight, often 10 to 20% of total dry weight.

2.3.ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL SYSTEM:

Attitude Control: The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space with
respect to earth. Attitude control is necessary so that the antennas, which
usually have narrow directional beams, are pointed correctly towards earth.
Several forces can interact to affect the attitude of the spacecraft, including
gravitational forces from the sun, moon, and planets; solar pressures acting on
the spacecraft body, antennas or solar panels; and earth’s magnetic field.
Orientation is monitored on the spacecraft by infrared horizon detectors, which
detect the rim of earth against the background of space. Four detectors are
used to establish a reference point, usually the center of the earth, and any
shift in orientation is detected by one or more of the sensors. A control signal is
generated that activates attitude control devices to restore proper orientation.
Gas jets, ion thrusters, or momentum wheels are used to provide active attitude
control on communications satellites.

Two ways to generate controlling torques

2.3.1.Passive attitude control - refers to the use of mechanisms which

stabilize the satellite without putting a drain on the satellite’s energy supplies;

At most, in frequent use is made of these supplies, for example, when thruster
jets are impulsed to provide corrective torque.

Examples of passive attitude control are

spin stabilization and

gravity gradient stabilization.

 Figure 2.6(a):Example of spin stabilized satellite

Figure 2.6(b):Example of three axis stabilized satellite

Figure 2.7. Spin Stabilization and 3 Axis stabilization Structure.

2.3.2.Attitude Control - Spinning satellite stabilization

 Spin stabilization may be achieved with cylindrical satellites.

 The satellite is constructed so that it is mechanically balanced about one

particular axis and is then set spinning around this axis.

 For geostationary satellites, the spin axis is adjusted to be parallel to the N-

S axis of the earth.

 Spin rate is typically in the range of 50 to 100 rev/min.

 Spin is initiated during the launch phase by means of small gas jets.

 Impulse-type thrusters, or jets, can be used to increase the spin rate to

maintain correct N-S orientation in case of disturbance torques
Nutation, which is a form of wobbling, can occur as a result of the
disturbance torques and/or from misalignment or unbalance of the control
jets.
This nutation must be damped out by means of energy absorbers known as
nutation dampers.
Certain dual-spin spacecraft obtain spin stabilization from a spinning flywheel
rather than by spinning the satellite itself.
Flywheels are termed momentum wheels, and their average momentum is
referred to as momentum bias.

Reaction wheels operate at zero momentum bias.

The entire spacecraft rotates for spin-stabilized satellites that employ

omnidirectional antennas. When directional antennas are used, which is the
prevalent case, the antenna subsystem must be despun, so that the antenna
is kept properly pointed towards earth.

FIGURE.2.8: SPINNING SATELLITE STABILIZATION

Figure 2.9 shows a typical implementation of a despun platform on a
spin-stabilized satellite. The antenna subsystem is mounted on a
platform or shelf, which may also contain some of the transponder
equipment. The satellite is spun-up by small radial gas jets on the
surface of the drum. The rotation, ranging from 30 to 100 rpm,
provides gyroscopic force stability for the satellite. The propellants
used include heated hydrazine or a bipropellant mix of hydrazine and
nitrogen tetroxide. The despun platform is driven by an electric
motor in the opposite direction of the satellite spin, on the same spin
axis and at the same spin rate as the satellite body, to maintain a
fixed orientation for the antennas, relative to earth.

FIGURE 2.9:DESPUN PLATFORM ON SPIN STABILIZED SATELLITE

2.3.3.Active attitude control

corrective torques are applied as required in response to disturbance

torques.

Methods used to generate active control torques include

 momentum wheels,

 electromagnetic coils, and

 mass expulsion devices such as gas jets and ion thrusters.

The three axes which define a satellite’s attitude are its

 roll,

 pitch,

 yaw

All three axes pass through the center of gravity of the satellite

For an equatorial orbit, movement of the satellite about the roll axis,
moves the antenna footprint north and south

movement about the pitch axis ,moves the footprint east and west;

movement about the yaw axis, rotates the antenna footprint.

The entire body of the spacecraft remains fixed in space, relative to

the earth, which is why the three-axis stabilized satellite is also
referred to as a body stabilized satellite.

Active attitude control is required with three-axis stabilization. Control

jets or reaction wheels are used, either separately or in combination,
to provide correction and control for ach of the three axes.
 FIGURE 2.10(B) –RPY AXES

FIGURE.2.10(A) ATTITUDE CONTROL -(RPY) ROTATION

A reaction wheel is basically a flywheel that absorbs the undesired torques that
would shift spacecraft orientation. Fuel is expended for both the control jets
and for the reaction wheels, which must periodically be ‘unloaded’ of
momentum energy that builds up in the wheel.
The three-axis stabilized satellite does not need to be symmetric or cylindrical,
and most tend be box-like, with numerous appendages attached. Typical
appendages include antenna systems and solar cell panels, which are often
unfurled after placement at the on-orbit location.
2.3.4.Attitude Control - Momentum wheel stabilization
Consists of a flywheel, the bearing assembly, the casing, and an electric drive
motor with associated electronic control circuitry.
The flywheel is attached to the rotor, which consists of a permanent magnet
providing the magnetic field for motor action.

The stator of the motor is attached to the body of the satellite.

Thus the motor provides the coupling between the flywheel and the satellite
structure.

Speed and torque control of the motor is exercised through the currents fed to
the stator.

The housing for the momentum wheel is evacuated to protect the wheel from
adverse environmental effects,

The bearings have controlled lubrication that lasts over the lifetime of the
satellite.

FIGURE. 2.11. MOMENTUM WHEEL STABILIZATION

The term momentum wheel is usually reserved for wheels that operate at
nonzero momentum.

This is termed a momentum bias.

 Such a wheel provides passive stabilization for the yaw and roll axes when the
axis of rotation of the wheel lies along the pitch axis.
Control about the pitch axis is achieved by changing the speed of the wheel.

2.3.5.Attitude Control - Momentum wheel stabilization

When a momentum wheel is operated with zero momentum bias, it is generally

referred to as a reaction wheel.

Reaction wheels are used in three-axis stabilized systems.

Here, as the name suggests, each axis is stabilized by a reaction wheel

At some point the wheel saturates.

