Electromagnetic Fields (ECEG-2122)

Chapter 3

Learning Outcomes:
Students should be able to
Calcuate the electric field E and flux density D at the
boundary;
Calculate the resistance R of any shaped object, given the
electric field at every point in its volume;
Calculate the capacitance of two-conductor configurations.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Contents

Convection & Conduction Currents

Polarization in Dielectrics
Electric Boundary Conditions
Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problems
Poisson’s & Laplace’s Equations
Resistance & Capacitance
Electrostatic Potential Energy

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Convection & Conduction Currents

Current Density
Consider a tube with volume charge density ρv . The charges
in the tube move with velocity u along the tube axis.
Over a period ∆t, the charge move a distance ∆` = u∆t.
The amount of charge that crosses the tube’s cross-sectional
0
surface ∆S in time ∆t is therefore
0 0 0
∆q = ρv ∆V = ρv ∆`∆S = ρv u∆S ∆t.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Convection & Conduction Currents ...

Now consider the more general case where the charges are
flowing through a surface ∆s with normal n̂ not necessarily
parallel to u. In this case, the amount of charge ∆q flowing
through ∆s is
∆q = ρv u · ∆s∆t,
where ∆s = n̂∆s and the corresponding total current flowing
in the tube is
∆q
∆I = = ρv u · ∆s = J · ∆s,
∆t
where
J = ρv u (A/m2 )
is defined as the current density in ampere per square meter.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Convection & Conduction Currents ...

Generalizing to an arbitrary surface S, the total current

flowing through it is
Z
I= J · ds (A)
S

When a current is due to the actual movement of electrically

charged matter, it is called a Convection current, and J is
called a Convection current density.
A wind-driven charged cloud, for example, gives rise to a
convection current.
When a current is due to the movement of charged particles
relative to their host material, J is called a conduction current
density.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Convection & Conduction Currents ...

In a metal wire, for example, there are equal amounts of

positive charges and negative charges.
This movement of electrons from atom to atom constitutes a
conduction current. The electrons that emerge from the
wire are not necessarily the same electrons that entered the
wire at the other end.

Exercise
Explain the difference between convection and conduction currents
in your own words?

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Polarization in Dielectrics

The fundamental difference between a conductor and a

dielectric is that electrons in the outermost atomic shells of a
conductor are only weakly tied to atoms and hence can freely
migrate through the material, whereas in a dielectric they are
strongly bound to the atom.
In a dielectric, an externally applied electric field E cannot
effect mass migration of charges since none are able to move
freely. Instead, E will polarize the atoms or molecules in the
material by moving the center of the electron cloud away from
the nucleus.
In free space D = 0 E, the presence of microscopic dipoles in
a dielectric material alters that relationship to

D = 0 E + P

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Polarization in Dielectrics ...

where P, called the electric polarization field, accounts for

the polarization properties of the material.

The polarization field is produced by the electric field E and

depends on the material properties.
For linear, isotropic, and homogeneous media P is directly
proportional to E and is expressed as

P = 0 χe E,

where χe is called the electric susceptibility of the material.

we have

D = 0 E + 0 χe E = 0 (1 + χe )E = E,

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Electric Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions specify how the components of fields

tangential and normal to an interface between two media
relate across the interface.
Here we deprive a general set of boundary conditions for E, D,
and J, applicable at the interface between any two dissimilar
media, be they two dielectrics or a conductor and a dielectric.
Even though these boundary conditions are derived assuming
electrostatic conditions, they remain valid for time-varying
electric fields as well.

Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary
The tangential components of E and D are

E1t = E2t (V /m)

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Dielectric-Dielectric Conditions ...

Thus, the tangential component of the electric field is

continuous across the boundary between any two media.
The boundary condition on the tangential component of the
electric flux density is
D1t D2t
=
1 2
We apply Gauss’s law, to determine boundary conditions on
the normal components of E and D. According to Gauss’s
law, the total outward flux of D through the through the tree
surfaces of the small cylinder shown in the figure below must
equal the total charge enclosed in the cylinder.

n̂2 · (D1 − D2 ) = ρs (C /m2 )

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Dielectric-Dielectric Conditions ...

if D1n and D2n denote as the normal components of D1 and

D2 along n̂2 , we have

D1n − D2n = ρs (C /m2 )

The normal component of D changes abruptly at a charged

boundary between two different medial in an amount equal to
the surface charge density.
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Dielectric-Dielectric Conditions ...

