LABORATORY MANUAL

for

ME8512 - Thermal Engineering Lab

of

B.E. Mechanical Engineering

Regulation 2017

For the Batch (2021 to 2022)

DEPARTMENT OF Mechanical Engineering

KCG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY,

CHENNAI – 600097
THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
MANUAL & OBSERVATION

SUBJECT CODE: ME8512

REGULATION: R2017

Name of the Student: ________________________________________

Register Number: ____________________________________________

Semester & Section: __________________________________________

Academic Year: ______________________________________________

Laboratory Batch: ___________________________________________

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Chennai 600097
Tamil Nadu
 VISION OF THE COLLEGE

KCG College of Technology aspires to become a globally recognized centre of excellence for
science, technology & engineering education, committed to quality teaching, learning, and
research while ensuring for every student a unique educational experience which will promote
leadership, job creation, social commitment and service to nation building

MISSION OF THE COLLEGE

• Disseminate knowledge in a rigorous and intellectually stimulating environment

• Facilitate socially responsive research, innovation and entrepreneurship

• Foster holistic development and professional competency

• Nurture the virtue of service and an ethical value system in the young minds

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

The department aspires to become a globally recognized centre of excellence by producing

competent professionals in Mechanical Engineering to serve as a valuable resource for industry
and society

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

➢ Impart intellectually rigorous and holistic education to the students in the field of
Mechanical Engineering.
➢ Establish state of-the-art facilities for research and consultancy work.
➢ Enhance the knowledge and skills of the faculty with the latest advancements in the
mechanical engineering domain.
➢ Mentor the students to develop research and entrepreneurial capabilities.
➢ Inculcate a high degree of professionalism and contribute to the needs of industry and
society.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ------------------------------------------------------,

register number ( ) of III year V Semester) B.E., (MECH) has

successfully completed all the lab exercises in ME8512-Thermal Engineering

Lab for the academic year ------------ in the Odd Semester.

Faculty In-Charge HoD

 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
On completion of the program, the students will achieve the following:
Excel as competent professional or entrepreneur or researcher in related fields of Mechanical
PEO 1
Engineering.
Analyze, design/develop innovative solutions for real world engineering problems using
PEO 2
appropriate modern tools.
Exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude and adapt to the changes in the industry and society
PEO 3
supporting sustainable development.
PEO 4 Lead and manage teams for effective execution of projects.

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES AND PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

After successful completion of B.E./B.Tech. / M.E/ M.Tech (Branch or Specialization)

programme, the students will be able to:
PO
Description of the PO
No.
1 Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse complex engineering problems reaching
2 substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences
Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes
3 that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and
the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
4
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools
5 including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and
6
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental
7
contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
 Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
8
engineering practice.

Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in

9 multidisciplinary settings.

Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
10
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and
11 apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.

Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and lifelong
12 learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PSO
Description of PSO
No.

Model, analyze, design and realize physical systems, components or process by

1 applying principles of three core streams of Mechanical Engineering, i.e.Design,
Manufacturing, Thermal and Fluid Engineering.
Apply the knowledge of Auto CAD, SolidWorks, ANSYS,CNC, Simulation softwares, MATLAB,
2 Machine tool practices, Material & Machine testing, Fluid & Thermal machinery to solve real time
Mechanical Engineering problems

3 Engage in lifelong learning and follow professional ethics, codes and standards of
professional practices.
 ME8512 THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
L T PC
0 0 4 2
OBJECTIVES:

• To study the value timing-V diagram and performance of IC Engines

• To Study the characteristics of fuels/Lubricates used in IC Engines
• To study the Performance of steam generator/ turbine
• To study the heat transfer phenomena predict the relevant coefficient using implementation
• To study the performance of refrigeration cycle / components

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

I.C. ENGINE LAB

1. Valve Timing and Port Timing diagrams.

2. Actual p-v diagrams of IC engines.
3. Performance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine.
4. Heat Balance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine.
5. Morse Test on Multi-cylinder Petrol Engine.
6. Retardation Test on a Diesel Engine.
7. Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of various fuels / lubricants.

STEAM LAB

1. Study on Steam Generators and Turbines.

2. Performance and Energy Balance Test on a Steam Generator.
3. Performance and Energy Balance Test on Steam Turbine.

HEAT TRANSFER LAB:

1. Thermal conductivity measurement using guarded plate apparatus.

2. Thermal conductivity measurement of pipe insulation using lagged pipe apparatus.
3. Determination of heat transfer coefficient under natural convection from a vertical cylinder.
4. Determination of heat transfer coefficient under forced convection from a tube.
5. Determination of Thermal conductivity of composite wall.
6. Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
7. Heat transfer from pin-fin apparatus (natural & forced convection modes)
8. Determination of Stefan – Boltzmann constant.
9. Determination of emissivity of a grey surface.
10. Effectiveness of Parallel / counter flow heat exchanger.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING LAB

1. Determination of COP of a refrigeration system

2. Experiments on Psychrometric processes
3. Performance test on a reciprocating air compressor
4. Performance test in a HC Refrigeration System
5. Performance test in a fluidized Bed Cooling Tower
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
 General instruction to the students

1. Be regular and be punctual to laboratory classes.

2. Come in proper uniform stipulated.
3. Ensure safety to your body organs and laboratory equipment.
4. SAFETY FIRST DUTY NEXT
5. Read in advance the contents of the instruction manual pertaining to the experiment
6. due and come prepared. Understand the related basic principles.
7. Maintain separate observation and record note books for laboratory
8. Though you work in a batch to conduct experiment, equip yourself to do independently.
This will benefit you at the time of tests and university examinations.
9. Independently do the calculations and sketching. If there is difficulty, consult your
10. batch-mate, classmate, teacher(s) and Laboratory in-charge. Do not attempt to simply
11. copy down from others. You may fulfill the formalities but you stand to lose learning
12. and understanding.
13. Obtain the signature of teacher in the laboratory observation note book and record
14. note book then and there during class hours. This will relieve the teacher from
15. giving reminder.
16. Help to maintain neatness in the laboratory.
17. Consumption of food or beverages in the laboratory is strictly forbidden.
18. Students are advised to retain the bonafide record notebook till they successfully
19. complete the laboratory course.
 Safety Instructions
1. There shall be NOT MORE than FIVE (5) students working in a group per equipment
2. or per experiment.
3. Perform no un-authorised experiments, tasks or job and perform given experiments,
tasks
4. or job only according to directions.
5. Never work in a laboratory alone or at least without another person within easy call.
6. Sandals are NOT to be worn in the Laboratory. Leather shoes are required when
working near Equipment.
7. For female students, tie back medium length and long hair when working near flames
8. or entangling equipment and machineries and wear overcoat as instructed.
9. Do not use any equipment unless you are briefed/trained as a user. Always ASK if you
10. are in doubt!
11. All accidents, no matter how minor, should be reported to the Department/Faculty
member supervising the laboratory.
12. Know the location of all relevant safety equipment in the lab. (e.g. first-aid kit, eyewash,
fire extinguisher, fire blanket, sand bucket ,water bucket if applicable) and how to use
them.
13. Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical panels, first aid
14. kits and water.
15. Do not use corridors for storage.
16. Keep aisles free from obstructions - place bags at appropriate shelves/places which
17. are located outside/inside the lab.
18. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
19. Be careful when lifting heavy objects like weight for loading engines. Lift comfortably,
avoid unnecessary bending, twisting, reaching out, and excessive weights, lift gradually
and keep in good physical shape.
20. Inform the Faculty/Technician of any medical conditions that you may have which
could affect your performance in the laboratory, or could be aggravated by the work
environments in the laboratory. Please produce evidence of your condition when
requested.
21. Ensure all electrical circuits are checked by the technicians or the relevant faculty
BEFORE powering up. When in doubt, please ASK any member of staff available in
the lab.
22. Let your group member(s) know of hazards that exist in your work area.
 First Aid Procedure
Burns and scalds

Burns and scalds are damage to the skin caused by heat. Both are treated in the same
way. A burn is caused by dry heat – by an iron or fire, for example. A scald is caused by
something wet, such as hot water, hot oil or steam. Burns can be very painful and may cause:
• Red or peeling skin
• Blisters
• Swelling
• White or charred skin
The amount of pain you feel isn't always related to how serious the burn is. Even a very serious
burn may
be relatively painless.

