Edexcel Physics A-level

Topic 5: Waves and Particle Nature of

Light
Notes

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5 - Waves and Particle Nature of Light

5.59 - Definitions

Amplitude A wave’s maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.

Frequency (f) The number of complete oscillations passing through a point per second.

Period (T) The time taken for one full oscillation.

Speed (v) The distance travelled by the wave per unit time.

Wavelength (λ) The length of one whole oscillation (e.g. the distance between successive
peaks/troughs).

5.60 - Wave equation

The ​speed (v)​ of a wave is equal to the wave’s frequency multiplied by its wavelength.
v = fλ

5.61 - Longitudinal waves

In ​longitudinal waves​, the oscillation of particles is ​parallel to the direction of energy transfer​.
● These are made up of ​compressions and rarefactions​ and can’t travel in a vacuum.
● Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave, and they can be demonstrated by pushing a
slinky ​horizontally​.

Stage Rarefaction Compression

Pressure Decreased Increased

Displacement of particles Neighbouring particles move Neighbouring particles move

away from each other towards a point

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5.62 - Transverse waves
In ​transverse waves​, the oscillations of particles (or fields) is at​ right angles to the direction of
energy transfer
​ -1 ​
● All electromagnetic (EM) waves are ​transverse​ and travel at 3 x 10​8 ms​ in a vacuum.
● Transverse waves can be demonstrated by shaking a slinky ​vertically ​or through the waves
seen on a string, when it's attached to a signal generator.

5.63 - Graphs of transverse and longitudinal waves

There are two types of graphs which can be used to represent waves:
➔ Displacement-distance graphs​ -​ these show how the displacement of a particle varies
with the distance of wave travel and can be used to measure ​wavelength​.
For a transverse wave, the displacement distance graph will look very ​similar to the actual
wave​, whereas for a longitudinal wave the graph will look very different from the wave.

➔ Displacement-time graphs​ -​ these show how the displacement of a particle varies with
time and can be used to measure the ​period ​of a wave.

A ​standing wave​ (​explained further in 5.67​) can be represented on a displacement-distance graph

as shown below:

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5.65 - Further definitions

Phase The position of a certain point on a wave cycle. This can be measured in
radians, degrees or fractions of a cycle.

Phase How much a particle/wave lags behind another particle/wave. This can be
difference measured in radians, degrees or fractions of a cycle.

Path difference The difference in the distance travelled by two waves.

Superposition Where the ​displacements ​of two waves are combined as they pass each
other, the resultant displacement is the ​vector sum​ of each wave’s
displacement.

Coherence A ​coherent ​light source has the ​same ​frequency and wavelength and a
fixed ​phase difference.

Wavefront A wavefront is a surface which is used to represent the points of a wave

which have the ​same ​phase.

As an example of a ​wavefront​, consider a rock being dropped into a pond, the peak of each ripple
formed can be considered as a wavefront. This is shown in the diagram below:

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There are two types of ​interference ​that can occur during ​superposition ​and they are:
● Constructive interference​ - this occurs when two waves are ​in phase ​(explained below)
and so their displacements are added
● Destructive interference​ - this occurs when the waves are ​completely out of phase
(explained below) and so their displacements are subtracted

The image below shows the interference of two waves (which are pictured below the resultant
wave). On the left is constructive interference and on the right is destructive interference.

Image source: ​Haade​,​CC BY-SA 3.0​, Image is recoloured

5.66 - Phase difference and path difference

Two waves are ​in phase​ if they are both at the same point of the wave cycle, meaning they have
the ​same frequency and wavelength​ (are coherent)​ ​and their​ ​phase difference is an integer
multiple of 360° ​(2π radians). The waves do not need to have the same amplitude, only the same
frequency and wavelength.

Two waves are ​completely out of phase​ when they have the ​same frequency and wavelength
(are coherent)​ ​and their​ ​phase difference is an odd integer multiple of 180°​ (π radians).