The corresponding boundary condition for E is

n̂2 · (1 E1 − 2 E2 ) = ρs

or equivalently
1 E1n − 2 E2n = ρs

Exercise
The x − y plane is a charge-free boundary separating two dielectric
media with permittivities 1 and 2 . If the electric field in medium
2 is E1 = x̂E1x + ŷE1y + ẑE1z , find (a) the electric field E2 in
medium 2 and (b) the angle θ1 and θ2 .
Answer: (a) E2 = x̂E1x + ŷE1y + ẑ 21 E1z ,
q
2 +E 2
E1x 1y
(b) tan θ1 = E1z , tan θ2
tan θ1 =
2
1
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Dielectric-Conductor Boundary

Consider the case when medium 1 is a dielectric and medium

2 is a perfect conductor. Because in a perfect conductor,
electric fields and fluxes vanish, it follows that E2 = D2 = 0,
which implies that components of E2 and D2 tangential and
normal to the interface are zero. Hence,

E1t = D1t = 0,

D1n = 1 E1n = ρs .
Thus,
D1 = 1 E1 = n̂ρs
The electric field lines point directly away from the conductor
surface when ρs is positive and directly toward the conductor
surface when ρs is negative.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Conductor-Conductor Boundary ...

We now examine the general case of the boundary between

two media neither of which is a perfect dielectric or a perfect
conductor.
Medium 1 has permittivity 1 and conductivity σ1 , medium 2
has 2 and σ2 , and the interface between them holds a surface
charge density ρs . For the electric fields, we have

E1t = E2t , 1 E1n − 2 E2n = ρs

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Conductor-Conductor Boundary ...

Since we are dealing with conducting media, the electric fields

give rise to current densities J1 = σ1 E1 and J2 = σ2 E2 . Hence
J1t J2t J1n J2n
= , 1 − 2 = ρs
σ1 σ2 σ1 σ2
The tangential current components J1t and J2t represent
currents flowing in the two media in a direction parallel to the
boundary, and hence there is no transfer of charge between
them.
If J1n 6= J2n , then a different amount of charge arrives at the
boundary than leaves it.
Hence, ρs cannot remain constant in time, which violates the
condition of electrostatics requiring all fields and charges to
remain constant.
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Conductor-Conductor Boundary ...

The normal component of J has to be continuous across the

boundary between two different media under electrostatic
conditions. By setting J1n = J2n , we have
 
1 2
J1n − = ρs (electrostatics).
σ1 σ2

Exercise
Under Electrostatic conditions, we require J1n = J2n at the
boundary between two conductors. Why?

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Electrostatic Boundary-Value Problems

Exercise
The figure below shows three planar dielectric slabs of equal
thickness but with different dielectric constants. If E0 in air makes
an angle 45◦ with respect ot the z axis, find the angle of E in each
of the other layers.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Poisson’s & Laplace’s Equations

With D = E, the differential form of Gauss’s law may be cast

as
ρv
∇·E=

We have
ρv
∇ · (∇V ) =

For the Laplacian of a scalar function V ,

∂2V ∂2V ∂2V

∇2 V = ∇ · (∇V ) = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

So,
ρv
∇2 V = (Poisson0 s equation)

This is known as Poisson’s equation.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Poisson’s & Laplace’s Equations ...

For a volume V0 containing a volume charge density

distribution ρv , the solution for V derived previously and
expressed as Z
1 ρv 0
V = 0 dV
4π V R0

satisfies Poisson’s equation.

If the medium under consideration contains no charges,
Poisson’s equation reduces to

∇2 V = 0 (Laplace 0 s equation)

Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations are useful for determining

the electrostatic potential V in regions with boundaries on
which V is known, such as the region between the plates of a
capacitor with a specified voltage difference across it.
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Resistance and Capacitance

Resistance
To demonstrate the utility of the point form of Ohm’s law, we
apply it to derive an expression for the resistance R of a
conductor of length ` and uniform cross section A, as shown
in the figure below.
The conductor axis is along the x direction and extends
between points x1 and x2 , with ` = x2 − x1 .

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Resistance ...