Treating burns and scalds

To treat a burn, follow the first aid advice below:

✓ Immediately get the person away from the heat source to stop the burning
✓ Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm running water for 20 minutes – don't use ice, iced
water, or
any creams or greasy substances such as butter
✓ Remove any clothing or jewellery that's near the burnt area of skin, but don't move
anything that's stuck
to the skin
✓ Make sure the person keeps warm – by using a blanket, for example, but take care not to
rub it against the burnt area
✓ Cover the burn by placing a layer of cling film over it – a clean plastic bag could also be
used for burns
on your hand
✓ Use painkillers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen to treat any pain
✓ If the face or eyes are burnt, sit up as much as possible, rather than lying down - this helps
to reduce swelling.

Treating Finger Injuries

1. Stop Bleeding
✓ Apply firm pressure until bleeding stops.
✓ If finger or part of finger is severed, put the severed part in a clean plastic bag, pack the
bag in ice, and take it with you to the doctor.
2. Clean Wound
✓ Wash with fresh water.
✓ Apply antibacterial cream to reduce risk of infection.
✓ Apply a sterile bandage.
3. Control Swelling
✓ Apply ice to a bruised or swollen finger.
4. When to See a Doctor
✓ Inability to move the finger
✓ Numbness
✓ Bone is exposed
✓ The wound is deep or long.
✓ Pain and swelling are severe or persistent.
✓ You can't clean the wound or the wound is very dirty. (You may need antibiotics)
✓ The injury is a puncture or open wound and you haven’t had a tetanus shot in the last 10
years.
✓ The injury is from a human or animal bite.
✓ If the wound doesn't heal or shows signs of infection: redness, swelling, pain, or pus.
Emergency Contact Numbers:

Institute Office/Reception
Fire Service
Near by Hospital
 List of Experiments
Expt Date Name of the Experiment Page Marks Staff
. No. No. Sign.
I C Engine Lab
1 Valve Timing and Port Timing diagrams
1a. Valve Timing Diagram of a 4 Stroke Gasoline Engine
1b. Valve Timing Diagram of a 4 Stroke Diesel Engine
1c. Port Timing Diagram of a 2 Stroke Gasoline Engine
2 Actual p-v diagrams of IC engines
3 Performance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine
4 Heat Balance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine
5 Morse Test on Multi-cylinder Petrol Engine
6 Retardation Test on a Diesel Engine
7 Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of various fuels /
lubricants
Steam Lab
8 Study on Steam Generators and Turbines
9 Performance and Energy Balance Test on a Steam Generator
10 Performance and Energy Balance Test on Steam Turbine
Heat Transfer Lab
11 Thermal conductivity measurement using guarded
plate apparatus
12 Thermal conductivity measurement of pipe insulation
using lagged pipe apparatus
13 Determination of heat transfer coefficient under natural
convection from a vertical cylinder
14 Determination of heat transfer coefficient under forced
convection from a tube
15 Determination of Thermal conductivity of composite wall
16 Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulating powder
17 Heat transfer from pin-fin apparatus (natural & forced
convection modes)
18 Determination of Stefan – Boltzmann constant
19 Determination of emissivity of a grey surface
20 Effectiveness of Parallel / counter flow heat exchanger
Refrigeration and Airconditioning Lab
21 Determination of COP of a refrigeration system
22 Experiments on Psychometric processes
23 Performance test on a reciprocating air compressor
24 Performance test in a HC Refrigeration System
25 Performance test in a fluidized Bed Cooling Tower
EXP NO: 1a. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A 4 STROKE GASOLINE ENGINE

Date:
AIM:
To draw the valve timing diagram for a 4 stroke engine showing the relative crank angles
corresponding to opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Cut section model of 4 stroke Engine, scale, chalk

FORMULA USED:
Distance on flywheel from
the nearest dead centre x 360
Crank angle =
Circumference of flywheel

Circumference of Flywheel = (2 x 3.14 x radius of the flywheel)

PROCEDURE:

1. The circumference of the flywheel is measured using a thread and scale.

2. The flywheel is measured in clockwise direction.
3. The markings corresponding to the opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves
are made on the flywheel rim.
4. The distance between these markings and the nearest dead centres are measured (in
cms)
5. Using the above mentioned formula, the crank angle from the TDC and BDC are
found and the Valve timing diagram drawn.
6. Mark the valve overlap period.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Valve open/closing Distance with respect to the nearest Crank angle

dead centre (mm) (Degree)

IVO - TDC ( Before / After)

BDC - IVC( Before / After)

EVO - BDC( Before / After)

TDC - EVC( Before / After)

Table.1a.1
Fig.1a.1 Valve Timing Diagram of 4 Stroke Gasoline Engine

Fig.1a.2 Crank Angle Vs Valve Lift

 Fig.1a.3 High Speed and Low Speed engine Valve Opening

Fig.1a.4 Indicator diagram Showing Valve opening and Closing

For Further Reading

1) http://www.mechengg.net/2016/05/valve-timing-diagram-for-ic-petrol.html
2) http://www.first-hand.info/ValveTimingDiagrams.html
3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mF5Ns8_9MeE
4) https://www3.nd.edu/~msen/Teaching/DirStudies/Engines.pdf
LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION

 DO YOU KNOW?
In a piston engine, the valve timing is the precise timing of the opening and closing of the
valves. In an internal combustion engine those are usually poppet valves and in a steam
engine they are usually slide valves or piston valves.

The inlet valve usually opens few degrees before the piston reaches TDC in its exhaust stroke. It
closes after quite a few degrees of piston reaching the BDC, i.e. when the piston starts to move up
the cylinder in compression stroke. In suction stroke, the air/fuel mixture or charge gets sucked into
the cylinder very rapidly. This
is because, the downward movement of the piston creates vacuum (or negative pressure) in the
cylinder and the air-fuel mixture gets filled in the empty space.

In four-stroke cycle engines and some two-stroke cycle engines, the valve timing is controlled by
the camshaft. It can be varied by modifying the camshaft, or it can be varied during engine operation
by variable valve timing. It is also affected by the adjustment of the valve mechanism, and
particularly by the tappet clearance. However, this variation is normally unwanted.

With traditional fixed valve timing, an engine will have a period of "valve overlap" at the end of the
exhaust stroke, when both the intake and exhaust valves are open. The intake valve is opened before
the exhaust gases have completely left the cylinder, and their considerable velocity assists in drawing
in the fresh charge. Engine designers aim to close the exhaust valve just as the fresh charge from the
intake valve reaches it, to prevent either loss of fresh charge or unscavenged exhaust gas

Variable Valve Timing

In internal combustion engines, variable valve timing (VVT) is the process of altering the timing
of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions. It is
increasingly being used in combination with variable valve lift systems.

REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. How do you differentiate inlet and outlet valve in an IC Blooms Level :
engine? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is Swept Volume, Compression ratio? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What is the significance of valve timing diagram? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:
4. Why the inlet valve is opened a few degrees before TDC? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5. What is valve overlap? What is the importance of it? What is the Blooms Level :
valve overlap in your experimental set up? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT:
Thus, the valve timing diagram of 4 stroke gasoline engine has been drawn with relative crank angle.

The angle of overlap =__________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO:1.b VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
DATE:

AIM:
To draw the valve timing diagram for a 4 stroke engine showing the relative crank angles
corresponding to
opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Cut section model of 4 stroke Engine, scale, chalk

FORMULA USED:
Distance on flywheel from
the nearest dead centre x 360
Crank angle =
Circumference of flywheel

Circumference of Flywheel = (2 x 3.14 x radius of the flywheel)

PROCEDURE:
1. Remove the cylinder head cover and identify the inlet valve , exhaust valve and piston of
particular cylinder.
2. Mark the BDC and TDC position of flywheel This is done by Rotating the crank in usual
direction of rotation and observe the position of the fly wheel , when the piston is moving
downwards at which the piston begins to move in opposite direction . i.e from down to upward
direction . Make the mark on the flywheel with reference to fixed point on the body of the
engine. That point is the BDC for that cylinder .Measure the circumference. That point is TDC
and is diametrically opposite to the BDC .
3. Insert the feeler gauge in the tappet clearance of both inlet and exhaust valves
4. Slowly rotate the crank until the feeler gauge in the tappet clearance of inlet valve is gripped.
make the mark on fly wheel against fixed reference . This position represent the inlet valve
open (IVO). Measure the distance from TDC and tabulate the distance .
5. Rotate the crank further , till the feeler gauge is just free to move . Make the marking on the
flywheel against the fixed reference . This position represent the inlet valve close (IVC).
Measure the distance from BDC and tabulate the distance .
6. Rotate the crank further, till the feeler gauge in the tappet clearance of exhaust valve is
gripped . Make the marking on the flywheel against fixed reference. This position represents
the exhaust valve open (EVO). Measure the distance from BDC and tabulate.
7. Then convert the measured distances into angle in degrees
 TABULAR COLUMN:

Valve open/closing Distance with respect to the nearest Crank angle

dead centre (mm) (Degree)

IVO - TDC( Before / After)

BDC - IVC( Before / After)

EVO - BDC( Before / After)

TDC - EVC( Before / After)

Table.1b.1

Fig.1b.1 Valve timing diagram of a 4 stroke diesel engine

 Fig.1b.2. Cut section of a 4 stroke diesel engine

Fig.1b.3. PV and TS Diagram of 4 Stroke Diesel Engine

For Further Reading

https://www3.nd.edu/~msen/Teaching/DirStudies/Engines.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mF5Ns8_9MeE
http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/~bopri/documents/BS_ALT_2_INTRO_2_4_stroke_www.pdf
LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION

 DO YOU KNOW?
The diesel engines are also known as compression ignition engines. In diesel
engines, the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray into the engine cylinder, which gets
ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air.Compression-ignition (C.I) engines burn fuel
oil which is injected into the combustion chamber when the air charge is fully compressed. Burning
occurs when the compression temperature of the air is high enough to spontaneously ignite the
finely atomized liquid fuel. In other words, burning is initiated by the self-generated heat of
compression.
Compression-ignition (C.I) engines are also referred to as 'oil engines', due to
the class of fuel burnt, or as 'diesel engines' after Rudolf Diesel, one of the many inventors and
pioneers of the early C.I. engine.

Valve lead : This is where a valve opens so many degrees of crankshaft rotation before either TDC
or BDC.

Valve lag : This is where a valve closes so many degrees of crankshaft rotation after TDC or BDC.

Diesel Engine
Pros
1. High torque output hence pulling power is high (acceleration is good).
2. Gears are tall ( You can pull through more speeds in single gears, hence overtaking is fun).
3. Fuel efficiency is high as compared to petrol counterpart. They are more efficient even in low.
revs ( Hence you don't need to switch off engine at red lights or worry about traffic jams).
4. Service requirement is less frequent.

Cons
1. Retrofitting is not possible in most of the cases .
2. Overall cost of the car with diesel engine is high on the pocket.
3. Service requirement is less but its hefty on pocket.
4. Engine is grunt and generally crude.
5. Pollution is high (If you are a environment friendly person avoid it on this grounds).

REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by Capacity (C.C.) of an engine? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is the function of fuel injector in diesel engine? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. Is diesel engine more efficient than gasoline engine? Why? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:
 4. At high altitudes, diesel engines get better power than Blooms Level :
gasoline. Why? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5. If you toss a lit match into a puddle of diesel fuel, it'll go Blooms Level :
out. Explain. Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT:
Thus, the valve timing diagram of 4 stroke diesel engine has been drawn with relative crank
angle.

The angle of overlap =__________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP. NO: 1.c. PORT TIMING DIAGRAM OF A 2 STROKE GASOLINE ENGINE

DATE:
AIM :
To draw the port timing diagram of a two stroke engine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Cut section model of a 2 stroke engine, Scale, Chalk

PROCEDURE:
1. Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction
when viewing in front of the flywheel.
2. Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point
when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel.
3. Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when
the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel.
4. Mark the IPO, IPC, EPO, EPC, TPO, and TPC on the flywheel observing the following
conditions.
5. Inlet port open (IPO) when the bottom edge of the piston skirt just opens the lower most
part of the inlet port during its upward movement.
6. Inlet port close (IPC) when the bottom edge of the piston fully reaches the lower most
part of the inlet port during its downward movement.
7. Transfer port open (TPO) when the top edge of the piston just open the top most part of
the transfer port during its downward movement.
8. Transfer port close (TPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most
part of the transfer port during its upward movement
9. Exhaust port open (EPO) when the top edge of the piston just opens the top most part of
the exhaust port during its downward movement.
10. Exhaust port close (EPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most
part of the exhaust port during its up ward movement
11. Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from BDC
whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles or measure the angles from the
protractor fixed in the set up.
12. Draw a circle and mark the angles.
 TABULATION:

S. No. Port opening/closing position Angle

( degrees)
1 IPO before TDC
2 IPC after TDC
3 EPO before BDC
4 EPC after BDC
5 TPO before BDC
6 TPC after BDC

Table.1c.1

Fig.1c.1. Port timing diagram of a 2 stroke gasoline engine

 Fig.1c.2. Operation of a 2 stroke gasoline engine

Fig.1c.3. Types of scavenging methods in a 2 stroke gasoline engine

For Further Reading

1. http://www.neme-s.org/Model_Engineer_Files/2943-
Port%20&%20Valve%20Timing.pdf
2. http://www.mecholic.com/2016/02/port-timing-diagram-of-two-stroke-engine.html
3. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/newvtuelc/courses/P7/enotes/AU51/Unit2-DP.pdf
4. http://www.marinediesels.info/2_stroke_engine_parts/Other_info/exhaust_valve_ca
m.htm
LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

 DO YOU KNOW?

A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power
cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is
in contrast to a "four-stroke engine", which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a
two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happen
simultaneously, with the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions occurring at the same time. Two-stroke
engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds
called the "power band". Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a greatly reduced number
of moving parts, and so can be more compact and significantly lighter.

Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, and high power-
to-weight ratio are design priorities. With the traditional lubrication technique of mixing oil into the fuel, they
also have the advantage of working in any orientation, as there is no oil reservoir dependent on gravity; this is
an essential property for hand-held power tools such as chainsaws.

In the case of two stroke cycle engines the inlet and exhaust valves are not present . Instead , the slots
are cut on the cylinder itself at different elevation and they are called ports. There are three ports are present
in the two stroke cycle engine.
1.Inlet port, 2. Transfer port,3. Exhaust port

The diagram which shows the position of crank at which the above ports are open and close are called
as port timing diagram. In two stroke petrol engine the inlet port open when the piston moves from BDC to
TDC and is closed when the piston moves from TDC to BDC .
The transfer port is opened when the piston is moved from TDC to BDC and the fuel enters into the
cylinder through this transport from the crank case of the engine . The transfer port is closed when piston
moves from BDC to TDC . The transfer port opening and closing are measured with respect to the BDC . The
exhaust port is opened, when the piston moves from TDC to BDC and is closed when piston moves from BDC
to TDC . The exhaust port opening and closing are measured with respect to the BDC

S.No. Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

1. It has one power stroke for every two It has one power stroke for each revolution of the
revolutions of the crankshaft. crankshaft.
2. Heavy flywheel is required and engine Lighter flywheel is required and engine runs
runs unbalanced because turning moment balanced because turning moment is more even
on the crankshaft is not even due to one due to one power stroke for each revolution of the
power stroke for every two revolutions of crankshaft.
the crankshaft.
3. Engine is heavy Engine is light
4. Engine design is complicated due to Engine design is simple due to absence of valve
valve mechanism. mechanism.
5. More cost. Less cost than 4 stroke.
Less mechanical efficiency due to more More mechanical efficiency due to less friction on
friction on many parts. a few parts.
6.
7. More output due to full fresh charge Less output due to mixing of fresh charge with
intake and full burnt gases exhaust. the hot burnt gases.
8. Engine runs cooler. Engine runs hotter.
9. Engine is water cooled. Engine is air cooled.
10. Less fuel consumption and complete More fuel consumption and fresh charge is mixed
burning of fuel. with exhaust gases.
11. Engine requires more space. Engine requires less space.
12. Complicated lubricating system. Simple lubricating system.
13. Less noise is created by engine. More noise is created by engine.
14. Engine consists of inlet and exhaust Engine consists of inlet and exhaust ports.
valve.
15. More thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.
16. It consumes less lubricating oil. It consumes more lubricating oil.
17. Less wear and tear of moving parts. More wear and tear of moving parts.
18. Used in cars, buses, trucks etc. Used in mopeds, scooters, motorcycles etc.

Why Oil is mixed with Gasoline in small 2 stroke engines?

In two stroke engines we use the oil called lubrication oil with the fuel as we
know that in four stroke engine there is sump for splash of the lubricant inside the engine for
lubrication, but in 2 stroke engine case we mix the oil with fuel(petrol) in this case there is no need
of sump in 2 stroke engine and by this method lubrication of piston and cylinder is done by the
mixture of oil and fuel.

Where are two-cycle engines used?

Two-cycle engines are inexpensive to build and operate when compared to four-
cycle engines. They are lighter in weight and they can also produce a higher power-to-weight ratio.
For these reasons, two-cycle engines are very useful in applications such as chainsaws, Weed eaters,
outboards, lawnmowers and motorcycles, to name just a few. Two-cycle engines are also easier to
start in cold temperatures. Part of this may be due to their design and the lack of an oil sump. This
is a reason why these engines are also commonly used in snowmobiles and snow blowers.

REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by scavenging in a 2 stroke engine? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is the function of transfer port in 2 stroke Blooms Level :

engines? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What is the reason for more wear and tear in 2 stroke Blooms Level :
engines? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

4. Why the 2 stroke engines are small compared to 4 Blooms Level :

stroke engines of same output? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:
 5.What do you mean by 2T Oil?. Blooms Level :

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
Hence the port timing diagram of a 2 stroke gasoline engine has been drawn.

Signature of Faculty with date:

 EXP. NO: 2 ACTUAL PV DIAGRAM OF IC ENGINES

DATE:

AIM :
To draw the actual PV diagram of IC Engines (SI or CI).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
IC Engines (SI or CI),Data acquisition system with computer and printer

DESCRIPTION
PV diagrams can be used to estimate the net work performed by a thermodynamic cycle. The
net work is the area enclosed by the PV curve in the diagram. This usage derived from the
development of indicator diagrams which were used to estimate the performance of a steam
engine. Specifically, the diagram records the pressure of steam versus the volume of steam
in a cylinder, throughout a piston's cycle of motion in a steam engine. The diagram enables
calculation of the work performed and thus can provide a measure of the power produced by
the engine. To exactly calculate the work done by the system it is necessary to calculate the
integral of the pressure with respect to volume. One can often quickly calculate this using the
PV diagram as it is simply the area enclosed by the cycle.

The Otto cycle

The Otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition internal combustion engines (2-
stroke or 4-stroke cycles). These engines a) ingest a mixture of fuel and air, b) compress it,
c) cause it to react, thus effectively adding heat through converting chemical energy into
thermal energy, d) expand the combustion products, and then e) eject the combustion
products and replace them with a new charge of fuel and air. The different processes are
shown.
1. Intake stroke, gasoline vapor and air drawn into engine ( ).
2. Compression stroke, PT, increase ( ).
3. Combustion (spark), short time, essentially constant volume ( ). Model: heat
absorbed from a series of reservoirs at temperatures T2to T3.
4. Power stroke: expansion ( ).
5. Valve exhaust: valve opens, gas escapes.
6. ( ) Model: rejection of heat to series of reservoirs at temperatures T4toT1 .
7. Exhaust stroke, piston pushes remaining combustion products out of chamber (
)

Fig.2.1.Ideal PV diagram of 4 stroke gasoline engine

 Fig.2.2. Actual PV diagram of 4 stroke gasoline engine

Fig.2.3.Piston and valves in a four-stroke internal combustion engine

Efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle

The starting point is the general expression for the thermal efficiency of a cycle:

The convention, as previously, is that heat exchange is positive if heat is flowing into the system
or engine, so QL is negative. The heat absorbed occurs during combustion when the spark
occurs, roughly at constant volume. The heat absorbed can be related to the temperature change
from state 2 to state 3 as:

The heat rejected is given by (for a perfect gas with constant specific heats)

Substituting the expressions for the heat absorbed and rejected in the expression for thermal
efficiency yields
We can simplify the above expression using the fact that the processes from 1 to 2 and from 3 to 4 are
isentropic:

The quantity is called the compression ratio. In terms of compression ratio, the efficiency
of an ideal Otto cycle is:

Fig.2.4. Ideal Otto cycle thermal efficiency

The ideal Otto cycle efficiency is shown as a function of the compression ratio in Figure As the

compression ratio, , increases, increases, but so does T2. If T2 is too high, the mixture will
ignite without a spark (at the wrong location in the cycle)
 Fig.2.5 PV diagram and Position of piston
The Diesel cycle

The Diesel cycle is a compression ignition (rather than spark ignition) engine. Fuel is sprayed into

the cylinder at (high pressure) when the compression is complete, and there is ignition without
a spark. An idealized Diesel engine cycle is shown in Figure
 Fig 2.6 Ideal PV diagram of Diesel cycle
The thermal efficiency is given by:

This cycle can operate with a higher compression ratio than the Otto cycle because only air is
compressed and there is no risk of auto-ignition of the fuel. Although for a given compression ratio the
Otto cycle has higher efficiency, because the Diesel engine can be operated to higher compression ratio,
the engine can actually have higher efficiency than an Otto cycle when both are operated at compression
ratios that might be achieved in practice

Fig.2.7 Actual PV diagram of Gasoline and Diesel engine A-GASOLINE, B-DIESEL

For Further Reading

1) http://autoeng.cu.edu.tr/tr/Belgeler%5Cduyuru%5C4-stroke%20Diesel%20Engine.pdf
2) http://www3.nd.edu/~msen/Teaching/DirStudies/Engines.pdf
3) http://mechteacher.com/otto-cycle/
4) http://urcar-engine.blogspot.in/2012/02/how-to-sketch-p-v-diagram-for-4-stroke.html
LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

 DO YOU KNOW?

Fig.2.8 Actual and Ideal PV Diagram and piston position

Actual Vs Theoretical Ottto cycle

Between indicated cycle and corresponding theoretical cycle substantial differences in form of the
diagram and the values of temperatures and pressures.

The difference in form consists of a different profile curves in compression expansión in replacing
introductión rectilinear subtraction of heat by curved lines and to the rounding of the, acute angles.
The reasons for these differences are based on the following reasons:

Heat losses. In the theoretical cycle are null, but very sensitive, however, in the actual cycle. As the
cylinder is cooled to ensure the smooth operation of the piston, a certain portion of heat from the fluid
is transferred to the walls. Expansion compressión lines are therefore adiabatic but polytropic with
exponent n, k different. Because the fluid undergoes heat loss evidently has: for expansion, n> k, and
for compression figure.

Combustion is not instantaneous. In the theoretical cycle, it is assumed that the combustion takes
place at constant volume, is therefore instantaneous in the real cycle, however, combustion takes some
time. If ignition take place precisely at TDC, combustion would occur while the piston moves away
from that point, and serious pressure value lower than expected, with the corresponding loss of useful
work .

It is therefore necessary to advance the ignition so that combustion can take place, for the most part,
when the piston is in the proximity of PMS This produces a rounding of the theoretical line 2-3 heat
input and therefore a loss of useful work represented by the area B. But this loss is of markedly lower
amount that would not advance the ignition

Time of opening of the exhaust valve. In the theoretical cycle had also assumed that the heat removal
occurred instantaneously in the PMI in the real cycle heat removal takes place in a time to that part of
the gas escaping from the cylinder before the piston reaches BDC so that its pressure drops close to
the value of the external pressure at the beginning of the ejection stroke. This causes a loss of useful
work area represented by C, loss is however less than that which would have without the advance of
the opening of the exhaust valve.

REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by blow down in I.C engines? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is the use of indicator diagram? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What is the area below the PV diagram and TS diagram Blooms Level :
represents in a OTTO cycle? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

4. Why do you change the ignition timing of gasoline engines Blooms Level :
when gaseous fuels like Biogas and LPG is used ? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5. What do you mean by idling of engines?. Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
The actual PV diagram of the engine is drawn.

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO :3 PERFORMANCE TEST ON A 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

DATE:
AIM:
To conduct a performance test on the given single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine and to draw the
following characteristic curves:
a) brake power vs specific fuel consumption
b) brake power vs mechanical efficiency
c) brake power vs brake thermal efficiency
d) brake power vs indicated thermal efficiency

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Stop watch,tachnometer
Engine details:
Make : HTC Diesel Engine
Type : Twin cylinder four stroke diesel engine coupled
to a rope brake dynamometer.
Power : 10 hp (7.35 kw)
Speed : 1500 rpm.
Compression Ratio :17:1
Bore :87.5 mm
Stroke :110 mm
Orifice diameter : 35 mm.
Effective radius of the brake drum : 0.2 m

PROCEDURE:
1. The cooling water lines are opened.
2. The fuel in the tank and the valve (used to allow fuel from tank) position are checked.
3. Before starting the engine the brake drum circumference is noted.
4. Before starting check and assure that there is no load on Electrical Dynamometer.
4. The engine is started at no load.
5. Now the engine is started and the time taken for 10cc of fuel consumption is noted with the
help of a stop watch. This reading corresponds to no load condition.
6. Time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption is noted by keeping the right side knob in closed
position.
7. Supply of fuel from the main tank is ensured after taking the above reading.
8. The manometric heights h1 and h2 are noted in mm.
9. Now rotate the wheel of Electrical Dynamometer to load the engine and take the above
mentioned readings. The spring balance reading is also noted down.
10. The experiment is repeated for different current inputs.
11. The readings are tabulated neatly.
FORMULA USED :
VI
A) Brake power ( BP ) = *1000 kW
alt

alt - Alternator efficiency-90%

 R 1
B) Fuel consumption (FC) = x x Sp.Gr of fuel x 60X60 (kg / hr)
t 1000

where ,t - time taken for R cc of fuel consumption

Seconds
Sp. Gr. - specific gravity of diesel = 0.86
R – Fuel Consumption (cc)

