The Role of Artistic Literacy in Teaching and Learning

Introduction

The quest for students to acquire literacy, or educational knowledge and competency, is a
ubiquitous goal across all curricular disciplines. The fundamental skills and knowledge needed for
basic literacy provide the foundation for more complex learning to occur. Acquisition of literacy in the
arts is similarly developed when students can demonstrate and communicate their understanding of the
basic concepts and principles of the art form. Artistic literacy is defined in the National Coalition for
Core Arts Standards: A Conceptual Framework for Arts Learning (2014) as follows:

…artistic literacy is the knowledge and understanding required to participate

authentically in the arts. While individuals can learn about dance, media, music,
theatre, and visual arts through reading print texts, artistic literacy requires that they
engage in artistic creation processes directly through the use of materials (such as
charcoal or paint or clay, musical instruments or scores...) and in specific spaces
(concert halls, stages, dance rehearsal spaces, arts studios and computer labs). 1

The writers of the NCCAS Conceptual Framework propose that students must experience the
arts from diverse perspectives called Artistic Processes including creating, performing/presenting or
producing, responding, and connecting. In the 2017 Program Guide for the Arts each of the five arts
disciplines’ chapters includes a description of how the Artistic Processes are manifested in their art
form: dance, media arts, music, theatre, or visual art. One purpose of this chapter is to explain effective
teaching approaches that promote “authentic” arts participation. In other words, what does it mean to
be artistic through the lens of an artist? Further questions to be explored include:

o How should arts learning be structured so that students can begin to think like an artist?
o What are some best practices in teaching that create an active or student-centered learning
environment?
o How do we really know that students have learned?
o What factors promote self-regulation and intrinsic motivation in learning?
o Why are 21st century skills or personal dispositions important goals for students in arts
education?
o What are some procedures for creating curriculum and assuring alignment between what
happens in the classroom, school district and community expectations, and state and national
standards?

Thinking like an Artist

Artistic thinking involves complex and sometimes contradictory interactions between internal
curiosity or perspective and external environmental influence; symbolic or metaphoric interpretation
and verbal or written explanation; creative problem solving and literal interpretation; and, self-
regulatory discipline and external expectations. Indeed, the artist must often balance the internal
processes of creativity with conflicting forces of the world around them. Teaching students to think
like an artist is challenging, indeed.

Arts educators were tasked in the 1994 National Standards for the Arts to foster students’
acquisition of arts skills and knowledge. The nine content standards were the result of decades of
discussions by arts educators who came to a general consensus regarding what was important to know
and be able to do in the arts. This significant step in identifying the core knowledge and skills needed
to understand and make art provided a framework for curriculum development and assessment
practices for 20 years. Language from the standards document itself clarifies this:

Standards for arts education are important for two fundamental reasons.
First, they help define what a good education in the arts should provide: a
thorough grounding in a basic body of knowledge and the skills required both
to make sense and to make use of each of the arts disciplines… An education
in the arts means that students should know what is spelled out here, reach
specified levels of attainment, and do both at defined points in their education.
Put differently, arts standards provide a vision of both competence and
educational effectiveness, but without creating a mold into which all arts
programs must fit. 2

The 1994 standards articulated the knowledge and skills that arts education should provide. In
contrast, the 2014 National Core Arts Standards (adopted by Connecticut as the Connecticut Arts
Standards) embed specific artistic knowledge and skills. The standards focus on the learning inherent
in the Artistic Processes, then refined and defined by the Process Components from each of the five
arts disciplines. The chart below lists many of the process components found in the arts standards.