In effect, it reaches its maximum allowable angular velocity and can no longer
take in any more momentum. Mass expulsion devices are then used to unload
the wheel, that is, remove momentum from it. Operation of the mass expulsion
devices consumes part of the satellite’s fuel supply.

FIGURE: 2.12 MOMENTUM WHEEL( REACTION WHEEL) STABILIZATION

2.4.ORBITAL CONTROL :

Orbital control, often called station keeping, is the process required to maintain
a satellite in its proper orbit location. It is similar to, although not functionally
the same as, attitude control, discussed in the previous section. GSO satellites
will undergo forces that would cause the satellite to drift in the east-west
(longitude) and north-south (latitude) directions, as well as in altitude, if not
compensated for with active orbital control jets. Orbital control is usually
maintained with the same thruster system as is attitude control. The non-
spherical (oblate) properties of the earth, primarily exhibited as an equatorial
bulge, cause the satellite to drift slowly in longitude along the equatorial
plane. Control jets are pulsed to impart an opposite velocity component to the
satellite, which causes the satellite to drift back to its nominal position. These
corrections are referred to as east-west station keeping maneuvers, which are
accomplished periodically every two to three weeks. Typical C-band satellites
must be maintained within ±0.1° , and Ku-band satellites within ± 0.05◦, of
nominal longitude, to keep the satellites within the beam widths of the ground
terminal antennas. For a nominal geostationary radius of 42 000 km, the total
longitude variation would be about 150 km for C-band and about 75 km for
Ku-band. Latitude drift will be induced primarily by gravitational forces from
the sun and the moon.

These forces cause the satellite inclination to change about 0.075◦ per month if
left uncorrected. Periodic pulsing to compensate for these forces, called
north-south station keeping maneuvers, must also be accomplished
periodically to maintain the nominal satellite orbit location. North south
station-keeping tolerance requirements are similar to those for east-west
station keeping ±0.1◦ for C-band, and ± 0.05 ◦ for Ku-band.
 Satellite altitude will vary about ± 0.1 %, which is about 72 km for a nominal
36 000-km geostationary altitude.AC-band satellite, therefore, must be
maintained in a ‘box’ with longitudinal and latitudinal sides of about 150 km
and an altitude side of 72 km. The Ku-band satellite requires a box with
approximately equal sides of 75 km. Figure 2.13. summarizes the orbital
control limits and indicates the typical ‘orbital box’ that a GSO satellite can be
maintained in for the C-band and Ku-band cases.

Figure.2.13:Orbital control parameter for GSO Satellites

North-south station keeping requires much more fuel than east-west station
keeping, and often satellites are maintained with little or no north-south station
keeping to extend on-orbit life. The satellite is allowed to drift with a higher
inclination, with the drift compensated for on the ground with tracking and/or
smaller aperture antennas. The expendable fuel that must be carried on-board
the satellite to provide orbital and attitude control is usually the determining
factor in the on-orbit lifetime of a communications satellite.
As much as one-half of the satellite launch weight is station-keeping fuel.
The lifetimes of most of the critical electronic and mechanical components
usually exceed the allowable time for active orbit control, which is limited
by the weight of fuel that can be carried to orbit with current conventional
launch vehicles. It is not unusual for a communications satellite to ‘run out
of fuel’ with most of its electronic communications subsystems still
functioning.

2.5 THERMAL CONTROL AND PROPULSION:

Orbiting satellites will experience large temperature variations, which must

be controlled in the harsh environment of outer space. Thermal radiation
from the sun heats one side of the spacecraft, while the side facing outer
space is exposed to the extremely low temperatures of space. Much of the
equipment in the satellite itself generates heat, which must be controlled.
Low orbiting satellites can also be affected by thermal radiation reflected
from the earth itself. The satellite thermal control system is designed to
control the large thermal gradients generated in the satellite by removing
or relocating the heat to provide an as stable as possible temperature
environment for the satellite. Several techniques are employed to provide
thermal control in a satellite. Thermal blankets and thermal shields are
placed at critical locations to provide insulation. Radiation mirrors are
placed around electronic subsystems, particularly for spin-stabilized
satellites, to protect critical equipment. Heat pumps are used to relocate
heat from power devices such as traveling wave power amplifiers to outer
walls or heat sinks to provide a more effective thermal path for heat to
escape.
 Figure 2.14. Thermal blanket

Thermal heaters may also be used to maintain adequate temperature

conditions for some components, such as propulsion lines or thrusters, where
low temperatures would cause severe problems.
In order to maintain constant temperature conditions, heaters may be switched
on (usually on command from ground) to make up for the heat reduction which
occurs when transponders are switched off. The INTELSATVI satellite used
heaters to maintain propulsion thrusters and line temperatures (Pilcher,1982).

2.6: TT&C SUBSYSTEM:

The telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to the earth
station, while the command subsystem receives command signals from the earth
station to the satellite.
Data which are transmitted as telemetry signals include
• attitude information obtained from sun and earth sensors;
environmental information
• magnetic field intensity
• direction,
• frequency of meteorite impact etc ; and
2.6.1.TELEMETRY, TRACKING, COMMAND AND MONITORING:
The tracking, telemetry, command, and monitoring (TTC&M) subsystem
provides essential spacecraft management and control functions to keep
the satellite operating safely in orbit. The TTC&M links between the
spacecraft and the ground are usually separate from the
communications system links. TTC&M links may operate in the same
frequency bands or in other bands. TTC&M is most often accomplished
through a separate earth terminal facility specifically designed for the
complex operations required to maintain a spacecraft in orbit. One
TTC&M facility may maintain several spacecraft simultaneously in orbit
through TTC&M links to each vehicle. Figure 2.15 shows the typical
TTC&M functional elements for the satellite and ground facility for a
communications satellite application. The satellite TTC&M subsystems
comprise the antenna, command receiver, tracking and telemetry
transmitter, and possibly tracking sensors. Telemetry data are received
from the other subsystems of the spacecraft, such as the payload,
power, attitude control, and thermal control. Command data are relayed
from the command receiver to other subsystems to control such
parameters as antenna pointing, transponder modes of operation,
battery and solar cell changes, etc. The elements on the ground include
the TTC&M antenna, telemetry receiver, command transmitter, tracking
subsystem, and associated processing and analysis functions. Satellite
control and monitoring is accomplished through monitors and keyboard
interface. Major operations of TTC&M may be automated, with minimal
human interface required.
 Figure. 2.15:TT&C Subsystem
Tracking refers to the determination of the current orbit, position, and
movement of the spacecraft. The tracking function is accomplished by a number
of techniques, usually involving satellite beacon signals, which are received at
the satellite TTC&M earth station. The Doppler shift of the beacon (or the
telemetry carrier) is monitored to determine the rate at which the range is
changing (the range rate). Angular measurements from one or more earth
terminals can be used to determine spacecraft location. The range can be
determined by observing the time delay of a pulse or sequence of pulses
transmitted from the satellite. Acceleration and velocity sensors on the satellite
can be used to monitor orbital location and changes in orbital location.
The telemetry function involves the collection of data from sensors on-board the
spacecraft and the relay of this information to the ground.
The telemetered data include such parameters as voltage and current
conditions in the power subsystem, temperature of critical subsystems, status
of switches and relays in the communications and antenna subsystems, fuel
tank pressures, and attitude control sensor status.
A typical communications satellite telemetry link could involve over 100
channels of sensor information, usually in digital form, but occasionally in
analog form for diagnostic evaluations. The telemetry carrier modulation is
typically frequency or phase shift keying (FSK or PSK), with the telemetry
channels transmitted in a time division multiplex (TDM) format. Telemetry
channel data rates are low, usually only a few kbps. Command is the
complementary function to telemetry. The command system relays specific
control and operations information from the ground to the spacecraft, often in
response to telemetry information received from the spacecraft.
Parameters involved in typical command links include changes and corrections
in attitude control and orbital control;
• antenna pointing and control;
• transponder mode of operation;
• battery voltage control.
The command system is used during launch to control the firing of the boost
motor, deploy appendages such as solar panels and antenna reflectors, and
‘spin-up’ a spin-stabilized spacecraft body. Security is an important factor in the
command system for a communications satellite. The structure of the
command system must contain safeguards against intentional or unintentional
signals corrupting the command link, or unauthorized commands from being
transmitted and accepted by the spacecraft.
Command links are nearly always encrypted with a secure code format to
maintain the health and safety of the satellite. The command procedure
also involves multiple transmissions to the spacecraft, to assure the
validity and correct reception of the command, before the execute
instruction is transmitted. Telemetry and command during the launch and
transfer orbit phases usually requires a backup TTC&M system, since the
main TTC&M system may be inoperable because the antenna is not
deployed, or the spacecraft attitude is not proper for transmission to
earth. The backup system usually operates with an omnidirectional
antenna, at UHF or S-band, with sufficient margin to allow operation in
the most adverse conditions. The backup system could also be used if the
main TTC&M system fails on orbit.

2.7.COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM:

2.7.1.Satellite Payload:

The next two sections discuss the key elements of the payload portion of
the space segment, specifically for communications satellite systems: the
transponder and antenna subsystems.

2.7.2.Transponder:

The transponder in a communications satellite is the series of

components that provides the communications channel, or link, between
the uplink signal received at the uplink antenna, and the downlink signal
transmitted by the downlink antenna. A typical communications satellite
will contain several transponders, and some of the equipment may be
common to more than one transponder.
It is the series of interconnected units which forms a single communications
channel between the receive and transmit antennas in a communications satellite.
The bandwidth allocated for C band service is 500 MHz
Divided into sub bands, one for each transponder.
A transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz
4-MHz guard band between transponders,
12 such transponders can be accommodated in 500-MHz bandwidth.

FIGURE 2.16:GENERAL TRANSPONDER BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIGURE.2.17: SECTION OF AN UPLINK FREQUENCY AND POLARIZATION
PLAN. (numbers refer to frequency in megahertz)

Frequency reuse also may be achieved with spot-beam antennas, and these
may be combined with polarization reuse to provide an effective bandwidth
of 2000MHz from the actual bandwidth of 500MHz.
For one of the polarization groups,Fig.2.17shows the channeling scheme for
the 12transponders in more detail. The incoming ,or uplink ,frequency range
is 5.925 to 6.425GHz.
The communications satellite transponder is implemented in one of two
general types of configurations:
the frequency translation transponder and the on-board processing
transponder.
2.7.3.Frequency Translation Transponder:

The first type, which has been the dominant configuration since the inception of
satellite communications, is the frequency translation transponder. The frequency
translation transponder, also referred to as a non-regenerative repeater, or bent
pipe, receives the uplink signal and, after amplification, retransmits it with only a
translation in carrier frequency.

Figure 2.18 shows the typical implementation of a dual conversion frequency

translation transponder, where the uplink radio frequency, fup, is converted to an
intermediate lower frequency, fif , amplified, and then converted back up to the
downlink RF frequency, fdwn, for transmission to earth. Frequency translation
transponders are used for FSS, BSS, and MSS applications, in both GSO and
NGSO orbits. The uplinks and downlinks are codependent, meaning that any
degradation introduced on the uplink will be transferred to the downlink, affecting
the total communications link. This has significant impact on the performance of
the end-to-end link

FIGURE.2.18:FREQUENCY TRANSLATION TRANSPONDER

2.7.4.On-board Processing Transponder:

Figure 2.19 shows the second type of satellite transponder, the on-board
processing transponder, also called a regenerative repeater de-mod/re-mod
transponder, or smart satellite. The uplink signal at fup is demodulated to
baseband, f baseband . The baseband signal is available for processing on-
board, including reformatting and error-correction. The baseband information is
then demodulated to the downlink carrier at fdwn, possibly in a different
modulation format to the uplink and, after final amplification, transmitted to the
ground. The demodulation/re-modulation process removes uplink noise and
interference from the downlink, while allowing additional on-board processing
to be accomplished. Thus the uplinks and downlinks are independent with
respect to evaluation of overall link performance, unlike the frequency
translation transponder where uplink degradations are codependent, as
discussed earlier. On-board processing satellites tend to be more complex and
expensive than frequency translation satellites; however, they offer significant
performance advantages, particularly for small terminal users or for large
diverse networks.