The ​phase difference ​(in radians)​ ​of two waves with the same frequency and their ​path
differences​ are related as shown below:
λ
Δx = 2π Δϕ

Where ​Δx​ is the path difference, ​λ​ is the wavelength of the waves and ​ΔΦ​ is their phase difference.

Below is an example question where you have to use the above relation.
Two waves have a path difference of 6m and both have a wavelength of 2m, what is the phase
difference of these two waves?

Firstly, rearrange the above relation so that the phase difference is the subject.
Δx
Δϕ = 2π × λ

Then, substitute in the given values.

6
Δϕ = 2π × 2 = 6π

And so, their phase difference is ​6π​. As 6π is a multiple of 2π, the waves must be ​in phase​.

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5.67 - Stationary waves
A ​stationary wave​ (also known as a standing wave) is formed from the ​superposition​ of 2
progressive waves​, travelling in​ ​opposite directions​ ​in the same plane, with the ​same
frequency, wavelength and amplitude​.

No energy is transferred by a stationary wave​.

Where the waves meet:

➔ In phase​ - ​constructive interference​ occurs so ​antinodes​ are formed, which are regions
of maximum displacement.
➔ Completely out of phase​ - ​destructive interference​ occurs and ​nodes​ are formed, which
are regions of no displacement.

A string fixed at one end, and fixed to a driving oscillator at the other gives a good example of the
formation of a stationary wave:
● A wave travelling down the string from the oscillator will be reflected at the fixed end of the
string, and travel back along the string causing superposition of the two waves. Because
the waves have the same wavelength, frequency and amplitude, a stationary wave is
formed. (Labelled combined wave on the diagram below).

The diagram below shows multiple possible standing waves on a displacement-distance graph.
The blue points indicate antinodes, while the red points indicate nodes.

Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0

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5.68 - Speed of a transverse wave on a string
You can calculate the speed of a transverse wave on a string by using the formula below:

Where ​v ​is the speed, ​T ​is the tension in the string, and ​μ ​is the mass per unit length of the string (which is
constant).

5.70 - Intensity of radiation

Intensity ​is the power (energy transferred per unit time) per unit area, and can be calculated using
the equation below:
P
I = A
Where ​P​ is the power and ​A​ is the area.

5.71 - Refractive index and Snell’s law

A ​refractive index (n)​ is a property of a material which measures how much it slows down light
passing through it. It is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum (c) by the speed of
light in that substance (v).
c
n= v

A material with a​ ​higher refractive index​ can also be known as being ​more optically dense​.

Refraction​ occurs when a wave enters a different medium, causing it to change direction, either
towards or away from the normal depending on the material’s refractive index.
Snell’s law​ is used for calculations involving the refraction of light:
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
➔ n​1​ is the refractive index of material 1,
➔ n​2​ is the refractive index of material 2,
➔ θ​1​ ​is the angle of incidence of the ray in material 1
➔ θ​2​ is the angle of refraction of the ray in material 2

Image source: ​Oleg Alexandrov​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

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As the light moves across the boundary of the two materials, its ​speed changes​, which causes its
direction​ to change.

In the example above, ​n​2​ is more optically dense than n​1​, therefore the ray of light slows down
and ​bends towards the normal​. However, in the case where ​n​2​ is less optically dense than n​1
the ray of light will ​bend away from the normal​.

5.72 - Critical angle

As the angle of incidence is increased​,​ the angle of refraction also increases until it gets closer to
90°. When the angle of refraction is ​exactly 90°​ and the light is​ refracted along the boundary​,
the angle of incidence has reached the ​critical angle (C)​.

Image source: ​Rice university​,​CC BY 4.0

In the case that one of the materials (n​2​) is air (which has a refractive index of approximately 1),
you can use the following formula to find the critical angle (C):

sin C = n1 w
​ here n > 1

5.73 - Total internal reflection

Total internal reflection (TIR)​ can occur when the angle of incidence is ​greater than the critical
angle​ and the incident refractive index (n​1​) is ​greater​ than the refractive index of the material at
the boundary (n​2​).