Process Components in the Arts Standards

DANCE MEDIA ARTS MUSIC THEATER VISUAL ART

Explore Imagine Imagine Envision Perceive

Plan Plan Plan and Make Conceptualize Relate
Revise Organize Evaluate Develop Investigate
Express Produce Refine Rehearse Plan & Make
Embody Construct Present Select Classify
Present Refine Select Prepare Create
Analyze Create Analyze Share-Present Explore
Interpret Innovate Interpret Interpret Design
Critique Contextualize Rehearse Evaluate Refine
Synthesize Relate Refine Empathize Reflect
Relate Convey Present Interrelate Analyze
Critique Connect Research Interpret
Elaborate
Compare
 Core arts knowledge and skills are implied in the 2014 National Core Arts Standards requiring
teachers to now aim their learning goals toward the artistic processes that promote artistic thinking and
ultimately artistic literacy. In reviewing the process components in the chart, it is clear that these verbs
represent higher order thinking and are meant to develop 21st century dispositions and work place
skills. The challenge for arts educators, often faced with restrictions of time and resources, is to
provide the necessary support and guidance to help students achieve these goals. What are instructional
practices that may help accomplish this?

Best Practices for Active/Student Centered Instruction

Arts classes by their nature are places where students are involved in active learning. Students
perform music, create art, present a play, dance to music, or invent new media. Teachers often model
or use direct instruction so that students receive explicit guidance in executing their art. Any arts
educator will agree that their exemplar is critical to the students’ learning processes. However, this
segment of the instruction represents just part of the instructional puzzle. Students may mimic what the
teacher models, but true artistic literacy also involves artistic thinking on the part of the student.
Looking back at the process components, we see that student self-regulation and independence is
critical to addressing the artistic processes. As arts educators, it is necessary to teach the core
knowledge and skills but also with an eye toward developing students’ personal dispositions. This
student-centered instruction “encompasses a wide array of practices that bring students into the process
of assessing their growth and learning. They gain a deeper sense of their progress and ultimately
become more independent learners.” 3 This idea of a three-pronged approach to teaching in an active or
student-centered classroom may be represented by the following graphic:

Teaching for Artistic Literacy 4

In active learning- or student-centered arts classrooms students not only engage in making the
art, they are given time to make connections with their own cultural background, assess their technique
and understanding, interact with peers, and participate in evaluating their own progress. The process is
cyclical as learning progresses. Teacher-led instruction is sometimes as necessary for advanced
learners as it is for novice learners. Collaborative and independent learning opportunities often occur
fluidly within a single lesson. The chart below provides some examples of active, student-centered
learning in arts classrooms.

In a Student-Centered Arts Classroom, Students….

Set personal goals

Plan and create their own work
Self and peer evaluate
Conduct student led rehearsals
Write art or performance critiques
Lead student-researched program or production notes
Collaborate in developing artistic products, programs, plots,
movement
Collaborate in design/problem solving/analysis
Actively engage in error detection & revising
Assist in determining presentations, concerts, or shows
And more….

The Role of Inquiry and Feedback

To accomplish these types of learner-centered activities in the arts classroom the teacher’s role
moves to that of facilitator of the learning rather than the distributor of knowledge. “When placed on a
continuum of active student involvement, one end of the continuum represents little or some student
involvement versus the opposing end that represents mostly student-driven learning. In other words, if
the beliefs, theories, or perspectives of the instructor or governing bodies perceive that the student is at
the center of the learning experience then those factors will serve as the center of how the curriculum is
developed.” 5

If students have had little or no experiences in guiding their own learning, they must be given
direction for learning to do so. Even young children may be asked to rate their own work indicated by
marking symbols on a colorful check list or rubric, or raising hands. The ability to tactfully and
respectfully peer evaluate or work in collaboration is a critical life skill that should begin early in their
school lives and remain a standard throughout the school years. A few ideas for establishing
meaningful collaboration and communication in arts classrooms include:

• Establishing classroom guidelines (developed with student input) and posted for reference;
• Creating key words or symbols as non-verbal reminders for students to maintain respectful
behavior;
• Scaffolding and blending direct instruction, modeling, and student-led work; and
• Providing teacher–led and ultimately student-led questions that inspire students to think about,
reflect, and articulate their perspectives on artistic work.
 Productive and scaffolded questioning skills are keys to an active learning classroom. Well-
formulated questions, cues, or prompts promote active learning, encourage diverse types of
thinking including problem-solving and reasoning, foster collaboration and social skills, and help
students think and reflect for themselves. The goal is for students to become self-regulated learners
both at school and in life. Many types of questioning techniques exist in education:

• Bloom’s Taxonomy, the original published in 1956, and its revision in 2001, have
traditionally provided a basis for evaluating levels of cognition. In the revision, the
taxonomy ordered cognition levels and added different types of thinking.