FC
C) Specific fuel consumption (SFC) = (kg / kW hr)
BP

FC X CV
D) Heat input (HI) = ( kJ / s)
60X60

where, CV - calorific value of diesel = 43500 kJ/kg

BP
E) Brake thermal efficiency (bte) = X 100 %
HI

BP
F) Mechanical efficiency (mech ) = X 100 in %
IP
Where,BP- brake power, kW

G) Indicated power IP = BP + FP (kw)

FP - Frictional power (to be determined from “BP vs FC” plot) (kw)

IP
H) Indicated thermal efficiency :ite = X 100 in %
HI
Note:
J) (Indicated Mean Effective Pressure)
IPx 60
IMEP = (kPa)
Lx Ax nx K
K) (Brake Mean Effective Pressure)
BPx 60
BMEP = (kPa)
Lx Ax nx K
Where L-Stroke length of Cylinder,
A Cross sectional area of piston,
n-Number of working Stroke
(n/2 for 4 stroke engine),
K –Number of cylinders.
Vs
L) Volumetric Efficiency vol = x100 in %
Vt

Where Vs-Swept Volume m3/min

Vt-Theoretical Volume of air intake m3/min
Ts
Vs-Swept Volume (at STP) = Va x m3/min
Ta

Where Va-Actual volume of air intake m3/min

 Actual volume of air intake Va = 60 x Cd x a x√2𝑔ℎ m3/min
Where Cd -0.62(Coefficienct of discharge)
Ts -Standard Temperature -288 K
Ta -Ambient Temperature K
Density of water
Equivalent air column h = hw x m
Density of air
1000
= hw x m
1.16
Orifice diameter d = m
𝜋 2
Area of orifice a = d m2
4
h1−h2
Difference in water level hw = m of water Theoretical volume of air intake
100
π N
Vt = xDxLx m3/min
4 2
Where D –Diameter of Piston metre
L –Length of Stroke metre
N –Engine Speed rpm

Mass of actual intake of air per minute(kg/min)

M) Air fuel ratio =
Mass of fuel intake per minute(kg/min)
𝑚𝑎
=
𝑚𝑓

N) Brake Power (For Mechanical Loading)

2xπxNxT
BP = kW
60
Where N –Engine Speed rpm
T –Engine Torque N-m
T = (W x Re)
Where W –Net Load = (W0+W1+W2) x 9.81 N
W0 = Weight of hanger - kg
W1 = Weight on hanger - kg
W2 = Spring balane reading - kg
Effective Drum radius Re = (Brake drum radius + Rope radius) m
= (R + r) m
TABULATION:

S.No Load Speed Time for Manometer BP FC SFC bte mech ite
10 cc Fuel reading
consumption
Symbol V I N t h1 h2
Unit Volt Amp rpm sec mm mm kW Kg / h Kg/kWh % % %

2
3

6
Table:3.1
MODEL GRAPH
To find Frictional Power (FP )
0.8
Fuel Consumption in Kg/hr, (FC)

0.6

FC Vs BP
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Power in KW (BP)

Fig3.1.“Willan’s line method” to find Frictional Power

Frictional power≤ 1/4th of Rated power

Fig.3.2 Brake Power Vs IP,SFC, i.th,mech

 LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

 For Further Reading
1) http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/engingeperformance.htm
2) http://users.sussex.ac.uk/~tafb8/eti/eti_07_PerformanceTest.pdf
3) http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=126014
4) http://www.freestudy.co.uk/thermodynamics/t5109.pdf
DO YOU KNOW?
Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and linear velocity or
the product of torq ue and angular velocity.
• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measure ement of force (or torque) as well as speed.
The force or torque I s measured with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power
(bp).The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is, however, more
than the bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed by the engine, i.e. ip, some power
is consumed in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air
and removing the products of combustion from the engine combustion chamber.
The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power lost in the mechanical
components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of mechanical efficiency.
Fuel-air ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel
ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the mixture affects the combustion
phenomenon in that it determines the flame propagation velocity, the heat release in the combu
stion chamber, the maximum temperature and the completeness of combustion
Specific fuel consumption(SFC)
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of brake
power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the engine develops
power from fuel.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree towhich the
engine fills its swept volume. It is defi ned as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine
cylinder during the suction n stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the swept volume of the
engine at atmospheric pressure and temperature. Alternatively, it can be defined as th e ratio of the
actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured at intake co nditions to the swept volume of the
piston.

Fig.3.3 Torque Vs Speed Vs Power

 Fig.3.4 Automobile Engine

APPLICATION PROBLEM

1.A six-cylinder 4-stroke cycle petrol engine is to be designed to develop 300 kW of (b.p) at
2500 rpm the bore/stroke ratio is to be 1:1.25.Assuming mechanical =83% and an indicated mean
effective pressure of 9.5 bar, determine the required bore and stroke .If the compression ratio of the
engine is to be 6.5 to 1,determine consumption of petrol in kg/h and in kg/bp.hr. Take the ratio of the
indicated thermal efficiency of the engine to that of the constant volume air standard cycle as 0.55 and
the calorific value of the petrol as; 44770kJ/kg.

(Ans:D =14.6 c.m, L=18.25 c.m, consumption of petrol 100.4 kg/h &0.33 kg /kWh)
GRAPH SHEET
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. Differentiate Brake power and Indicated power? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is the role of frictional power in Engine? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What are the different engine loading devices? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

4. What are the methods of engine cooling? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5.What do you mean by idling of engines?. Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
A performance test was conducted on the given diesel engine and the following characteristic curves
were drawn.
A) Brake power vs specific fuel consumption
B) Brake power vs mechanical efficiency
C) Brake power vs brake thermal efficiency
D) Brake power vs indicated thermal efficiency

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO:4 HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR A 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

DATE:
AIM :
To conduct heat balance test on the given diesel engine and to draw a heat balance sheet showing the
proportion of useful work and various losses.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Stop watch, Tachometer

Engine details:
Make : HTC Diesel Engine
Type : Twin cylinder four stroke diesel engine coupled
to a rope brake dynamometer.
Power : 10 hp (7.35 kw)
Speed : 1500 rpm.
Compression Ratio : 17:1
Bore : 87.5 mm
Stroke : 110 mm
Orifice diameter : 35 mm.
Effective radius of the brake drum : 0.2 m
Coolant Collecting tank area : 0.25x0.25 m2

PROCEDURE :

1. The maximum load (full load) is calculated from the engine ratings.
2. The 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 of full load are estimated.
3. The cooling water lines are opened.
4. The fuel in the tank and the valve ( to allow fuel from the tank ) position are
checked.
5. The engine is started at no load condition.
6. The time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption is noted by keeping the right side knob
in closed position.
7. Supply of fuel from the main tank is ensured after taking the above reading.
8. The following readings are also noted:
a. Temperature of cooling water inlet and outlet
b. Temperature of exhaust gas, Atmospheric air
c. Manometer readings
9. The engine is loaded ( with 1/4 , 1/2 , 3/4 and full load ) and all the above readings
are noted down.
10. The readings are tabulated neatly.