Image source: ​Josell7​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

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5.74 - Measuring the refractive index of a solid material
The procedure for finding the refractive index of a solid material is as follows:
1. Place the material in the centre of a piece of paper and draw around it using a pencil.
2. Next, put the material block aside and mark a point on the outline of the material (preferably
in the centre) and draw a line perpendicular to the outline at this point (as shown below).
This is the ​normal line​. Use a protractor to make sure that the line is at exactly 90°
(perpendicular).

3. Using a protractor, draw lines leaving the point you have marked ​at 10° intervals ​from 10° -
70°, where the angle is measured from the normal line to the line you are drawing. These
will be the incident rays.
4. Put the material block back, making sure that it fits the outline as well as possible.
5. Using a ray box, shine a ray of line along the 10° line and mark the point at which the light
ray leaves the material block.
6. Join the point you have just marked down to the point on the normal line, at which the light
ray enters the block. Using a protractor, measure the angle between this line and the
normal. This is the angle of refraction.

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 7. Repeat the above two steps for all of the incident angles.
8. Repeat the above method two more times and find the average value of the angle of
refraction for each incident angle.
9. Plot a graph of sine of the incident angles (​sin i​) against sine of the refracted angles (​sin r​).
Plot a line of best fit and find the ​gradient ​- this is the refractive index of the material used.

You can derive the above result using snell’s law:

n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

Our initial material is air, which has a refractive index of 1, so the snell’s law equation above can be
simplified to:
sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

If you replace θ​1​ (the angle of incidence) with i, θ​2​ (the angle of refraction) with r, and n​2​ with n to
represent the refractive index of our material, you get:
sin i = n sin r
Y = mx

This is simply the equation of the straight line in a graph of sin i against sin r, meaning that its
gradient must be n​.

5.75 - Focal length of lenses

Lenses​ ​refract light in order to change its direction, and there are two types of lenses:
● Converging ​- these are curved outwards on both sides and cause​ ​parallel light rays to
move closer together/converge at a point​.
● Diverging ​- these are curved inwards on both sides and cause ​parallel light rays to move
apart/diverge​.

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 Image source: ​Durova​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

There are 3 main features associated with lenses that you need to be aware of:
➔ Principal focus (F)​ -
◆ In a ​converging​ lens: the point at which the light rays which are parallel to the
principal axis​ (shown on diagram, perpendicular to the lens axis) are ​focused.
◆ In a ​diverging​ lens: the point from which the light rays ​appear to come from.
➔ Focal length (f)​ - the distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus.
➔ Power​ - the measure of a ​lens’ ability to bend light​. In ​converging​ lenses this value is
positive ​and in ​diverging​ lenses this value is​ ​negative​.

5.76 - Ray diagrams

You can use ​ray diagrams​ in order to map where an image will appear after passing through a
lens. To draw a ray diagram:
1. Draw ​two lines from the same point of an object ​(e.g the top), one which ​passes
through the centre of the lens​ and is left unrefracted and one which moves ​parallel to
the principal axis​ and passes through the principal focus.
2. If the image is ​real​, it will form where the ​two lines meet​. If it is ​virtual​, it will appear where
the ​two lines appear to come from​, this can be found by drawing a dashed line
backwards from both of the initial lines and finding the point they meet.

Real and virtual images are defined in section 5.79​.

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5.77 - Power of a lens
The ​power ​of a lens is a measure of its ability to bend light, and is measured by finding the
reciprocal of the focal length:
1
P ower = f
Where ​f​ is the focal length.

Power is ​positive ​in ​converging ​lenses and ​negative ​in ​diverging ​lenses.

5.78 - Power of several thin lenses in combination

A ​thin lens​ is with a thickness which allows rays of light to refract but not experience dispersion or
aberrations.

Thin lenses which are used in combination ​act as a single lens​ with a power equal to the sum of
the powers of the individual lenses. And so the power (P) of a combination of thin lenses can be
found by using the following formula:
P = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + ....
Where P​n​ is the power of the nth lens.

