Principles of Geographic

Information Systems

Dr. Nabil Moustafa

Vector Data Model
Chapter Three
 Agenda

• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
Introduction
• Looking at paper map, we can tell what map
features are like and how they are spatially
related to one another.
• For example in figure 1 we can see that Idaho is
bordered by Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada,
Oregon, Washington and Canada.
• How can computers see the same features and
their spatial relationships? This chapter
attempts to answer the question from the
perspective of vector data model.
• Vector data model (discrete object): a data
model that uses points and their x, y
coordinates to construct spatial features.

Figure 1 a reference map showing Idaho

in the united States and the surrounding
states and country
Introduction
• Vector data model prepares data into two basic steps:
1. It classifies spatial features into points, lines, polygons over an
empty space and represent the location and shape of these
features using points and their x, y coordinates.

2. It structures the properties of geometric objects and their spatial

relationships into digital data files that computer can access,
interpret, and process.

• The vector data model has undergone more changes over the past
two decades than any other topic in GIS.

• As an example, ESRI, Inc. has introduced vector data model with

each new software package: coverage with Arc/Info, shapefile with
Arc/View, and geodatabase with ArcGIS.
Introduction
• The coverage and shapefile are examples of georelational
data model, which uses a split system to store geometries ad
attributes.
• The geodatabase is an example of the object based data
model which stores geometries and attributes in a single
system.
• The Coverage is topological while shapefile is nontopological
 Agenda
• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
 Representation of Simple Features
• The vector data model uses the geometric objects of point,
line, and polygon to represent simple spatial feature.

Point Feature Line Feature polygon Feature

 Representation of Simple Features
• A point has zero dimension and has only the property of location.
• A point feature is made of a point or set of points. wells and gravel pits are
example of point features.
• A line is one-dimensional and has the property of length in addition to location. A
line has two end point and points in between to mark the shape of the line. The
shape of a line may be a smooth curve or a connection of a straight line
segments. A polyline feature is made of lines. Roads, streams, and contour line
are examples of polyline features.
 Representation of Simple Features
• A polygon is two-dimensional and has the properties of
area (size) and perimeter, in addition to location, made of
connected, closed, nonintersecting line segments, a
polygon may stand alone or share boundaries with other
polygon. A polygon feature is made of a set of polygons.
example of polygon feature include land parcels, and
water bodies.
 Agenda

• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
 Topology
• The term topology refers to the study of those properties of geometric
objects.
• Vector data can be topological or nontopological depending on whether
topology is built into the data.
• To apply it to geospatial data, a topology is often explained through
graph theory, a subfield of mathematics that uses graphs to study the
arrangements of geometric objects and the relationship among objects.
• Important to vector data model are digraphs (directed graphs), which
include points and directed lines that called arcs and the points were
arcs meet or intersected called nodes.
Figure 3.3
The adjacency matrix and incidence matrix for a digraph.
 Topology
• TIGER
– An early application of topology in geospatial is the Topologically
Integrated geographic Encoding and Referencing database (1990).
– In the TIGER database, points are called 0-cells, lines 1-cells, and
areas 2-cells a b c
– Each 0 cells and 2 cells has knowledge
of the 1 cells associated with it
10 11

0-cells: a,b,c,d,e,f
1-cells: ab,ad,de,bc,be,cf,ef
2-cells: 10,11
d
e
f
 Topology
• TIGER
– TIGER database includes the spatial relationships among points, lines, and
areas. Based on the built in spatial relationships.
• Importance of Topology
– It ensures data quality and integrity.
– Topology can enhance GIS analysis (ex. address matching, stream flow).
– Allows GIS users to perform spatial data query. Ex: which land parcels are
intersected by a specific line
 Agenda

• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
 Georelational Data Model
• The georelational data model stores geometric and attributes separately
in a split system: geometric in graphic files and attributes in relational
database.
• The georelational data model uses the feature ID to link the two
components.
• The coverage and shapefile are both examples of the georelational data
model, however the coverage is topological and the shapefile is
nontopological.
1 2
Graphic files
3 INFO file
Polygon/arc list Polygon fileld1
Arc coordinate list ID
Left/right list
. 1
.
. 2
.
3
 Georelational Data Model
• The coverage
– ESRI, Inc., introduced the coverage and its built in topology in 1980
to separate GIS from CAD.
– The coverage supports three basic topological relationships:
• Connectivity: arcs connect to each other at nodes.
• Area definition: an area is defined by a series of connected arcs.
• Contiguity: arcs have directions and left and right polygons.
 Georelational Data Model
• A point coverage is a simple, it contains the feature ID, and
pairs of x, and y coordinates