FORMULA USED :

BPrated x 60000
A) Maximum load / Full load ( Wmax ) =
( 2 Nrated x Reff x 9.81)
Where, BPrated - Rated Brake Power
Nrated - Rated Speed
Reff - Effective Radius of the brak drum in m
VxI
B) Brake Power (BP) = in kW
1000
C) Heat carried away by cooling water ( Qcw ) = mw x cpw x (tw2 - tw1 )
Where,
mw - mass flow rate of cooling water = 1/t2 kg / s
t2 - time for 10 litres of water collection Seconds
cpw - specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ / kg K
o
tw1 - temperature of cooling water at inlet , C
o
tw2 - temperature of cooling water at outlet, C

D) Heat carried away by exhaust gases ( Q eg ) = mg cpg ( tgo - tgi )

Where,
mg - mass flow rate of exhaust gases = mf + ma kg/Sec
mf - mass flow rate of fuel = 10 x 10-3 x sp.gr / t1 kg/Sec
sp. gr. - specific gravity of diesel = 0.86
t1 - time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption Seconds

Mass flow rate of air ma- = aCd Ao √ 2g ha

Where,
Cd - Co efficient of discharge of orifice meter = 0.62
Ao - Area of orifice meter =  d2 / 4 m2
d - diameter of orifice m
g - 9.81 m/s2

ha = (h1 - h2 )* w / (a * 1000)

Where,
h1 , h2 - manometer readings mm
w - density of water = 1000 kg / m3
a - density of air at room temperature
= (a at STP) * 273 / ( 273+tR)
Where,
a at STP = 1.18 kg / m3
o
tR - Room Temperature , C
cpg - specific heat of exhaust gases = 1.005 kJ / kg K
o
tgo - temperature of exhaust gases C
o
tgi - temperature of atmospheric air C

E) Heat Input HI = mf x C.V in kW

Where,
mf - mass flow rate of fuel kg / s
C.V. - Calorific Value of diesel = 40500 kJ / kg

F) Unaccounted Heat loss Qun = HI - (BP + Qcw + Qeg) kJ / s

 MODEL GRAPH

Fig.4.1 Heat balance Model Graph

GRAPH:
Brake power( x axis) Vs Thermal Energy distribution. (Y axis )
Heat input (x axis ) Vs Thermal Energy Distribution ( Y axis)

TABULATION:

S.No Load Speed Time for Manometer Temperature FC BP Qcw Q eg HI Qun

10cc Fuel
Consump reading
tion

V I N t1 h1 h2 tw1 tw2 tgi tgo

o o o o
volt amp rpm seconds mm mm C C C C Kg/hr kW kW kW kW kW

Table 4.1 Heat balance reading

 Useful energy Energy Wasted

S.No % Energy to BP % Energy to Cooling % Energy to Exhaust % Energy

Water Gases Unaccounted

Table 4.2 Percentage energy distribution

 LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

For Further Reading

1) http://umpir.ump.edu.my/1038/1/Abdullah_Shariffudin_Mohamad.pdf
2) http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=126014
 DO YOU KNOW?

Fig.4.2.Sankey Diagram of heat balance of an I.C Engine

Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the chemical
energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output. It is the true
indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel (input) is converted into mechanical
work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the
chemical energy of the fuel is not converted into heat energy during combustion.
APPLICATION PROBLEM

1) In a test of a 4-cylinder, 4 stroke engine 75mm bore and 100 mm stroke, the following results
were obtained at full throttle at a particular constant speed and with fixed setting of fuel supply
of 6.0 kg/h. B.P. with all cylinder working = 15.6 kW
B.P. with cylinder no. 1 cut out = 11.1 kW
B.P. wirh cylinder no. 2 cut out = 11.03 kW
B.P. with cylinder no. 3cut out = 10.88 kW
B.P. with cylinder no. 4 cut out = 10.66 Kw.
If the calorific value of the fuel is 83600 kJ/kg and clearance volume is 0.0001 m3,
Calculate: (i) Mechanical efficiency, (ii) Indicated thermal efficiency, and (iii) Air standard
efficiency
(Ans: Mech Eff=83.3%,Indicated thermal Eff=13.44% ,Air standard Eff=49%)
GRAPH:
 REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1.Suggest some methods to reduce engine losses? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. How can you improve engine fuel efficiency? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What is meant by Cetane number? And how it plays a role in Blooms Level :
efficiency? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5. Discuss what will happen to the engine performance Blooms Level :

if the cooling water flow rate is varied? Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

6. What do you know from the heat balance diagram? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :

A heat balance test was conducted on the given diesel engine and a heat balance sheet has been drawn
for different load conditions.

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO :5 MORSE TEST ON MULTICYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

DATE:
AIM : To conduct Morse test on a multicylinder engine coupled with hydraulic dynamometer and to
find the frictional power.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Test engine 2. Dynamometer 3. Tachometer.

Engine Specifications:
1. Number of cylinders = 4.
2. Power = 7.36 kw / 10hp
3. Speed = 1500 rpm
4. Type = 4 cylinder 4 stroke vertical- diesel engine
5. Make = Ambassador
6. Loading = Hydraulic Dynamometer

DEFINITIONS:
1. Brake power(BP): The net power available at the output shaft of the internal combustion engine is
called brake power. It is the power available after some power is utilized for overcoming friction.
2. Indicated power(IP): The horse power developed inside the cylinder is called indicated power.
3. Friction power(FP): The difference between indicated power and brake power is called friction
power.
4. Mechanical efficiency: The ratio of brake power to the indicated power expressed as a percentage
is called mechanical efficiency.

Calculation of the maximum load that can be applied to the engine :

BPrated = ( Wmax x Nrated ) / 2720 kW
Wmax = 7.36 x 2720 /1500 = 13.35 kg
Bprated = 7.36 kW
Nrated = 1500 rpm
Wmax kg
Precaution
1.Lubricating oil level should be checked.
2.Cooling water should be supplied to engine and dynamometer.
3.Water is to be supplied to dynamometer and water pressure is to be 0.5 kg/cm2.

PROCEDURE:
1. The engine is first started by checking the fuel, lubricating oil, cooling water etc., with all
4 cylinders working.
2. The speed of the engine is adjusted to a particular speed say 1500 rpm in full load and the
BP of the engine at that speed is calculated.
3. Now cylinder 1 is cut-off and the speed is adjusted to 1500 rpm by decreasing the load and
the BP is found out.
4. The difference of BP of all the 4 cylinders and that of the cut off cylinder gives the IP of
the cylinder of the cut-off cylinder.
5. In this way each cylinder is cut-off and the BP is found out.
6. From the value of BP the IP of all the cylinders is found out.
7. The sum of the indicated powers of all the cylinders gives the indicated power of the entire
engine.
8. The Mechanical Efficiency is then calculated at that particular speed.
FORMULA USED:
WxN
1. Brake Power(BPT) = in Kw
2720

where, W = Load applied in kg

N = Speed rpm
2720 = Dynamometer constant.

2. Total Indicated Power (IPT) = [IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ] in kW

where, 1 – I cylinder is cut off.

2 - II cylinder is cut off.
3 - III cylinder is cut off.
4 - IV cylinder is cut off.

3. If ,BP : Brake Power developed when all the cylinders are working, then
IP1 = BP – BP1, IP2 = BP – BP2, IP3 = BP – BP3, IP4 = BP – BP4.

W1 x N
4. BP1 =
2720
BP1 : Brake power of the engine when the first cylinder is cut off .
BP2 : Brake power of the engine when the second cylinder is cut off.
BP3: Brake power of the engine when the third cylinder is cut off.
BP4: Brake power of the engine when the fourth cylinder is cut off.
W1: Load on the dynamometer when the first cylinder if cut off and the speed is
maintained at N rpm.

BP
5. Mechanical Efficiency = X100.
IP

TABULATION
Brake power
Conditions Load B.P Indicated Mechanical
[(w x n)/2720 ] kW Power efficiency

W Kg kW Watts %
Speed , N (rpm) 1500 rpm

All cylinders working W= BP= IP=

First cylinder is cut off W1= BP1= IP1=

Second cylinder is cut off W2= BP2= IP2=

Third cylinder is cut off W3= BP3= IP3=

Fourth cylinder is cut off W4= BP4= IP4=

Table 5.1

Fig.5.1
 LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

For Further Reading

1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X9WpfxkP2Y
2) http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/newvtuelc/courses/10/enotes/06ME43/Unit8-GP.pdf
3) http://eng.pdn.ac.lk/old/mechanical/menu/class/downloads/notes/03-Engine-friction-and-
%20lubrication.pdf
DO YOU KNOW?

Intention of carrying out the morse test

Morse test is a very useful test designed for multi cylinder engines. It's primary objective is to
determine the indicated power developed by a single cylinder. The indicated power is the sum of break
horse power plus the frictional power losses. With the help of Morse test, you can determine indicated
power, frictional power and hence the efficiency of the engine
The main intention of carrying out the morse test in an IC engine is to provide an easy
method of calculating the frictional losses. It provides a kind of top-down approach in
calculating frictional losses easily and helps calculate mechanical efficiency.
The total break power of the engine is first calculated using a dynamometer. The
process is repeated with one cylinder off at each step. This the difference between total break
power and break power of the remaining cylinders gives the indicated power of the first
cylinder; and so on.
In this way, indicated power of all cylinders are calculated and summed to obtain the indicated
power of the engine.
Friction power = indicated power - total brake power.

Once friction power is obtained, the mechanical efficiency of the engine can be calculated.

Is multi cylinder engine more efficient than single cylinder with everything else being same?
The short answer is that more cylinders will use more fuel to produce the same amount of power.