Image source: ​Jeffrey W. Schnick​, ​CC BY-SA 2.5

5.79 - Real and virtual images

A ​real image​ is one which can be projected onto a screen as light rays reach the image location,
whereas a ​virtual image​ is one which cannot be projected onto a screen.

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The diagram below shows the ​virtual image​ found ​behind ​a mirror, this image cannot be projected
onto a screen.

Source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0

5.80 - Measuring the power of a lens

On the two diagrams below, the distances ​u ​ and ​v ​can be used to find the ​power​ of the lens by
using the following formula (for a ​thin ​converging ​or ​diverging lens):

1 1 1
u + v = f = P ower

Where ​u​ is the ​distance between the object and the lens axis​, ​v​ is the ​distance between the lens
axis and the image​ (positive if real, negative if virtual) and ​f​ is the focal length.

5.81 - Magnification
The ​magnification​ ​of a lens is the ratio of the size of the image it creates with respect to the size
of the object.

Using the values u and v (defined above), you can also measure the ​magnification (m)​ of a lens:

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 image height v
m= object height = u

5.82 - Plane polarisation

A ​polarised wave​ ​oscillates in only one plane ​(e.g only up and down if vertically polarised), ​only
transverse waves can be polarised.

Below is a diagram which shows the effect of vertically polarised and horizontally polarised waves
passing through a block with vertical slits, which acts as a vertically polarising filter.

Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0

(a) The vertically polarised wave passes through the filter without a problem.
(b) The horizontally polarised wave cannot pass through the filter as it blocks waves which are
not in the vertical plane.

Polarised sunglasses​ are an application of polarisation. They reduce glare by​ blocking partially
polarised light ​reflected from water and tarmac, as they only allow oscillations in the plane of the
filter to pass through, making it easier to see.

5.83 - Diffraction and Huygens’ construction

Diffraction​ is the ​spreading out​ of waves when they ​pass through or around a gap​.

Huygens’ construction​ states that ​every point on a wavefront is a point source to secondary
wavelets​, which spread out to form the next wavefront, as shown in the diagram below:

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 Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0​, Image is cropped
Huygens’ construction​ can be used to explain the diffraction of light when it meets an obstacle or
passes through a gap.

For example, consider a sound wave travelling through a doorway. From experience, you know
that the sound will (probably) be heard throughout the entire room, this is because, as the sound
wave travels through the doorway, it ​diffracts​, spreading through the entire room. Diffraction
occurs here because ​each point on the wavefront​ passing through the doorway (labelled 1 - 5), is a
source of wavelets​, which spread out from the gap of the doorway forming further circular
wavefronts.

In contrast to this, consider light travelling through a doorway. The light passes through the
doorway ​without diffracting much at all​, which is why you get straight-edged shadows (as shown
in the diagram below).

Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0

The reason the light waves barely diffract, while the sound waves diffract a lot, is because their
wavelength is much smaller​ in comparison to the size of the doorway. Whereas, the ​wavelength of
the sound wave is much closer​ to that of the doorway, and the greatest amount of diffraction
occurs when the gap is the ​same size​ as the wavelength.

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5.84 - Diffraction grating equation

A ​diffraction grating​ is a slide containing many ​equally spaced slits very close together​. When
light is passed through a diffraction grating, it forms an interference pattern composed of light and
dark fringes.
The ray of light passing through the centre of a diffraction grating is called the ​zero order line​, lines
either side of the zero order are the ​first order lines​, then the lines outside the two first order lines
are the ​second order lines​, and so on as showcased in the diagram below.

The diffraction grating equation is:

d sinθ = nλ
Where ​d​ is the distance between the slits (in the diffraction grating), ​θ​ is the angle to the normal
made by the maximum (light fringe), ​n​ is the order and ​λ​ is the wavelength.

5.86 - Electron diffraction as evidence for the wave nature of electrons

Electron diffraction​ experiments can be performed using an electron gun, which accelerates
electrons through a vacuum tube towards a crystal lattice, where they ​interact with the small
gaps between atoms​ and form an interference pattern on a fluorescent screen behind the crystal.

