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Contents

1.

Front Matter

1.
Acknowledgements
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/front-matter/acknowledgements/>
2.
About This Book
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/front-matter/about-this-book-2/>
3.
Preface
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/front-matter/preface-4/>
2.

I. Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-1-the-science-of-
psychology/>

1. 1.1 Methods of Knowing

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/methods-of-knowing/>
2. 1.2 Understanding Science
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/understanding-science/>
3. 1.3 Goals of Science
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/goals-of-science/>
4. 1.4 Science and Common Sense
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/science-and-common-sense/>
5. 1.5 Experimental and Clinical Psychologists
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experimental-and-clinical-
psychologists/>
3.

II. Chapter 2: Overview of the Scientific Method

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-2-getting-started-
in-research/>
 1. 2.1 A Model of Scientific Research in Psychology
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/a-model-of-scientific-
research-in-psychology/>
2. 2.2 Finding a Research Topic
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/finding-a-research-topic/>
3. 2.3 Generating Good Research Questions
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/generating-good-research-
questions/>
4. 2.4 Developing a Hypothesis
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/developing-a-hypothesis/>
5. 2.5 Designing a Research Study
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/designing-a-research-
study/>
6. 2.6 Analyzing the Data
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/analyzing-the-data/>
7. 2.7 Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/drawing-conclusions-and-
reporting-the-results/>
4.

III. Chapter 3: Research Ethics

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-3-research-ethics/>

1. 3.1 Moral Foundations of Ethical Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/moral-foundations-of-
ethical-research/>
2. 3.2 From Moral Principles to Ethics Codes
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/from-moral-principles-to-
ethics-codes/>
3. 3.3 Putting Ethics Into Practice
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/putting-ethics-into-
practice/>
5.

IV. Chapter 4: Psychological Measurement

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-5-psychological-
measurement/>

1. 4.1 Understanding Psychological Measurement

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/understanding-
psychological-measurement/>
2. 4.2 Reliability and Validity of Measurement
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-and-validity-
of-measurement/>
3. 4.3 Practical Strategies for Psychological Measurement
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/practical-strategies-for-
psychological-measurement/>
6.

V. Chapter 5: Experimental Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-6-experimental-
research/>

1. 5.1 Experiment Basics

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experiment-basics/>
2. 5.2 Experimental Design
 <https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experimental-design/>
3. 5.3 Experimentation and Validity
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experimentation-and-
validity/>
4. 5.4 Practical Considerations
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/practical-considerations/>
7.

VI. Chapter 6: Nonexperimental Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-7-nonexperimental-
research/>

1. 6.1 Overview of Non-Experimental Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/overview-of-non-
experimental-research/>
2. 6.2 Correlational Research
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/correlational-research/>
3. 6.3 Complex Correlation
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/complex-correlation/>
4. 6.4 Qualitative Research
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/qualitative-research/>
5. 6.5 Observational Research
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/observational-research/>
8.

VII. Chapter 7: Survey Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-9-survey-research/>

1. 7.1 Overview of Survey Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-1-overview-of-survey-
research/>
2. 7.2 Constructing Surveys
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-2-constructing-surveys/>
3. 7.3 Conducting Surveys
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-3-conducting-surveys/>
9.

VIII. Chapter 8: Quasi-Experimental Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-8-quasi-
experimental-research/>

1. 8.1 One-Group Designs

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/8-1-one-group-designs/>
2. 8.2 Non-Equivalent Groups Designs
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/non-equivalent-control-
group-designs/>
10.

IX. Chapter 9: Factorial Designs

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-8-complex-research-
designs/>

1. 9.1 Setting Up a Factorial Experiment

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/9-1-setting-up-a-factorial-
experiment/>
 2. 9.2 Interpreting the Results of a Factorial Experiment
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/9-2-main-effects-and-
interactions/>
11.

X. Chapter 10: Single-Subject Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-10-single-subject-
research/>

1. 10.1 Overview of Single-Subject Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/overview-of-single-subject-
research/>
2. 10.2 Single-Subject Research Designs
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/10-2-single-subject-
research-designs/>
3. 10.3 The Single-Subject Versus Group “Debate”
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/10-3-the-single-subject-
versus-group-debate/>
12.

XI. Chapter 11: Presenting Your Research

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-11-presenting-your-
research/>

1. 11.1 American Psychological Association (APA) Style

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/11-1-american-
psychological-association-apa-style/>
2. 11.2 Writing a Research Report in American Psychological
Association (APA) Style
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/11-2-writing-a-research-
report-in-american-psychological-association-apa-style/>
3. 11.3 Other Presentation Formats
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/11-3-other-presentation-
formats/>
13.

XII. Chapter 12: Descriptive Statistics

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-12-descriptive-
statistics/>

1. 12.1 Describing Single Variables

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/12-1-describing-single-
variables/>
2. 12.2 Describing Statistical Relationships
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/12-2-describing-
statistical-relationships/>
3. 12.3 Expressing Your Results
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/12-3-expressing-your-
results/>
4. 12.4 Conducting Your Analyses
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/12-4-conducting-your-
analyses/>
14.