FIGURE 2.19:ON-BOARD PROCESSING TRANSPONDER

 The frequency conversion shifts the carriers to the downlink frequency
band, which is also 500MHz wide, extending from 3.7 to 4.2GHz. At this point
the signals are channelized into frequency bands which represent the
individual transponder bandwidths.
Units of Transponders

 The wide band receiver

 The input de-multiplexer

 The power amplifier

 The antenna subsystems

2.7.5.The wide band receiver:

 The wide band receiver is shown in more detail in Fig.2.21.
A duplicate receiver is provided so that if one fails, the other is automatically
switched in. The combination is referred to as a redundant receiver, meaning
that although two are provided, only one is in use at a given time.
 The first stage in the receiver is a low-noise amplifier(LNA).This
amplifier adds little noise to the carrier being amplified , and at the same
time it provides sufficient amplification for the carrier to override the higher
noise level present in the following mixer stage.

 In a well-designed receiver, the equivalent noise temperature referred

to the LNA input is basically that of the LNA alone. The equivalent noise
temperature of a satellite receiver may be on the order of a few hundred
kelvins.
 The LNA feeds into a mixer stage, which also requires a local
oscillator(LO) signal for the frequency-conversion process.
 FIGURE2.20:SATELLITE TRANSPONDER CHANNELS

FIGURE2.21– SATELLITE WIDE BAND RECEIVER

(Courtesy of CCIR,CCIR Fixed Satellite Services Handbook,finaldraft1984.)

 With advances in field-effect transistor (FET) technology, FET amplifiers,
which offer equal or better performance, are now available for both bands.
Diode mixer stages are used.
The amplifier following the mixer may utilize bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) at 4GHz and FET sat12GHz, or FETs may be used in both bands.
2.7.6.The input De-multiplexer:
The input de-multiplexer separates the broadband input. It covers the
frequency range 3.7 to 4.2 GHz into the transponder frequency channels. The
channels are usually arranged in even-numbered and odd-numbered groups.
Reduces adjacent channel interference. The output from the receiver is fed to a
power splitter, which in turn feeds the two separate chains of circulators. The
full broadband signal is transmitted along each chain, The channelizing is
achieved by means of channel filters connected to each circulator
Each filter has a bandwidth of 36 MHz and
The power Amplifier (TWT)
The fixed attenuation is needed to balance out variations in the input
attenuation so that each transponder channel has the same nominal
attenuation, the necessary adjustments being made during assembly.
The variable attenuation is needed to set the level as required for
different types of service (an example being the requirement for input power
back off discussed later).Because this variable attenuator adjustment is an
operational requirement, it must be under the control of the ground TT&C
station
FIGURE 2.22. INPUT DEMULTIPLEXER
Traveling-wave tube amplifiers(TWTAs) are widely used in transponders
to provide the final output power required to the transmit
antenna.Figure2.23 shows the schematic of a traveling wave
tube(TWT) and its power supplies.

In the TWT, an electron-beam gun assembly consisting of a heater, a

cathode, and focusing electrodes is used to form an electron beam. A
magnetic field is required to confine the beam to travel a long the
inside of a wire helix.

FIGURE2.23: SATELLITE TWTA

 Used in ground stations, the magnetic field can be provided by means of a
solenoid and dc power supply. The comparatively large size and high power
consumption of solenoids make them unsuitable for use a board satellites,
and lower-power TWTs are used which employ permanent- magnet focusing.

The wave actually will travel around the helical path at close to the speed of
light, but it is the axial component of wave velocity which interacts with the
electron beam.

This component is less than the velocity of light approximately in the ratio of
helix pitch to circumference. Because of this effective reduction in phase
velocity, the helix is referred to as a slow wave structure.

The advantage of the TWT over other types of tube amplifiers is that it can
provide amplification over a very wideband width. Input levels to the TWT
must be carefully controlled, however, to minimize the effects of certain
forms of distortion.

The worst of these result from the nonlinear transfer characteristic of the
TWT ,illustrated in Fig.2.24.

Figure2.24: Power transfer characteristics of a TWT.

The saturation point is used as 0dB reference for both i/p & o/p.
 At low-input powers, the output-input power relationship is linear; that is, a
given decibel change in input power will produce the same decibel change in
output power. At higher power inputs, the output power sat-urates, the point
of maximum power output being known as the saturation point.

The saturation point is a very convenient reference point ,and input and
output quantities are usually referred to it.The linear region of the TWT is
defined as the region bound by the thermal noise limit at the low end and by
what is termed the1-dB compression point at the upper end. This is the point
where the actual transfer curve drops.

Frequency modulation (FM) is usually employed in analog satellite

communications circuits. However, unwanted amplitude modulation (AM) can
occur from the filtering which takes place prior to the TWT input. The AM
process converts the unwanted amplitude modulation to phase modulation
(PM), which appears as noise on the FM carrier.

Where only a single carrier is present, it may be passed through a hard limiter
before being amplified in the TWT. The hard limiter is a circuit which clips the
carrier amplitude close to the zero baseline to remove any amplitude
modulation. The FM is preserved in the zero crossover points and is not
affected by the limiting. A TWT also may be called on to amplify two or more
carriers simultaneously, this being referred to as multicarrier operation. The
AM/PM conversion is then a complicated function of carrier amplitudes, but in
addition, the nonlinear transfer characteristic introduces a more serious form of
distortion known as intermodulation distortion.
FIGURE 2.25:THIRD ORDER INTERMODULATION PRODUCT
 In order to reduce the intermodulation distortion, the operating point
of the TWT must be shifted closer to the linear portion of the curve,
the reduction in input power being referred to as input back off. When
multiple carriers are present, the power output around saturation, for
any one carrier, is less than that achieved with single-carrier
operation. This is illustrated by the transfer curves of Fig. 2.26. The
input back off is the difference in decibels between the carrier input at
the operating point and the saturation input which would be required
for single-carrier operation. The output back off is the corresponding
drop in output power. Back off values are always stated in decibels
relative to the saturation point. As a rule of thumb, output back off is
about 5 dB less than input back off. The need to incorporate back off
significantly reduces the channel capacity of a satellite link because of
the reduced carrier-to-noise ratio received at the ground station.

FIGURE 2.26:TRANSFER CURVE FOR INPUT AND OUTPUT BACKOFF

The -3-dB beam width is given approximately by

FIGURE 2.27: ANTENNA SUBSYSTEMS

The gain defines the increase in strength achieved in concentrating the radio
wave energy, either in transmission or reception, by the antenna system. The
antenna gain is usually expressed in dBi, decibels above an isotropic antenna,
which is an antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions.
The beam width is usually expressed as the half-power beam width or the 3-dB
beam width, which is a measure of the angle over which maximum gain occurs.
The side lobes define the amount of gain in the off-axis directions.