The interference pattern created by the type of experiment described above, looks like a set of
concentric rings​ as shown below:

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If electrons ​only ​had a particle nature, you would expect the pattern to look like a ​single point​,
where the electron beam has passed through the lattice. However, this is not the case as the
electrons undergo diffraction​, which is something ​only ​waves can experience​. This is why
electron diffraction provides evidence for the ​wave nature of electrons​.

5.87 - de Broglie relation

The ​de Broglie hypothesis​ states that ​all particles have a wave nature and a particle nature​, and
that the wavelength of any particle can be found using the following equation:
h
λ= p
Where ​λ​ is the de Broglie wavelength, ​h​ is the Planck constant and ​p​ is the momentum of the particle.
5.88 - Wave behaviour at an interface
An ​interface ​is a boundary between two materials. At an interface, waves can be:
● Transmitted ​- where they ​pass into the next material​. They may experience refraction if the
materials have different refractive indices. (Shown on the left diagram below).
● Reflected ​- where the waves ​bounce off the interface​ ​without ​passing into the next
material. (Shown on the right diagram below).

Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0 Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0

5.89 - Pulse-echo technique

The ​pulse-echo technique​ is used with ultrasound waves (sounds waves with a frequency greater
than 20 kHz) for the imagining of objects, notably for medical imaging. This technique relies on the
fact that ​waves are reflected​ when they meet ​boundaries ​between different materials.

Below is a brief description of the ​pulse-echo technique​:

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 1. Short pulse​ ultrasound waves are transmitted into the target (e.g the body in medical
imaging).
2. The pulse travels inside the body until it reaches a ​boundary between two mediums
where some of the pulse is reflected back. The amount of reflection depends on the
difference in densities​ of the materials; ​the greater this difference, the greater the
reflection​.
3. The reflected waves are detected as they leave the target.
4. The ​intensities ​of the reflected waves are used to determine the ​structure ​of the target and
the ​time taken​ for these reflected waves to return is used to determine the ​position ​of
objects in the target (using s = vt).

Image source: ​Rice University​,​CC BY 4.0​, Image is cropped

If the ​duration ​of the pulses is ​too long​, they will likely ​overlap​, meaning that the amount of
information you obtain (the resolution of the image) will ​decrease​.

Also, as the ​wavelength ​of the waves used ​increases​, the ​less fine details can be resolved​,
meaning that amount of information you obtain will ​decrease​.

5.90 - Wave model and photon model of electromagnetic radiation

The ​photon model​ states that: EM waves travel in ​discrete packets​ called ​photons​, which have
an energy directly proportional to their frequency ( E = hf ).

On the other hand, in terms of the ​wave model​, EM radiation can be described as a ​transverse
wave​.

Initially, light (which is a type of EM wave) was believed to be composed of ​tiny particles​ as this
could explain the reflection and refraction of light. However, light was later proved to act as a ​wave
through diffraction experiments, so people believed it was instead formed of waves. Before long,
due to the discovery of photoelectricity (​explained in 5.92​), the attitude towards the composition of
light (and EM waves) changed once again. Light had now been proven to act as ​both a particle
and​ a wave​, which led to development of the ​photon model of light​ and ​wave-particle duality​.

5.91 - Photon energy

Photons have an ​energy​ which is ​directly proportional​ to their ​frequency​, as described by the
equation below:
E = hf
Where ​E​ is the photon energy, ​h​ is Planck’s constant and ​f​ is the wave frequency.

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5.92 - Photoelectricity
The ​photoelectric effect​ is where photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of a metal after
light above a certain frequency is shone on it. This certain frequency is different for different types
of metals and is called the ​threshold frequency​.

Photoelectrons are emitted because electrons near the surface of the metal ​absorb a photon​ and
gain enough energy​ to leave the surface.

Image source: ​Wolfmankurd​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

5.93 - Threshold frequency, work function and the photoelectric equation

As described above, the ​threshold frequency​ is the ​minimum​ frequency of light required to emit
photoelectrons, and this varies depending on the type of metal.
The ​work function​ of a metal is the ​minimum ​energy required for electrons to be emitted from the
surface of a metal, and it is denoted by Φ.