1(2,4) ID X,Y

3(3,3)
1 (2,4)
2 (2,1)
4(6,1) 3 (3,3)
2(2,1) 4 (6,1)

(0,0)
 Georelational Data Model
• A line coverage has a starting point of the arc called from node and the end point
is to-node.
• The arc node list sort out the arc node relationship.
• The arc coordinate lit shows the x,y coordinates of the from-node, the to-node,
and other points (called vertices) that make up each arc.

11 12 2 13 Arc-node List Arc-coordinate List

1
Arc # F-node T-node Arc # X,y coordinates

1 11 12 1 (0,8) (2,8)
3 2 12 13 2 …
3 12 15 3 (2,8) (2,5)(4,3)(4,2)
4 13 15 4 …
5 15 14 5 …

4 6 15 16 6 …

14 5 15
6 16
 Georelational Data Model
• The data structure of a polygon coverage contains
– the polygon arc list: shows the relationship between polygons and
arcs.
– The left/right list : shows the relationship between arcs and their left
and right polygons.
– The arc coordinate list: shows nodes and vertices that make up each
arc.
• List such as the polygon arc list, left/right list, and arc
coordinate list are stored in graphic files in a coverage folder
• Another folder called INFO stores attribute data files
 Georelational Data Model
Arc Coordinate list
100
2
4

104 7
1
101 102
5
Left/Right list

6 Polygon arc list

103
3
 Georelational Data Model
• Nontopological vector data (shapefile)
– The shapefile is a standard nontopological data format used in ESRI
products.
– Although the shapefile treats a points a pair of x,y, coordinates, a line
as series of points, and a polygon as a series of line segments, no
files describe the spatial relationships among theses geometric
shapes.
 Georelational Data Model
• Nontopological vector data such as shapefile have two
main advantages
1. They can display more rapidly on the computer monitor than
topology based data. This advantage is important for people who
use rather than produce GIS data.

2. They can be used across different software packages (e.g.,

MapInfo, and ArcGIS)
 Agenda

• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
 Object-Based Data Model
• Object based data model treats geospatial data as objects.
• An object can represent a spatial feature such as a road.
• Objects are managed by classes
• Class is a set of objects with similar characteristics
• Relationships can be established between classes such as inheritance
• To GIS users the object based data model differs from georelational data
model in two aspects
– The object-based data model allows a spatial feature (object) to be
associated with a set of properties and methods
Property: describe a attribute or characteristics of an object.
Method: performs a specific action (copy, delete,…)
 Object-Based Data Model
• The Geodatabase
– The Geodatabase, an example of the object-based vector data
model, developed by ESRI.
– The geodatabase uses points, polylines, and polygons to represent
vector-based spatial features.
– A point feature may be a simple feature with a point or multipoint
feature with a set of points.
– A polyline feature is a set of line segments that may or may not be
connected.
– A polygon feature is made of one or many rings. A ring: is a set of
connected, closed, nonintersecting line segments.
 Object-Based Data Model
• The geodatabase organizes vector data
sets into feature classes and feature
datasets.
• A feature class stores spatial features of
the same geometry type.
• A feature dataset stores feature classes
that share the same coordinate system
and area extent.
• If a feature class resides in a database
but is not part of feature dataset, it is
called a standalone feature class.

Figure 3.13
In a geodatabase, feature classes can be standalone
feature classes or members of a feature dataset.
 Object-Based Data Model
• A geodatabase can be designed for single or multiple users.
• A single user database can be a personal geodatabase or a
file database.
• A single user database stores data as table in a Microsoft
Access database
• File database has no overall database size limit (as opposed
to 2-GB limit for the personal database) and can work
across platforms (e.g., windows, linux). Also it stores data on
many small files for better performance.
• Multiple user geodatabase stores data in a DBMS such as
Oracle, Microsoft SQL server, IBM DB2..
.
 Object-Based Data Model
• Advantages of Geodatabase
– The hierarchal structure of a geodatabase is useful for data
organization and management.
– Any new data created through data query and analysis in the project
will automatically be defined with the same coordinate system as the
feature dataset, thus saving time required to define the coordinate
system of each new feature class
– Geodatabase is better than the coverage for web-based data access
and query and for data downloading.
 Agenda