Most satellite communications applications require an antenna to be highly

directional (high gain, narrow beam width) with negligibly small side lobes. The
common types of antennas used in satellite systems are the linear dipole, the
horn antenna, the parabolic reflector, and the array antenna. The linear dipole
antenna is an isotropic radiator that radiates uniformly in all directions. Four or
more dipole antennas are placed on the spacecraft to obtain a nearly Omni-
directional pattern. Dipole antennas are used primarily at VHF and UHF for
tracking, telemetry, and command links. Dipole antennas are also important
during launch operations, where the spacecraft attitude has not yet been
established, and for satellites that operate without attitude control or body
stabilization (particularly for LEO systems).

Horn antennas are used at frequencies from about 4 GHz and up, when
relatively wide beams are required, such as global coverage from a GSO
satellite. A horn is a flared section of waveguide that provides gains of up to
about 20 dBi, with beam widths of 10◦ or higher. If higher gains or narrower
bandwidths are required, a reflector or array antenna must be used. The most
often used antenna for satellite systems, particularly for those operating above
10 GHz, is the parabolic reflector antenna. Parabolic reflector antennas are
usually illuminated by one or more horn antenna feeds at the focus of the
paraboloid. Parabolic reflectors offer a much higher gain than that achievable
by the horn antenna alone. Gains of 25 dB and higher, with beam widths of 1◦
or less, are achievable with parabolic reflector antennas operating in the C, Ku,
or Ka bands.
 FIGURE2.28: SCALAR FEED

FIGURE2.29: HORN ANTENNA TYPES

 Narrow beam antennas usually require physical pointing mechanisms
(gimbals) on the spacecraft to point the beam in the desired direction.
There is increasing interest in the use of array antennas for satellite
communications applications. A steerable, focused beam can be
formed by combining the radiation from several small elements made
up of dipoles, helices, or horns. Beam forming can be achieved by
electronically phase shifting the signal at each element. Proper
selection of the phase characteristics between the elements allows the
direction and beam width to be controlled, without physical movement
of the antenna system. The array antenna gain increases with the
square of the number of elements. Gains and beam widths
comparable to those available from parabolic reflector antennas can
be achieved with array antennas.

FIGURE 2.30:COMPARABLE BEAM WIDTH OF ARRAY ANTENNAS

 FIGURE 2.31: PARABOLIC AND DOUBLE REFLECTOR

The complete antenna platform and the communications payload are despun to
keep the antennas pointing to their correct locations on earth. The same feed
horn may be used to transmit and receive carriers with the same polarization.
The transmit and receive signals are separated in a device known as a diplexer,
and the separation is further aided by means of frequency filtering. Polarization
discrimination also may be used to separate the transmit and receive signals
using the same feed horn. For example, the horn may be used to transmit
horizontally polarized waves in the downlink frequency band, while
simultaneously receiving vertically polarized waves in the uplink frequency band.
The polarization separation takes place in a device known as an ortho-coupler,
or orthogonal mode transducer (OMT). Separate horns also may be used for the
transmit and receive functions, with both horns using the same reflector.
 7.VIDEO LECTURE LINKS

YOUTUBE CHANNEL :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-SaJ7uoCWY

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/

TOPIC WISE ONLINE LINKS :

https://youtu.be/XiaXDomrooE

https://youtu.be/52aYV560Ksc

https://youtu.be/n70zjMvm8L0
 8.E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS

E BOOK

Text Book :

https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.pdf

Reference Book 1:

http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Communic
ation__Artech_House_Space_Applications_.pdf

Slide Share Link:

 https://www.slideshare.net/chappidi_saritha/satellite-communications-
15862346

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 https://www.slideshare.net/sandipdas38/satellite-communication-lecture9

Topic wise PPT’S:

Space Segments:

https://www.slideshare.net/ameyakadam/space-segment

Satellite Subsystems:

https://www.slideshare.net/RAVIKIRANANANDE/satellite-systems-107964433
9.ASSIGNMENTS
 ASSIGNMENTS

UNIT 2
SPACE SEGMENT

Q.No Questions BT

Level
CO
Level

1 Explain why some satellites employ cylindrical CO2 K2

solar arrays, whereas others employ solar-sail
arrays for the production of primary power.
State the typical power output to be expected
from each type. Why is it necessary for satellites
to carry batteries in addition to solar-cell arrays?

2 State the type of satellite antenna normally CO2 K2

used to produce a wide beam radiation pattern,
providing global coverage. How are spot beams
produced?
3 Explain what is meant by the term despun CO2 K2,K3

antenna, and briefly describe one way in

which the de spinning is achieved.

4 What is the chief advantage of the TWTA CO2 K2

used aboard satellites compared to other

types of high-power amplifying devices?

What are the main disadvantages of the

TWTA?
10.PART A Q & A
 10.PART A Q & A

UNIT 2 SPACE SEGMENTS

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT CO
Level Level
1 Write short notes on attitude control system. K1 CO2

It is the system that achieves & maintains the required

attitudes. The main functions of attitude control system
include maintaining accurate satellite position through
out the life span of the system.

2 What is meant by station keeping? (Nov/Dec2015) K1 CO2

It is the process of maintenance of satellite’s attitude

against different factors that can cause drift with time.
Satellites need to have their orbits adjusted from time to
time because the satellite initially placed in the correct
orbit, natural forces induce a progressive drift. There are
two types of station keeping 1. East – West station
keeping : this is the correction along the axis. 2. North –
South Station Keeping : this is to correct the change in
inclination.

3 What is mean by Pitch angle? K1 CO2

Movement of a spacecraft about an axis which is

perpendicular to its longitudinal
axis. It is the deg of elevation or depression.

4 Why is there a huge spectrum space between the K1 CO2

transmitted and received signal in satellite
communication?

Because of the close proximity of the transmitter and the

receiver in the satellite, the high transmitter output
power for the downlink is picked up by that satellite
receiver. Naturally, the uplink signal is totally obliterated.
Furthermore, the transmitter output fed back into the
receiver input causes oscillation. To avoid this problem,
the receiver and transmitter in the satellite transponder
are designed to operate at separate frequencies. In this
way, they will not interfere with each other.
5 What is meant by payload? K1 CO2
The payload refers to the equipment used to provide the
service for which the satellite has been launched.
The payload comprises of a repeater and antenna subsystem
and performs the primary function of communication
The repeater have two types 1.Transparent repeater 2.
Regenerative Repeater.