The ​photoelectric equation​ shows the relationship between the work function, the frequency of
light (shone onto the metal) and the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons.
E = hf = Φ + E k (max)
Where ​E​ is the photon energy, ​Φ​ is the work function and ​E​k(max)​ is the maximum kinetic energy.

5.94 - Electronvolt
The ​electronvolt (eV)​ is a unit of energy, usually used to express small energies. 1 eV is equal to
​
the ​kinetic energy of an electron accelerated across a potential difference of 1 V​ or 1.6 x 10​-19 J.

You can convert between joules and electron volts quite easily:
● Joules to electron volts​ - ​divide ​by 1.6 x 10​-19
● Electron volts to joules​ - ​multiply ​by 1.6 x 10​-19

5.95 - The photoelectric effect as evidence for the particle nature of EM radiation
The photoelectric effect also couldn’t be explained by wave theory as:
1. Wave theory suggests that any frequency of light should be able to cause
photoelectric emission​ as the energy absorbed by each electron will gradually increase
with each incoming wave, and so can’t explain the existence of a ​threshold frequency​.
2. The ​photoelectric effect is immediate​, which contradicts wave theory which suggests
time is needed for the energy supplied to the electrons to reach the ​work function
(minimum energy required for electrons to be emitted from the surface of a metal).

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 3. Increasing the intensity​ of the light does not increase the speed of photoelectric emission
as would be suggested by wave theory, but instead it ​increases the number of
photoelectrons released per second​.
4. Photoelectrons are released with a ​range of kinetic energies​.

Image source: ​Ponor​,​CC BY-SA 4.0

The ​photon model of EM radiation​, which suggests that EM waves are released in discrete packets
called photons, which have particle-like interactions, could be used to explain all the points above
which wave theory couldn’t:
1. When a photon interacts with an electron, ​all of its energy is transferred to it​, and ​an
electron can only interact with a single photon​. If this energy is above the work function,
a photoelectron is emitted, if this energy is below the work function, the electron remains in
place. As the energy of a photon is directly proportional to frequency ( E = hf ), the
threshold frequency is the frequency at which the photon energy is equal to the work
function of the metal​.
2. The photon energy is transferred to the electron immediately when they interact, leading to
photoelectrons being emitted immediately.
3. Intensity is equal to the number of photons released per second​, if this is increased
the number of photoelectrons emitted is increased because ​more photons interact with
electrons per second​.
4. All electrons will receive the ​same amount of energy​ from a photon of light, however
electrons which are deeper in the ​metal will lose energy through collisions​ when leaving
the metal, and will therefore have a lower kinetic energy.

5.96 - Atomic line spectra

Electrons in atoms can only exist in ​discrete energy levels​. If an electron gains enough energy it
can move up in energy level (this is known as excitation), however it will quickly return to its
original energy level and release the energy it gained in the form of a ​photon ​of light.

Inside a fluorescent tube, electrons are accelerated, causing gas atoms to become excited and
then de-excite, releasing photons. By passing the light from a fluorescent tube through a diffraction
grating or prism, you get a ​line spectrum​. Each line in the spectrum represents a different
wavelength of light emitted by the tube. As this spectrum is not continuous but rather contains only
discrete values of wavelength​, the photon energies emitted will correspond to these wavelengths.
This is evidence to show that the electrons in atoms can only transition between discrete energy
levels.

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The ​difference between two energy levels is equal to a specific photon energy ​emitted​ ​by a
fluorescent tube, or ​absorbed ​in a line absorption spectrum.
Therefore, you can calculate the energy of an emitted photon by using the following formula:
ΔE = E 1 − E 2
Where ​ΔE​ is the photon energy and ​E​1​/​E​2​, represent energy levels.

Using the photon energy equation ( E = hf ), you can see that you can find the photon ​frequency
by using the following equation:
ΔE = hf = E 1 − E 2
E 1 −E 2
f= h
Where ​f​ is the photon frequency and ​h​ is the Planck constant.

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