"Every thing else being the same" to mean something along the lines of "engines that
produce roughly the same power and are designed with the same level of competence." The big thing
we have to deal with is frictional losses. A v-twin engine with overhead cams has twice the cams as a
single which would suggest the twin has something near twice the friction. However, the vibrations and
the nature of the vibrations would play a part in the magnitude of the friction which would relate the
fuel cost of power. Generally, more cylinders = more fuel burn. However, there is variance within
architectures of engines. A parallel twin, for instance, might use less fuel than a v-twin. The trade off
is that more cylinders help you get more valve area per unit of combustion and this helps an engine
produce more power out of a specific displacement.
A 350 twin could make more power than a 350 single with the same levels of reliability.

A multi-cylinder engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine with multiple cylinders.

It can be either a 2-stroke or 4-stroke engine, and can be either Diesel or spark-ignition. The cylinders
and the crankshaft which is driven by and co-ordinates the motion of the pistons can be configured in a
wide variety of ways. Multi-cylinder engines offer a number of advantages over single-cylinder engines,
chiefly with their ability to neutralize imbalances by having corresponding mechanisms moving in
opposing directions during the operation of the engine.
A multiple-cylinder engine is also capable of delivering higher revolutions per minute (RPM)
than a single-cylinder engine of equal displacement, because the stroke of the pistons is reduced,
decreasing the distance necessary for a piston to travel back and forth per each rotation of the crankshaft,
and thus limiting the piston speed for a given RPM.

Large single-cylinder engine Multi-cylinder engine

a) Jerky torque from only one power stroke per two(a) More power strokes per revolution giving
revolutions smooth torque output
(b) Heavy flywheel required (b) Lighter flywheel allowing quicker acceleration

(c) Large piston and valves present considerable(c) Small valves and pistons enable cooling easier
cooling difficulties
(d) Large exhaust pulsations cause difficulty in(d) More frequent and smaller pulsations make
silencing easier silencing

(e) The engine would be very tall and difficult to(e) Engine is much more compact
accommodate under the bonnet
(f)Engine would be vary heavy (f) Engine would weight much lesser than the
single-cylinder engine

(g) The heavy piston poses difficulty in balancing (g) Easy to balance

(h) Must run at low-speeds (h) Could be run at much higher speed.

Fig.5.1 Engine Configuration

GRAPH :
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What is the use of Morse test? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

2. What is the importance of firing order in multicylinder Blooms Level :

engine? Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

3. What is catalytic convertor? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

4. What is the use of gears in transmission system of engine? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

5. What do you mean by MPFI? Explain. Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
Thus the Morse Test on the 4-stroke, 4-cylinder diesel engine is carried out and the mechanical
efficiency is determined. The following graphs are drawn.

(i) Speed vs Brake Power (BP)

(ii) Speed vs Indicated power (IP)
(iii) Speed vs Frictional power (FP)
(iv) Speed vs Mechanical Efficiency (mech)

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO:6 RETARDATION TEST ON SINGLE CYLINDER 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

DATE:
AIM:

To conduct the retardation test to find FHP of the given single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
and to draw the graph between the drop in speed and the time taken

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Stop watch, Tachometer

Engine details:
Type : Single cylinder four stroke slow speed Diesel engine,
Loaded with a brake drum dynamometer.
Power : 6 HP (4.4 kW)
Speed : 650 rpm
Compression ratio :16:1
Bore :114.3 mm
Stroke :139.7mm
Specific Gravity :0.86

PROCEDURE:

1. The cooling water lines are opened.

2. The fuel in the tank and the valve (used to allow fuel from tank) position
are checked.
3. The engine is started at no load and allowed to run at the rated speed for about 5 minutes..
4. After the engine has attained the rated speed, the fuel supply is cut off. The time taken for
the speed to decrease through 100 rpm from the rated speed is noted.
5. As soon as the reading is taken, the fuel is again allowed to flow and the maximum speed
is reached to achieve
6. Time for 200 , 300 and 400 rpm drop of speed from the maximum speed is taken.
7. The engine is now loaded to 50% of the full load and is allowed to attain the rated speed.
8. After attaining the rated speed, the same procedure is followed and the time for the various
speed reductions is noted.
9. The readings are tabulated neatly.

Calculation of the Maximum load , Wmax

1. Brake Power ( BP ) = (2 Nrated T)/ (60 x 1000) kW
2. Brake Torque (T) = (BP x 60000) / (2Nrated ) Nm.
= (4.4 x 60 x 1000 )/ (2  x 650 )
T = 64.67 Nm
T = Wmax x Reff
Wmax = T / Reff
=64.67 / 0.25= 258.68 N = 258.68 /g = 258.68 / 9.81= 26.36
in kg
Hence the maximum load that can be applied to the engine is 26.36 kg.
Reff = Effective radius of the brake drum = 0.25 m
 FORMULA USED:
1. Brake Power ( BP ) = (2 NT)/ (60 x 1000) kW
N: Speed values of the engine from the tabular column.
T : Brake torque = Wnet x Reff. x g
Wnet = W1 – W2.
W1:Load added on the weight hanger. kg
W2:Spring balance reading kg

2. Torque at ½ load (T1/2) = T / 2 Nm = 64.67 /2 = 32.34 Nm

3. Frictional Torque(Tf) = (T1/2 * t1) / (t2 - t1)

Where
ti is the time for speed reduction percentage at no load
in Seconds
t2 is the time for speed reduction percentage at 50%
load.
Seconds

4. Frictional Power (FP) = 2ΠNTf / 60000.

5. Fall in speed percentage = (Rated speed –Observed speed)/Rated speed

TABULATION :
Observed Time for the Time for Frictional Brake Mechanical
S. Fall in speed speed drop the speed power Power Efficiency
No. speed (%) N “rpm” at no load drop at 50% (kW) (kW)
t1 , sec load
t2,sec
1

Table.6.1
Fig.6.1 Model graph
 LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

For Further Reading

1) http://bspyromatic.com/thermal_sigle_cylinder-20002.html
2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qk3qP901Hxk
3) http://papers.sae.org/810073/
DO YOU KNOW?

Frictional Limit of A Thermodynamic Cycle

• Integration of Real p-V diagram of an engine cycle will give net indicated work output per
cycle.
• This is only an indicative work output.
• Only a fraction is available for use.
• Actual work output available for use is called as engine brake work output.
• Any thermodynamic cycle can be implemented as an engine.
• Thermodynamic model generates indicated work output and engine generates brake work
output.
• Any thermodynamic concept is said to be practically feasible, only when engine brake power
is positive and significant with respect to physical size of the engine.
• The difference between indicative work output and brake work output is defined as Frictional
Work.
• The value of brake or frictional work is practically accepted as significant by comparing
to the size of the engine

Friction Loss
• As the internal parts of an engine move, they rub against each other and lose energy due to
friction.
• The drain of power is the piston rubbing against the cylinder walls.
• As power output and spin rate increase, the losses due to friction account for a larger portion
of the engine's gross output.
• This is why efficiency falls off above the "sweet spot".
• Oil is circulated in the engine to reduce friction, but the primary goal is to reduce wear to an
acceptable level.
• Until recently, engine design did not go to great lengths to further reduce friction and as a
result improve efficiency.
• Ironically, friction becomes more of a problem as engines get smaller.
• So, when we make an engine smaller to address the partial power problem, we give up
some of the gain to increased friction losses

Fig.6.1 Distribution of fuel power

 Effect of Variables on Friction

1. Stroke to Bore Ratio:

Engines with a lower stroke-to-bore (L/B) ratio tend to have a less friction mean effective
pressure (fmep) mainly due to its lower surface area.

2. Cylinder Size and Number of Cylinders:

The friction and economy improves when a smaller number of larger cylinders are used. This
is because the ratio of the piston face area to its skirt area is reduced. Thus for the same total
displacement, a four cylinder engine will be more efficient than a six cylinder engine

3. Compression Ratio:
The fmep increases with the increase of compression ratio. However, the mechanical efficiency
either remains constant or improves because of increased indicated mean effective pressure
(imep).

4. Engine Speed:
Engine friction increases rapidly with the increase of engine rotational speed. The mechanical
efficiency deteriorates considerably at higher engine speeds. Hence, there is a restriction to
limit the engine speeds

5. Engine Load:
With the increase of load, the maximum pressure in the cylinder, and hence the frictional losses
in an engine increase. However, the maximum pressure and hence the temperature reduces the
viscosity of the oil. This reduces the friction slightly.