A voltage V applied across the conductor terminals establishes

an electric field E = x̂Ex ; the direction of E is from the point
with higher potential to the point with lower potential.
The relation between V and Ex is obtained as follows
Z x1 Z x1
V = V1 − V2 = − E · dl = − x̂Ex · x̂dl = Ex ` (V )
x2 x2

The current flowing through the cross section A at x2 is

Z Z
I = J · ds = σE · ds = σEx A (A)
A A

V
From R = I , we have

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Resistance ...

l
R= (Ω)
σA

We now generalize our result for R to any resistor of arbitrary

shape by noting that the voltage V across the resistor is equal
to the line integral of E over a path ` between two specified
points.
The current I is equal to the flux of J through the surface S
of the resistor. Thus,
R R
V − l E · dl − l E · dl
R= = R =R
I S J · ds S σE · ds

σA
The reciprocal of R is called the conductance G = l (S)

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Capacitance

When separated by an insulating medium, any two conducting

bodies, regardless of their shapes and sizes, form a capacitor.
If a dc voltage source is connected across them the surface of
the conductors connected to the positive and negative source
terminals accumulate charges +Q and −Q, respectively.
When a conductor has excess charge, it distributes the charge
on its surface in such a manner as to maintain a zero electric
field everywhere within the conductor, thereby ensuring that
the electric potential is the same at every point in the
conductor.
The capacitance of a two-conductor configuration is defined
as
Q
C= (C /V or F )
V

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Capacitance ...

The presence of free charges on the conductors’ surfaces gives

rise to an electric field E with field lines originating on the
positive charges and terminating on the negative ones.
Since the tangential component of E always vanishes at a
conductor’s surface, E is always perpendicular to the
conducting surfaces.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Capacitance ...

the normal components of E at any point on the surface of

either conductor is given by
ρs
En = n̂ · E =

where ρs is the surface charge density at that point, n̂ is the
outward normal unit vector at the same location, and  is the
permittivity of the dielectric medium separating the
conductors.
The charge Q is equal to the integral of ρs over surface S:
Z Z Z
Q= ρs ds = n̂ · Eds = E·ds
S S S

The voltage V is related to E by:

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Capacitance ...
Z P1
V = V12 = − E · dl
P2

where points P1 and P2 are any two arbitrary points on

conductors 1 and 2, respectively. Substituting the above
equations we have
R
E·ds
C = SR (F )
− ` E · dl

where ` is the integration path from conductor 2 to 1.

The value of C obtained for any specified capacitor
configuration is always independent of E’s magnitude.
If the material between the conductors is not a perfect
dielectric, then current can flow through the material between
the conductors, and the material exhibits a resistance R.
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Capacitance ...

The general expression for R for a resistor of arbitrary shape is

given by: R
− ` E · dl
R=R (Ω)
S σE · ds
For a medium with uniform σ and , we have

RC =
σ
This simple relation allows us to find R if C is known, and
vice versa.

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Exercise
1 Obtain an expression for the capacitance C of a parallel-plate
capacitor consisting of two parallel plates each of surface area
A and separated by a distance d. The capacitor is filled with a
dielectric material with permittivity . Also, determine the
breakdown voltage if d = 1 cm and the dielectric material is
quartz.
Answer: C = A 5
d , Vbr = 3 × 10 V
2 Obtain an expression for the capacitance of the coaxial line
shown in the figure below.
Answer: C = ln2π`
(b)
a

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Electrostatic Potential Energy

A source connected to a capacitor expends energy in charging

up the capacitor.
If the capacitor plates are made of a good conductor with
effectively zero resistance, and if the dielectric separating the
two plates has negligible conductivity, then no real current can
flow through the dielectric, and no ohmic losses occur
anywhere in the capacitor.
Where then does the energy expended in charging up the
capacitor go?
The energy ends up getting stored in the dielectric medium in
the form of electrostatic potential energy.
Suppose we were to charge up a capacitor by ramping up the
voltage across it from v = 0 to v = V .

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Electrostatic Potential Energy ...

During the process, charge +q accumulates on one conductor,

and −q on the other. In effect, a charge q has been
transferred from one of the conductors to the other. The
voltage v across the capacitor is related to q by
q
v=
C
From the definition of v , the amount of work dWe required to
transfer an additional incremental charge dq from one
conductor to the other is
q
dWe = vdq = dq
C
If we transfer a total charge Q between the conductors of an
initially uncharged capacitor, then the total amount of work
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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Electrostatic Potential Energy ...
performed is
Q
1 Q2
Z
q
We = dq = (J)
0 C 2 C

Q
Using C = V , where V is the final voltage, We also can be
expressed as
1
We = CV 2 (J)
2
The electrostatic energy density we is defined as the
electrostatic potential energy We per unit volume:
We 1
we = = E 2 (J/m3 )
V 2

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Exercise

1 To bring a charge q from infinity to a given point in space, a

certain amount of work W is expended. Where does the
energy corresponding to W go?
2 When a voltage source is connected across a capacitor, what
is the direction of the electrical force acting on its two
conducting surfaces?

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body
Reading Assignment: Magnetostatic Fields

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Chapter 3 Electric Fields in Material Body