• Introduction
• Representation of Simple Features
• Topology
• Georelational Data Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Representation of Composite Features.
 Representation of Composite Features
• Composite features refers to those spatial features that are
better represented as composites of points, lines, and
polygons for their applications.
• TIN, regions, and routes are examples of Composite
features.
• Composite features will be discussed and also how they are
handled differently in overages, shapefiles, and
geodatabase
 Representation of Composite Features
• TIN
– A TIN approximates the terrain with a set of non overlapping
triangles.
– Each triangle in the TIN assumes a constant gradient.
– Flat areas of the land surface have fewer but larger triangle, whereas
areas with higher variability in elevation have denser but smaller
triangles.
– TIN is commonly used for terrain mapping and analysis especially for
3-D display.
 Representation of Composite Features
• The input to a TIN include point, line, and polygon features.
• An initial TIN can be constructed from elevation points, and
contour lines. Its approximation of the surface can then be
improved by incorporating line features such as streams,
roads, and polygon features such as lakes and reservoirs.
• A finished TIN comprises three types of geometric objects:
triangles (faces), points (nodes), and lines (edges).
 Representation of Composite Features
• The data structure of the TIN includes the triangle number, the number
of each adjacent triangle, and data files showing the lists of points,
edges, as well a the x,y, and z values of each elevation point.

node (x,y) z
11
11 (2,9) 860
12 (2,6) 875
13 (5,7) 880
101 13
14 (4,4) 885
15 (6,2) 900
12 102
triangle Node List Neighbors
103
101 11,12,13 ..,102,..
14
102 13,14,12 103,…,101

103 13,15,14 ..,..,102

15
 Representation of Composite Features
• The coverage, shapefile, and geodatabase use the same
method to create and modify TINs.
• Regions
– A region is a geographic area with similar characteristics, and
hierarchal regions can be formed by dividing the earth’s surface into
smaller uniform regions.
– the building block of a polygon is the arc, and the building block of a
region is the polygon.
– A data model for regions must be able to handle two spatial
characteristics:
• A region may be disjoint areas
• Regions may overlap or cover the same area.
Figure 3.16
A hierarchy of counties and states in the United
States.
Figure 3.17
The regions subclass allows overlapped
regions (a) and spatially disjoint components
(b).

For example, the

islands comprising the
state of Hawaii are a
region made up of
several polygons.
 Representation of Composite Features

• The simple polygon coverage can not handle either characteristics,

therefore the coverage organizes regions as subclass in polygon
coverage and through additional data files, relates regions to the
underlying polygons and arcs
• Neither the shapefile nor the geodatabase supports regions subclass in
its data structure.
• Shapefile and geodatabse support multipart polygon
Figure 3.18
The data structure of a regions
subclass.
 Representation of Composite Features
• Routes
– A route is a linear feature such as a highway, or a stream, but unlike other
linear features, a route has a measurement system that allows linear
measures to be used on a projected coordinate system.
– Transportation agencies use linear measures from known points such as the
beginning of a highway or a road intersection to locate accidents, bridges,
and pavement condition along roads.
 Representation of Composite
Features
• Routes are stored as subclasses in a line coverage, similar to region
subclass in a polygon coverage.
• A route subclass is a collection of sections, a section refers to lines
(i.e., arcs) in a line coverage and positions along lines.
• Because lines are a series of x,y coordinates based on a coordinate
system, this means that a section is also measured in coordinates and
its length can be derived from its reference lines

1 40 2 3 210

0 7 8 170 9

Route id Section id Arc id F-meas T-meas F-pos T-pos

1 1 7 0 40 0 100
1 2 8 40 170 0 100
1 3 9 170 210 0 80
 Representation of Composite Features
• Both the shapefile and the geodatabase use polylines with m (measure) values
to replace route subclass for GIS applications.
• Instead of working through sections and arcs, they use m values for linear
measures along a route and store the m values directly with x and y
coordinates in the geometry field.

1 2 3 210

0 170