6 What are the needs for station keeping? (May/June 2013)

Station-keeping maneuvers must be carried out to maintain

the satellite within set limits of its nominal geostationary
position. K1 CO2
There are a number of perturbing forces that cause an orbit
to depart from the ideal keplerian orbit.
For the geostationary case, the most important of these are
the gravitational fields of the moon and the sun, and the
non-spherical shape of the earth, and also solar radiation
pressure and reaction of the satellite itself to motor
movement within the satellite.

7 What is the temperature control in the satellite? K2 CO2

The need for temperature control is to maintain a constant
temperature inside the satellites. Because, the important
consideration is that the satellites equipment should operate
as nearly as possible in a stable temperature environment.
Thermal blankets and shields may be used to provide
insulation.
Radiation mirrors are often used to remove heat from
communication payload.
These mirror drum surrounded the communication equipment
shelves in each case and provide good radiation paths.

8 Write notes on transponder. K1 CO2

A transponder is the series of interconnected units which
forms a single communications channel between the receive
and transmit antennas in a communications satellite
It is a single communication channel which is formed by a
series of interconnected units.
A typical transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for
a 4-MHz guard band between transponders, 12 such
transponders can be accommodated in the 500-MHz
bandwidth.
9 Write short notes on attitude control system. K3 CO2
The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in
space.
Usually, the attitude-control process takes place
aboard the satellite, but it is also possible for control
signals to be transmitted from earth, based on
attitude data obtained from the satellite.
It is the system that achieves & maintains the
required attitudes.
The main functions of attitude control system include
maintaining accurate satellite position throughout
the life span of the system.

10 What is meant by spot beam antenna? K2 CO2

A beam generated by a communication satellite

antenna of sufficient size that the angular spread of
sufficient size that the angular spread of the energy
in the beam is very small with the result that a
region that is only a few hundred km in diameter is
illuminated on earth.

11 Define Momentum Bias. K1 CO2

Spin stabilization may be achieved with cylindrical
satellites.
The satellite is constructed so that it is
mechanically balanced about one particular axis and
is then set spinning around this axis.
For geostationary satellites, the spin axis is adjusted
to be parallel to the N-S axis of the earth.
In these dual-spin spacecraft, spin stabilization is
obtained using spinning flywheels, which are termed
as momentum wheels. The average momentum of
these wheels is known as momentum bias.
12 Define output back off. K2 CO2

An input back off is employed, a corresponding

output back off must be allowed for the satellite
EIRP.
When the operating point of the Travelling wave
tube amplifier (TWTA) is shifted closer to the linear
portion in order to reduce intermodulation
distortion.
The corresponding drop in the output power in
decibels is known as the output back off.

13 What are the basic requirements of an earth station K1 CO2

antenna?

The basic requirements of an earth station antenna

are listed below.
The antenna must have a low noise temperature.
The ohmic losses of antenna must also be
maximum.
The antenna must be rotated or steered easily so
that a tracking system can be employed to point the
antenna beam accurately.
The antenna radiation must have a low side lobe
level to reduce interference from unwanted signals
and also to minimize interference into other
satellites and terrestrial systems. The antenna must
have a high directive gain.

14 What is earth station of a satellite communications K2 CO2

system?
The earth segment of a satellite communications
system consists of the transmit and receive earth
stations.
The simplest of these are the home TV receive-
only (TVRO) systems, and the most complex are
the terminal stations used for international
communications networks.
Also included in the earth segment are those
stations which are on ships at sea, and commercial
and military land and aeronautical mobile stations.
15 What is a polar antenna? K1 CO2

A single actuator is used which moves the antenna in a

circular arc
I.e.) known as polar mount antenna.

16 What is declination? K1 CO2

The angle of tilt is often referred to as the declination

which must not be confused with the magnetic
declination used in correcting compass readings.

17 What is meant by payload? K1 CO2

The payload refers to the equipment used to provide

the service for which the satellite has been launched.

18 What is a Yaw? K1 CO2

Yaw is the rotation of a vehicle about its vertical axis.

19 Describe the spin stabilized satellites. K1 CO2

In a spin stabilized satellites, the body of

the satellite spins at about 30 to 100rpm about the axis
perpendicular to the orbital plane. The satellites are
normally dual spin satellites with a spinning section & a
despun section on which antennas are mounted. These
are kept stationary w.r.to earth by counter rotating the
despun section.

20 What is a TWTA? K1 CO2

The TWTAS are widely used in transponder to provide

the final output power
required to the trans tube & its power supplies.
21 Define input back off. K1 CO2

In order to reduce the inter- modulation distortion, the

operating point of the TWT must be shifted closer to the
linear portion of the curve, the reduction in input power
being referred to as input back off.
22 What is a polarization interleaving? K1 CO2

Overlap occurs between channels, but these are

alternating polarized left hand circular & right- hand
circular to reduce interference to acceptable levels. This
is referred to as polarization interleaving.
23 Why is it not possible to provide transmit function by K1 CO2

wideband amplifier and mixer circuits?

It is generally not possible to generate very high output
power over such wide bandwidth. The fact is that no
components and circuits can do this well. The high-power
amplifiers in most transponders are traveling-wave tubes
that inherently have limited bandwidth. They operate well
over a small range but cannot deal with the entire 500-
MHz bandwidth allocated to a satellite.
24 What are the main functions of a space craft K1 CO2

management?
The main functions of a space craft management are
given below.
.
1. To control the orbit and attitude of the satellite.
2. To monitor the status of all the sensors in the satellite.
3. To switch on/off some sections in communication
system.
26 Give the two segments of basic satellite communication. K1 CO2

a. Earth segment (or) ground segment

b. Space segment

27 What is meant by momentum wheel stabilization? K1 CO2

During the spin stabilization, flywheels may be used

rather than spinning the satellite. These flywheels are
termed as momentum wheels.
28 Which of the components receives, translates the signal K1 CO2

frequency and re-transmits the signal in a satellite?

The uplink signals from earth are amplified, translated in

frequency, and re-transmitted on the downlink to one or
more earth stations. The component that performs this
function is known as a transponder.