• The Depths of Knowledge (DOK) model categorizes four levels of activities and question
starters: Recall, Skills/Concepts, Strategic Thinking, and Extended Thinking.

• Socratic Questions challenge students in six areas: Conceptual clarification questions to

help students probe their own thinking for deeper levels; Probing assumptions helps
students think about their presuppositions and unquestioned beliefs; Probing rational,
reasons and evidence challenges students to provide rationales and reasoning for their
beliefs; Questioning viewpoints and perspectives asks students to consider other equally
valid viewpoints than their own; Probing implication and consequences challenges students
to consider the outcomes of their thinking or decisions; and, Questioning the questions
requires students to consider what about their questions were important in the first place.

• Question-Answer-Response questions begin with Right There questions-fundamental, easy

to identify through seeing or hearing (e.g. colors, lines, positions, tempos, symbols).
Think and Search questions ask students to look through the music, script, artwork, or
movement to find and describe arts elements and principles; Author and Me questions
require some prerequisite knowledge. The questions deal with perceived emotional
responses, interpretations, ideas that arise from the work itself; and, On My Own questions
that ask students to “think outside of the box” by predicting, providing rationales,
challenging reasons and evidence.

For arts educators, all of these techniques are usable in arts classrooms and studios, rehearsals, and
productions. However, most of these techniques place more significance on cognitive rather than
creative and affective thinking. David Krathwohl, co-author of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
The Affective Domain described the affective taxonomy as “…objectives which emphasize a feeling
tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple
attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of character and
conscience.” 6 A statement in the 1994 National Standards for the Arts best summarizes what this
means for arts education.
 Standards identify what our children must know and be able to do. Thus, the
vision embedded in these Standards insists that a mere nodding acquaintance
with the arts is not enough to sustain our children’s interest or involvement in
them. The Standards must usher each new generation onto the pathway of
engagement, which opens in turn onto a lifetime of learning and growth through
the arts. It is along this pathway that our children will find their personal
directions and make their singular contributions. It is along this pathway, as well,
that they will discover who they are, and even more, who they can become. 7

“In this single statement, the writers of the 1994 National Standards for the Arts traveled the
entire Affective Domain continuum from simple awareness and response to valuing, organizing,
and crafting our children’s characters. As arts educators, our goal is to provide direction for the
cognitive and physical skills that students need to make the arts integral to students’ personal
character, philosophical outlook, and personal beliefs, thereby illustrating highest level of the
Affective Domain.” 8
While the arts necessarily foster rational and linear thought, they also primarily raise emotional
responses that are important to explore. Offered below is a model that encourages the use of verbs
from lower (Emergent Thinking) and higher (Critical Thinking) cognition levels and as well as
Creative Thinking and Affective Thinking. The verbs in each category may be used as question
starters, prompts, or cues for instruction.

Emergent Thinking
Memorize Recite Identify Imitate
Select Recognize Describe Point to
Explore Restate Recall Label
Choose Report Copy List
Match Define Experience Name
Share Repeat Say State
-What instrument plays the melody?
-Who is the main Character?
-In what position is the dancer?
-What color is most predominant?

Critical Thinking
Categorize Clarify Clarify Appraise
Analyze Compare Critique Balance
Deconstruct Contrast Differentiate Classify
Decide Explain Distinguish
Critique
Demonstrate Reflect Evaluate
Infer Probe Investigate Discriminate
Organize Translate Observe Document
Predict Verify Practice Judge
 -Predict what will happen.
-Explain what you mean.
-Compare and contrast this piece to another.
-Discuss with your group where the phrase starts and
ends. Justify your response.
What genre and style does this piece
represent-why?
Creative Thinking
Apply Develop Compose Conceptualize
Create Explore Experiment Choreograph
Construct Improvise Generate Curate
Design Integrate Integrate Envision
Expand Perform Practice Form
Imagine Predict Produce Plan
Invent Problem- Present Redesign
Investigate Solve Sculpt Repurpose
Synthesize Refine Use Symbolize

-How would you change or improve this?