XIII. Chapter 13: Inferential Statistics

 <https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/part/chapter-13-inferential-
statistics/>

1. 13.1 Understanding Null Hypothesis Testing

<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/13-1-understanding-null-
hypothesis-testing/>
2. 13.2 Some Basic Null Hypothesis Tests
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/13-2-some-basic-null-
hypothesis-tests/>
3. 13.3 Additional Considerations
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/13-3-additional-
considerations/>
4. 13.4 From the “Replicability Crisis” to Open Science Practices
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/13-4-from-the-
replicability-crisis-to-open-science-practices/>
15.

Back Matter

Research Methods in Psychology <https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/>

1.1 Methods of Knowing

Learning Objectives

1. Describe the 5 methods of acquiring knowledge

2. Understand the benefits and problems with each.

Take a minute to ponder some of what you know and how you acquired that
knowledge. Perhaps you know that you should make your bed in the morning
because your mother or father told you this is what you should do,
perhaps you know that swans are white because all of the swans you have
seen are white, or perhaps you know that your friend is lying to you
because she is acting strange and won’t look you in the eye. But should
we trust knowledge from these sources? The methods of acquiring
knowledge can be broken down into five categories each with its own
strengths and weaknesses.

*Intuition*

The first method of knowing is intuition. When we use our intuition, we

are relying on our guts, our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide us.
Rather than examining facts or using rational thought, intuition
involves believing what feels true. The problem with relying on
intuition is that our intuitions can be wrong because they are driven by
cognitive and motivational biases rather than logical reasoning or
scientific evidence. While the strange behavior of your friend may lead
you to think s/he is lying to you it may just be that s/he is holding in
a bit of gas or is preoccupied with some other issue that is irrelevant
to you. However, weighing alternatives and thinking of all the different
possibilities can be paralyzing for some people and sometimes decisions
based on intuition are actually superior to those based on analysis
(people interested in this idea should read Malcolm Gladwell’s book
Blink)^[1]
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/methods-of-knowing/#footnote-101-
1>.

*Authority*

Perhaps one of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge is through

authority. This method involves accepting new ideas because some
authority figure states that they are true. These authorities include
parents, the media, doctors, Priests and other religious authorities,
the government, and professors. While in an ideal world we should be
able to trust authority figures, history has taught us otherwise and
many instances of atrocities against humanity are a consequence of
people unquestioningly following authority (e.g., Salem Witch Trials,
Nazi War Crimes). On a more benign level, while your parents may have
told you that you should make your bed in the morning, making your bed
provides the warm damp environment in which mites thrive. Keeping the
sheets open provides a less hospitable environment for mites. These
examples illustrate that the problem with using authority to obtain
knowledge is that they may be wrong, they may just be using their
intuition to arrive at their conclusions, and they may have their own
reasons to mislead you. Nevertheless, much of the information we acquire
is through authority because we don’t have time to question and
independently research every piece of knowledge we learn through
authority. But we can learn to evaluate the credentials of authority
figures, to evaluate the methods they used to arrive at their
conclusions, and evaluate whether they have any reasons to mislead us.

*Rationalism*

Rationalism involves using logic and reasoning to acquire new knowledge.

Using this method premises are stated and logical rules are followed to
arrive at sound conclusions. For instance, if I am given the premise
that all swans are white and the premise that this is a swan then I can
come to the rational conclusion that this swan is white without actually
seeing the swan. The problem with this method is that if the premises
are wrong or there is an error in logic then the conclusion will not be
valid. For instance, the premise that all swans are white is incorrect;
there are black swans in Australia. Also, unless formally trained in the
rules of logic it is easy to make an error. Nevertheless, if the
premises are correct and logical rules are followed appropriately then
this is sound means of acquiring knowledge.

*Empiricism*

Empiricism involves acquiring knowledge through observation and

experience. Once again many of you may have believed that all swans are
white because you have only ever seen white swans. For centuries people
believed the world is flat because it appears to be flat. These examples
and the many visual illusions that trick our senses illustrate the
problems with relying on empiricism alone to derive knowledge. We are
limited in what we can experience and observe and our senses can deceive
us. Moreover, our prior experiences can alter the way we perceive
events. Nevertheless, empiricism is at the heart of the scientific
method. Science relies on observations. But not just any observations,
science relies on structured observations which is known as systematic
empiricism.

*The Scientific Method*

The scientific method is a process of systematically collecting and

evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions. While scientists
may use intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism to generate
new ideas they don’t stop there. Scientists go a step further by using
systematic empiricism to make careful observations under various
controlled conditions in order to test their ideas and they use
rationalism to arrive at valid conclusions. While the scientific method
is the most likely of all of the methods to produce valid knowledge,
like all methods of acquiring knowledge it also has its drawbacks. One
major problem is that it is not always feasible to use the scientific
method; this method can require considerable time and resources. Another
problem with the scientific method is that it cannot be used to answer
all questions. As described in the following section, the scientific
method can only be used to address empirical questions. This book and
your research methods course are designed to provide you with an
in-depth examination of how psychologists use the scientific method to
advance our understanding of human behavior and the mind.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Gladwell, M. E. (2007). Blink: The power of thinking without

thinking. /How to think straight about psychology/ (9th ed.). New
York: Little, Brown & Company. ↵
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/methods-of-knowing/#return-
footnote-101-1>

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Creative Commons License <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/>

1.1 Methods of Knowing by Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, I-Chant A.
Chiang, Dana C. Leighton, & Carrie Cuttler
<https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/methods-of-knowing/> is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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