.
11.PART B Qs
 11.PART B Qs

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT CO

Level Level
1 Briefly Explain in detail about thermal control system of K2 CO2
Satellite.

2 Explain about various power amplifiers used in Satellites. K2 CO2

3 Discuss about Station keeping control in satellites with K2 CO2

various types of stabilization methods.

4 i. What is the chief advantage of the TWTA used K2 CO2

aboard satellite compared to other types of high
power amplifiers?
ii. What are the main disadvantages of TWTA?
iii. What is thermal control? Why is it required?

5 Explain what is meant by satellite attitude, and briefly K2 CO2

describe two forms of attitude control.
6 Briefly Explain in detail about Polar mount antenna used in K2 CO2
spacecraft.

7 Explain wideband receiver operation with neat diagram. K2 CO2

8 Describe the TT&C facilities of a satellite communications K2 CO2

system. Are these facilities part of the space segment or part
of the ground segment of the system?

9 Explain about Power supply unit of Satellites. K2 CO2

10 i. Discuss in detail various units of a transponder. K2 CO2

ii. Discuss with a neat diagram the Anik-E C band transponder.
11 Explain why some satellites employ cylindrical solar arrays, K2 CO2
whereas others employ solar-sail arrays for the production of
primary power. State the typical power output to be expected
from each type. Why is it necessary for satellites to carry
batteries in addition to solar-cell arrays?

12 Define and explain the terms roll, pitch, and yaw. K2 CO2

13 Describe the east-west and north-south station-keeping K2 CO2

maneuvers required in satellite station keeping. What are the
angular tolerances in station keeping that must be achieved?

14 Explain why an omnidirectional antenna must be used aboard K2 CO2

a satellite for telemetry and command during the launch
phase. How is the satellite powered during this phase?
12.SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION COURSES
 12. SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

NPTEL SWAYAM

Supportive online Certification Course :

NPTEL / Swayam :(Common to all Units)

Course Name: Satellite Communication Systems

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/

Course abstract :
Satellite communication is a form of wireless
communication that covers large area and long distance
using satellites as repeaters. Course prerequisite is digital
communication. In this course the participants will get the
basic technical knowledge of orbital dynamics, subsystems
used in space segment and ground segment, power and
bandwidth requirement, effect of the transmission medium,
other impairments and techniques to mitigate them,
regulatory aspect and standards, and some value added
examples.
13.REAL-TIME
APPLICATIONS
 13. REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

UNIT 2

Real time applications in day to day life and industry

Understanding of various satellite subsystems and its functions for

commercial satellite launching purpose.

Understanding a tool that compares a set of feasible orbit transfer

and propulsion system combinations for a given mission requirement,
in terms of desired orbit transfers.

To identify the optimal combination of orbit size and inclination, solar

array and battery sizes, communication subsystem power usage and
antenna size, given a specified ground station.
14.CONTENTS BEYOND
THE SYLLABUS
 14. CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

UNIT 2

14.1.Contents beyond the syllabus (Coe related Value Added Courses)

a. Coursera:
Course Name :Microwave Engineering
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/103/108103141/

About this Course

This course intends to provide a foundation for microwave engineering to
the undergraduate
students. Rigorous treatment of the fundamentals of microwave
engineering will be provided.
Design of different passive and some active microwave
circuits/subsystems will be covered in
detail. This course will also provide an overview of application of
microwave in communication
and other areas
SKILLS YOU WILL GAIN
To gain knowledge about Terrestrial Communication
14.2. CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

Massive MIMO Transmission for LEO Satellite Communications

14.2.1.INTRODUCTION:
SATELLITE communication systems can provide seamless wireless
coverage so as to complement and extend terrestrial communication
networks and, as in recent standardization endeavors , are expected to
be incorporated in future wireless networks, in particular 5G and beyond
networks. Low earth orbit (LEO) satellite communications, with orbits
at altitudes of less than 2000 km, have recently gained broad
research interests due to the potential in providing global wireless
access with enhanced data rates. Compared with the geostationary
earth orbit (GEO) counterpart, LEO satellite communication systems
impose much less stringent requirements on, e.g., power consumption
and transmission signal delays. Recently, several projects, e.g., One
Web and Space X, on LEO satellite communication systems have been
launched .
In satellite communication systems, multi beam transmission
techniques have been widely adopted to increase transmission data
rates. As a well-know multi beam solution, a four-color frequency reuse
(FR4) scheme where adjacent beams are allocated with non-overlapping
frequency spectrum (or different polarizations) is adopted to mitigate
the co-channel inter-beam interference . To further enhance the spectral
efficiency of satellite communications, the more aggressive full
frequency reuse (FFR) schemes , where frequency resources are reused
across neighboring beams, have been considered to increase the total
available bandwidth in each beam as that has been done in terrestrial
cellular systems. Yet, in FFR the inter-beam interference becomes a
critical issue, which has to be properly handled.
 In general, inter-beam interference management can be performed at
either the transmitter via pre coding or at the receiver via multi-user detection,
similar as in terrestrial cellular communication systems . Compared with non-
linear dirty paper coding (DPC) pre coding and multi-user detection, in practice
linear pre coding and detection are more preferred in multi beam satellite
communication systems due to their low computational complexity and near-
optimal performance .

In recent years, massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)

transmission, where a large number of antennas are equipped at a base station to
serve many UTs, has been applied in terrestrial cellular wireless networks, e.g.,
5G as an enabling technology. Massive MIMO can substantially increase
available degrees of freedom, enhance spectral efficiency, and achieve high data
rates. Motivated by this, we propose to exploit massive MIMO along with FFR
for LEO satellite communication systems, where a large number of antennas are
equipped at the LEO satellite side. predefined beamforming.
Our focus is particularized on the physical layer transmission design for massive
MIMO LEO satellite communication systems. We note that it is not necessary to
perform predefined multiple beamforming in fully digital-implemented FFR
satellite communication systems. Exploiting massive MIMO for satellite
communications with FFR can be seen as a technique without

14.2.2.SYSTEM MODEL:
i)System Setup:
Consider a LEO satellite communication system where a satellite provides
services to a number of single-antenna UTs simultaneously.
. The satellite is equipped with a uniform planar array (UPA) composed of M =

MxMy antennas where Mx and My are the numbers of antennas on the x-

and y-axes, respectively. Assume without loss of generality that the antennas are
separated by one-half wavelength in both the x- and y-axes, and both Mx and My
are even. The system setup is illustrated in Figure a.