- Experiment with this and create a new piece.
- What do you think would happen if…?
- Using these materials and what you have learned make
a new piece.

Affective Thinking
Accept Convey Believe Adapt
Empathize Desire Connect Imply
Reject Express Defend Internalize
Prefer Initiate Engage Perceive
Receive Reflect Feel Refine
Respond to Seek Generate Relate
Self-Initiate Value Persist Sense

Describe how this work makes you feel.

Why do you prefer the first one?
How does this piece relate to your life?
What do you perceive is the meaning of this work?
How could you make more of an impact?
(© Hansen 2017)

Posing questions, prompts, and cues to students is how teachers instigate active learning.
Rather than relying primarily on reciting information or imitating procedures, using these interactive
verbs can help students personalize meaning and connect to prior or predictive knowledge. Used in a
scaffolded manner, they may extend or deepen students thinking and understanding of concepts and
other points of view. Most importantly, allowing students to express personal creative and affective
thoughts enables them opportunities to reflect their own beliefs yet disagree in a civil manner. Some
excellent resources for questioning, cueing, and prompting are listed in the resources at the end of this
chapter.

Using Formative and Summative Assessments in the Arts Classroom

Properly created questions, prompts and cues are also significant elements for developing
assessments. Arts educators have become increasingly adept at creating summative assessment, in
particular rubrics and check lists. Summative assessment is important for determining how well a
student has mastered targeted skills and knowledge goals as well as helping teachers determine student
growth.

Formative assessment in the arts is most often the predominant measurement of student
learning, however. The term “formative assessment” originated in the late 1960s and was later clarified
by Benjamin Bloom and associates in 1971. 9 Popham defined formative assessment as “a planned
process in which assessment-elicited evidence of students’ status is used by teachers to adjust their
ongoing instructional procedures or by students to adjust their current learning tactics.” 10 Cizek
summarized numerous definitions of formative assessments through these characteristics:

Students will:
1. Be responsible for their own learning..
2. Use frequent peer and student self-assessments
3. Self-monitor progress toward agreed upon learning goals..
4. Revise and improve work related to their learning goals

Teachers will:
1. Identify and relay clearly stated learning goals to students.
2. Design learning goals that focus on specific classroom goals as well as goals beyond the
classroom.
3. Identify and recognize in lessons students’ current and prior knowledge.
4. Assist students in planning, self-monitoring, and self-assessing learning goals.
5. Provide frequent, non-evaluative, and timely feedback.
6. Embed assessments with instruction. 11

These definitions and descriptions embody the spirit of a student-centered classroom. And, in
relationship to arts education, they provide the framework for fostering artistic literacy. A truly
masterful teacher using strong formative assessment approaches moves effortlessly from direct
instruction and modeling with the goal of growing independent, self-regulated learners.

In the model lesson units that are posted on the CSDE website, formative assessment and
student-centered learning techniques are embedded in the instructional strategies. Several sources for
these techniques, which transcend curricular disciplines in many cases, are listed in the resources at the
end of this chapter. Some techniques, found in Making Thinking Visible 12 represent innovative ideas
for checking student cognitive, creative, and affective understanding and include:

• Plickers: A free app for phones that quickly assesses T-F or Multi-Choice questions
• Think-Pair-Share: Generate and share criteria for quality or ponder a question
• Exit Tickets: Quick survey of students’ understanding: Can be done with an app.
• One Minute Writes: Quick reflections; written on note cards or electronic devices
• Think Out Loud Modeling: Teacher talks through and models same procedures and thinking
as the students will do
• Chalk Talk: The teacher generates a prompt with a statement or question about artistic
processes or products and writes it in the center of a piece of chart paper. The class reads the
prompt and responds in writing with pen or marker on the chart without talking. After writing
their own comments, students can comment on other student’s remarks but only the “chalk”
talks. This procedure can be done on a Smart Board or other electronic device; and,
• Glass, Bugs, Mud: Students use these metaphors to relay their understanding of a skill,
concept, or technique. Mud indicates confusion, Bugs indicates that they are unclear, and Glass
indicates they understand.

Motivational aspects of teaching and learning

As arts educators we want our students to enjoy being creatively involved in the arts. It is
motivating for us to observe student pride in their work and we hope the sense of accomplishment
motivates students to pursue further artistic endeavors. But, as psychologist Csikszentmihayi wrote, “A
person who has not learned how to mix pigments cannot enjoy painting for long; he or she will not be
able to match goals with actions.” 13 Researchers who have investigated human motivation have long
agreed that people are more motivated to persist with a task if they are able to incrementally master the
knowledge and skills related to the task. We also know that as humans we are more interested in
learning if they actively participate in the learning process. “Shared learning goals presented from the
viewpoint of the student help students see, recognize, and understand the task at hand and promote
self-determination and self-regulation.” 14 Accomplishing artistic literacy in schools today then requires
teachers to serve as both the “sage” and the “guide” in structuring lessons, instructional strategies, and
assessments.

Dispositions and 21st Century Skills

The goal of the National Core Standards for the Arts, as adopted by Connecticut, is for students
to participate authentically in the arts. When arts educators are asked what their personal processes are
for creating, performing, or responding to their art, their descriptions inevitably capture the process
components found in the national standards. Every student will not ultimately be a professional
musician or artist, but we desire for them to be supporters, participants, and consumers of the arts.
Additionally, students should learn positive and productive work place skills from arts study. When we
compare the process components to a short list of 21st century skills the relationship between the lists is
palpable. An excellent source to extend this information is on the NAfME website.

Artistic Process and 21st Century Skills

Connect the dots……
Process Components 21st Century Skills
Analyze Creativity
Express Critical Thinking
Embody Collaboration
Evaluate Communication
Interpret Flexibility
Interrelate Accountability
Investigate Emotional Control
Plan and Make Initiative
Demonstrate Innovation
Present Productivity
Rehearse Problem-Solve
Refine Responsibility
Reflect Self- Direction
Research

Time Tested Procedures

Creating curriculum and assuring alignment of school district and community expectations
with state and national standards

Schools and school districts all over the country are pursuing the writing or revision of their
curricular standards. This process is dynamic and never finished as educational institutes adjust and
modify their learning goals, educational environments, and instructional practices to meet the needs of
the future. Much has been written about the process of curricular design and many of those resources
are listed at the end of this chapter. While each state, locality, and school district maintains its own
curricular identity, there are several time-tested procedures that remain constant in the planning
process.

1. Determine the most important and developmentally appropriate knowledge and skills, and
related workforce skills that your students should know and be able to do for CREATING,
PERFORMING, RESPONDING, CONNECTING. These may need to be prioritized or
“powered.”
2. Identify WHY these things are important through your Philosophy, Mission, and/or Purpose
statements.
o Philosophy: What do we believe about arts education? What is the reason for arts
education in our schools? Why do we exist?
o Mission: What is our core purpose and how will we accomplish it? See an example
from Darien in the resources at the end of this chapter.
 o Purpose: Why is this document important? Who will it serve? Why is it needed? How
will it be used?
3. Identify WHAT students will be able to know and do and HOW students will demonstrate that
they have learned and can think about or evaluate their own learning. This may be
communicated through a Curriculum Map, Scope and Sequence, and/or aligned through
Enduring Understandings and/or Essential Questions.
4. IDENTIFY which 2014 Performance Standards or Artistic Processes represent your learning
outcomes and the sequence. This process may also be part of Step One.
5. Using your existing standards, BLEND your district curriculum into your new curriculum or
establish a new format and approach to your standards.
6. Throughout the process, consider instructional time, resources, professional development, and
teacher evaluation.