Figure a: SYSTEM MODEL

ii)DL Channel Model:
As different UTs are usually spatially separated by a few wavelengths, it is
reasonable to assume that the channel realizations between the satellite and
different UTs are uncorrelated . We focus on investigating the DL channel between
the satellite and UT k. Using a ray-tracing based channel modelling approach, the
complex baseband DL space domain channel response between the LEO satellite
and UT k at instant t and frequency f can be represented by
iii)UL Channel Model:
Using the DL channel modelling approach presented in the above subsections, we
briefly investigate the UL channel model for LEO satellite communications in this
subsection. Note that the UL channel response is the transpose of the DL channel
response in TDD systems, and similar channel model can be obtained. Meanwhile,
for FDD systems where the relative carrier frequency difference is small, the
physical channel parameters, Pk, νu,p, τk,p, ϑx,k and ϑy,k are almost identical
between the UL and DL. Thus, the major difference between the UL and DL
channels lies in the fast fading path gain terms.

Iv)DL/UL Transmission Signal Model:

Consider a wideband massive MIMO LEO satellite communication
system employing orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation
with the number of sub carriers, Nus, and the cyclic prefix (CP), Ncp samples.
Denote by Ts the system sampling interval. Then, the OFDM symbol length and the
CP length are given by Tus = NusTs and Tcp = NcpTs, respectively. Note that with
the delay and Doppler properties of the LEO satellite channels taken into account,
it is not difficult to select proper OFDM parameters such that the effects of the
inter symbol and inter carrier interference can be almost neglected.
14.2.3.STATISTICAL CSI BASED DL/UL TRANSMISSIONS:

In this section, we investigate DL pre coder and UL receiver design for LEO
satellite communications based on the channel and signal models established
in the above section. Note that the conventional designs of DL precoding
vectors and UL receiving vectors in MIMO transmission usually require
knowledge of iCSI. However, it is in general infeasible to obtain precise iCSI at
the satellite sides for DL of LEO satellite communications. In addition, frequent
update of the DL precoding vectors and UL receiving vectors using iCSI will be
challenging for implementation on payload of practical satellite
communications. Hereafter, we focus on the design of DL pre coder and UL
receiver utilizing slowly-varying sCSI for satellite communications.

i) DL Pre coder
We first consider DL transmission where K single antenna UTs are
simultaneously served in the same time-frequency blocks, and the served UT
set is denoted by
K = {0, 1, . . .,K − 1}.

ii)UL Receiver
In this subsection, we investigate UL receiver design. The UL
received signal by the satellite in can be rewritten as
14.2.4.USER GROUPING
The performance of the proposed sCSI based pre coder and receiver
in massive MIMO LEO satellite communications will largely depend on the channel
statistics of the simultaneously served UTs. As the number of the UTs to be served
is usually much larger than that of antennas equipped at the satellites, user
grouping is of practical importance. Compared with the terrestrial counterpart,
user grouping is of greater interest as the satellite service provider generally aims
at serving all Uts in satellite communications. In this section, we investigate user
grouping for massive MIMO LEO satellite communications.
Space Angle Based User Grouping
Although the conditions in Proposition 2 are desirable for optimizing
the performance of DL ASLNRs and UL ASINRs in satellite communications, it is in
general difficult to schedule the UTs that rigorously satisfy this condition, and the
optimal user grouping pattern can be found through exhaustive search. However,
due to the large number of existing UTs in satellite communications, it is usually
infeasible to perform an exhaustive search in practical systems.
14.2.5.CONCLUSION
Thus massive MIMO transmission for LEO satellite communications
exploiting sCSI with FFR is analysed. We first established the massive MIMO
channel model for LEO satellite communications by taking into account the LEO
satellite signal propagation properties and simplified the UL/DL transmission
designs via performing Doppler and delay compensations at UTs. Then, we
developed the sCSI based DL pre coder and UL receiver in closed form, under the
criteria of maximizing the ASLNR and the ASINR, respectively, and revealed the
duality between them.
15.ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
 15.ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam
16.TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS
 16.TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Dennis Roddy, ―Satellite Communication‖, 4th Edition, Mc Graw Hill
International, 2006.
2. Timothy,Pratt,Charles,W.Bostain,JeremyE.Allnutt,"SatelliteCommunication‖,2nd
Edition, Wiley Publications,2002
REFERENCES:
1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, ―Satellite
Communication Systems Engineering‖, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal, ―Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft‖, Prentice Hall, 1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, ―The Satellite Communication Applications‖, Hand Book, Artech
House Bostan London, 1997.
4. Tri T. Ha, ―Digital Satellite Communication‖, II nd edition, 1990.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, ―Manual of Satellite Communications‖, Mc Graw Hill Book
Co., 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, ―Telecommunication Trans Mission Systems‖, Mc Graw-Hill
Book Co., 1983.
7. G.B.Bleazard, ―Introducing Satellite communications―, NCC Publication, 1985.
8. M.Richharia, ―Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles‖, Macmillan
2003.

E BOOK
Text Book :
https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.pdf
Reference Book 1:
http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Communic
ation__Artech_House_Space_Applications_.pdf
17.MINI PROJECT

MINI PROJECT SUGGESSTIONS

1. Electric Motor for Air Craft Propulsion

2. A Novel Mobile Antenna for Ku-Band Satellite Communications

3. Combined Platform for Boost Guidance and Attitude Control for

Sounding Rockets

4. Design a software tool that performs a trade of the life support,

propulsion, and power subsystems for a human transportation vehicle
from Earth to Mars.

5. Reliable Control of Ship-Mounted Satellite Tracking Antenna

6. Design and Installation of Outdoor TV Antenna

7. An Adaptive Nulling Antenna for Military Satellite Communications

8. Earth Station Automation and condition Based Monitoring

9. Study of Rain Attenuation on Earth-Space downlink operating at Ghz

in India

10.Design of antenna tracking system for LEO satellites

11. Design of Communication payload for Low Earth orbit Satellite

System

12.Design and Analysis of Phased Array Antenna for Aeronautical Mobile

Satellite communications

13.Design And Simulation Of Cdma Base-band Transmitter And Receiver

 Thank you

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