Advocating for Arts Programs

Strong arts programs characteristically are led by strong teachers, communities and
administrators that support the arts, excellent communication, resources, and a well-designed
sequential curriculum. The arts are a profoundly human means of expression dating back to the
beginnings of our existence and are a significant way in which we demonstrate our humanness. The
arts as a curricular subject area are recognized as a core subject and are required in most states across
the country. Still, advocacy for arts programs remains as relevant now as ever before. There are
many outstanding sites that serve as resources for advocacy. In each chapter of this Program Guide the
Resources section will provide links and publications. Most states have links to advocacy ideas and
sites, and most national arts organizations include suggestions for advocacy. Listed below are other
sites that contain excellent resources:

http://www.americansforthearts.org/advocate

https://www.arts.gov/artistic-fields/arts-education

http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/educators

http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/quotes (a link to arts advocacy quotes)

http://ovationtv.com/advocacy/

http://www.artsforla.org/arts-advocacy-toolkit

http://performingartsconvention.org/advocacy/id=32

http://www.musicforall.org/who-we-are/advocacy

http://www.risd.edu/About/STEM_to_STEAM/ttps://c.ymcdn. com/sites/www.athe.
org/resource/resmgr/imported/ArtsAdvocacyFundamentals.pdf
http://www.theperformingartsalliance. org/issues/

http://performingartsconvention.org/advocacy/id=28 (includes useful arts advocacy quotes)

http://www.nafme.org/advocacy/

https://toolkit.centerforartsed.org/sites/default/files/Arts-Education-Parent-Advocacy-Toolkit.pdf
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Endnotes
1
National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, National Core Arts Standards: A Conceptual Framework
for Arts Learning. (Reston, VA), http://nccas.wikispaces.com/Conceptual+Framework
2
National Standards for Arts Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference (MENC),
1996. Accessed April 17, 2014, http://nccas.org , 12.
3
Ron Berger, Leah Rugen, and Libby Woodfin, Leaders of Their Own Learning, (CA: Jossey-Bass,
2014), 5.
4
Demaris Hansen, Theories and Practices of Sequential Curriculum Alignment: Curriculum Design
and Assessment for a 21st Century Education through Music. In Timothy Brophy, ed., The
Oxford Handbook of Assessment Policy and Practice in Music Education, Part 2: Curricular
and Technical Aspects of Measurement in Music. (Oxford: Oxford University Press:
Anticipated publication mid-2017).
5
Demaris Hansen, Cultivating and Instigating Student-Engaged Teaching and Assessing in Music:
Implications for Independent Musical Growth. Timothy Brophy and Martin Fautley, eds.,
Context Matters: Selected papers from the 6th International Symposium on Assessment in
Music Education, Birmingham, England. (Chicago, IL: GIA, in press).
6
David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom and Bertram B. Masia, Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. (New
York, NY: David McKay Company, Inc., 1964), 7.
7
National Standards for Arts Education. (Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference
(MENC), 1996). http://nccas. org), 6.
8
Demaris Hansen and Elaine Bernstorf, Assessing Artistic Literacy in the National Core Music
Standards. In Timothy. S. Brophy, Jeffrey Marlatt, and Gary Ritcher (Eds.), Connecting
practice, measurement, and evaluation: Selected papers from the 5th International Symposium
on Assessment in Music Education, Willamsburg, VA. (Chicago, IL: GIA, 2015), 463-496.
9
Benjamin S. Bloom, John T. Hastings, and George F. Madaus, eds., Handbook of formative
and summative evaluation of student learning. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971).
10
W. James Popham, Classroom Assessment: What Teachers need to Know, 5th edition. (Boston:
Prentice Hall, 2005), 6.
11
Gregory J Cizek, An Introduction to Formative Assessment: History, characteristics, and challenges.
In Andrade, Heidi L. and Cizek, Gregory J, eds., Handbook of Formative Assessment. (NY:
Routledge, 2010), 6.
12
Ron Ritchart, Mark Church, and Karin Morrison, Making Thinking Visible: How to Promote
Engagement, Understanding, and Independence for all Learners. (San Francisco CA: Jossey-
Bass), 2011.
13
Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, “Intrinsic Rewards and Emergent Motivation. In The Hidden Cost of
Reward: New Perspectives on the Psychology of Human Motivation. Edited by Mark Lepper
and David Green. (Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978), 211.
14
Demaris Hansen, Motivating Music Learning through Formative Assessment and
Careful Planning. In Timothy Brophy and Andreas Lehmann-Wermser, eds. Proceedings of the
3rd International Symposium on Assessment in Music Education, The University of Bremen,
Germany. (Chicago: GIA, 2012), 13.