6. Oil Viscosity:
Viscosity of oil and friction losses are proportional to each other. By raising the oil temperature,
the viscosity can be sufficiently reduced. However, beyond a certain value, oil film might crack
leading to metal-to-metal contact causing damage to the engine

7. Coolant Temperature:
A rise in cooling water temperature reduces engine friction through its effect on oil viscosity.
Friction losses are high at the time of starting as the coolant and the oil both are at the low
temperature with the oil having a higher viscosity
GRAPH :
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What are the various methods to find FHP? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

2. What is the use of retardation test? Why it is done on a Blooms Level :

low speed engine? Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

3. How do you reduce frictional power? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

4. Why CI engines are Bulkier than SI engine? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

5. Which type of engine pollutes less? Explain. Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
Thus the retardation test on the single cylinder 4- Stroke diesel engine was conducted and the
frictional power was found to be________________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO :7 DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT

DATE:
AIM:
To determine the flash and fire points of the given oil using Pensky-Mortein’s Open cup
apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Pensky-Mortein’s apparatus, Thermometer

DESCRIPTION:
1. The apparatus consists of a brass cup with a filling mark inside.
2. The cup is surrounded by electric heating elements.
3. The brass cup is closed with a cover where provisions are made to insert thermometer, to
introduce test flame and to connect the stirrer.

PROCEDURE:
Open cup
1. The oil cup is cleaned and dried.
2. The oil is poured in the cup up to the filling mark.
3. The heater is connected to the mains and the rate of heating is adjusted.
4. As the oil temperature increases, the test flame is applied at an interval of 2oC to find the
flash and fire points.
5. The flash and fire points are noted in the open conditions.
Closed cup
6. The cup is covered with the given lid.
7. The heater is connected to the mains and the rate of heating is adjusted.
8. As the oil temperature increases, the test flame is applied at an interval
of 2oC to find the flash and fire points.

TABULATION:
Sample oil Condition Sl.No. Flash point Fire point
o o
C C
open cup 1

closed cup 1

Table .6.1
 LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SPACE FOR CALCULATION:

For Further Reading

1) https://www.britannica.com/science/flash-point
2) http://www.pharmaceuticalonline.com/doc/flash-fire-and-autoignition-points-demystifie-
0001
3) http://www.ilpi.com/msds/ref/flashpoint.htm
DO YOU KNOW?

Flash Point:
It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel will flash when an external source of fire is
brought in contact with the vapors over its surface.

Fire Point:
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the formation of combustible gases from the oil
is enough to maintain a steady combustible gas fire after it is ignited.

A “flashpoint” is the temperature at which a fluid generates enough vapor to be ignited

(“flash”).
There are two common test methods: Open Cup (ASTM D92) and Closed Cup (ASTM D93).
Both methods involve heating the sample in a small cup and inserting an ignitor into
the vapor. The temperature at which the vapor “flashes” is recorded. The difference between
the two methods is that that the cup is covered in the Closed Cup test which prevents any vapor
from dissipating to the air. The concentrated vapor vents directly into the ignition source.
Because the Open Cup has no cover it registers higher results since the sample must be hotter
to generate sufficient vapor to overcome what dissipates into the air. Typically the Open Cup
Flashpoint is 20-30°F higher than the Closed Cup

Auto Ignition:
The minimum temperature at which a fluid will spontaneously ignite without an external
ignition source, such as a flame or spark. Never operate a system above a fluid’s auto ignition
temperature.
In summary, fluids are intended to be used above their flash and fire points but never
above their auto ignition temperatures. How do these terms apply to heat transfer systems? In
a properly designed system, fluids can be used right up to their maximum bulk fluid
temperature rating which is usually much higher than the fluid’s flash and fire points. To
understand how you can heat past a flash or fire point, you need to consider how each relates
to a heat transfer system.
In the case of the flash point, vapors would need to collect or become trapped in a
relatively confined space AND have an ignition source to cause a ‘flash’. This combination is
very unlikely to happen within a properly engineered/constructed system and a workplace
operating with even only a moderate degree of safety.
In the case of the fire point, again through proper system design there should be no
air/oxygen contact (needed for a fire) at the heat source (boiler, electric immersion heater).
Also, during normal operation, the fluid is contained within the system and well away from
external ignition sources.
Fig.7.1 Flash & Point Apparatus

Fig 7.2.Flash Point of Motor Oils

REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What is the use of knowing flash and fire point of liquid Blooms Level :
fuels? Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

2. What are the other devices used to find flash and fire Blooms Level :
point? Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

3. What is the importance of flash and fire point in fuel Blooms Level :
storage? Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

4. What do you mean by self ignition temperature? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

5. How the oil is heated in your experimental set up? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
a) The flash point of the oil in open condition is ________ oC
b) The fire point of the oil in open condition is ________ oC
c)The flash point of the oil in closed cup condition is ________ oC
d) The fire point of the oil in closed cup condition is ________ oC

Signature of Faculty with date

EXP NO:8 STUDY OF STEAM GENERATORS AND STEAM TURBINES

DATE:

AIM :
To study and understand the principle of steam boilers and turbines.

DEFINITION:
Boiler, also called steam generator is the engineering device which generates steam at
constant pressure .It is a closed vessel, generally made of steel in which vaporization of water
takes place.Heat required for vaporization may be provided by the combustion of fuel in
furnace ,electricity ,nuclear reactor, hot exhaust gases, solar radiations.,etc.

Types of boilers:
Boilers are of many types. Depending upon their features they can be classified as given under:
(a)Based upon the orientation /axis of the shell.
(i)Vertical boiler has a vertical shell..
(ii)Horizontal boiler has its shell horizontal.
(iii)Inclined boiler has its shell inclined .

(b)Based upon utility of boiler.

(i)Stationary boiler
(ii)Portable boiler

IBased on the type of firing employed.

(i)Externally fired boiler; e.g : Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler
(ii)Internally fired boiler ., e.g .Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler

(d)Based on the tube content.

(i)Fire tube boiler e.g : Cornish, Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive boiler.
Hot gases flow through the tubes and water surrounds them.
(ii)Water tube boiler
Water flows through the tubes and hot gases surrounds them.
e.g : Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La- Mont boiler, Benson boiler .

(e)Based on the type of fuel used.

(i)solid fuel boiler :e.g : coal fired boilers.
(ii)Liquid Fuel boiler , e.g: Oil fired boilers.
(iii)Gas fired boiler : e.g: Natural gas fired boilers.

(f)Based on circulation
According to the flow of the water/steam caused by the density difference due to the
temperature variation.
(i)Natural circulation
Here, the circulation of water/steam caused by the density difference due to the steam
temperature.

(ii)Forced Circulation boilers.

Here, the circulation of water /steam is caused by a pump, or fan.
Boiler Mountings
1.Water level indicator
It is used for knowing the level of water in the boiler.

2.Safety Valve
Its function is to prevent the steam pressure from exceeding a limiting maximum pressure
value. Safety valve should operate automatically by releasing excess steam and bring pressure
down within safe limits.

3.Fusible Plug
It is a safety device used for preventing the level of water from going down below a critical
point and thus avoid overheating. It is mounted at crown plate of combustion chamber.

4.Pressure Gauge
It is mounted at front top. Pressure is continuously monitored so as to avoid occurrence of over
shooting of boiler pressure.

5.Stop Valve
It regulates the flow of steam from the boiler .This is generally mounted on highest part of
boiler shell and performs the function of regulating the flow of steam from boiler.

6.Feed Check Valve

It is a non return valve at the end of delivery pipe from feed water pump and is placed on
boiler shell slightly below normal water level. It is used to fill the boiler with water.

7.Blow off cock

It is used for cleaning by discharging the water and sediments from bottom of boiler. Blow off
cock also helps in regulating the salt concentration as frequent draining helps in throwing out
salt deposited over period of time. Opening blow off cock removes deposited sediments in
boiler.
8.Manhole and Mud box
Manhole provides the opening for cleaning ,inspection and maintenance purpose.
Mud box is a collection chamber for collecting the mud.

Accessories
1. 1.Super Heater
Its function is to super heat the steam and is a type of heat exchanger in which steam
flows inside the tubes and hot gases surrounding it.

2. Economiser
An economizer is a device used to heat feed water by utilizing the heat of exhaust flue
gases before leaving the chimney.

3. Air preheater
An air preheater is used to recover the heat from the exhaust flue gases. It is installed
between the economizer and the chimney. The air required for the purpose of
combustion is drawn through the air preheater where its temperature is raised. It is
then passed through the ducts to the furnace. The air is passed through the tubes of
the heater internally while hot flue gases are passed over the outside of the tubes.
Fig.8.1 High Pressure water tube boiler

Fig.8.2 Fire tube boiler

Steam turbines

A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of
momentum of the steam.

In general a steam turbine consists of the following

1.The nozzle in which the heat energy of high pressure steam is converted to kinetic energy ,so
that the steam is issued out of the nozzle with a very high velocity.
2.The blades change the direction of steam that is issuing from the nozzle, so that a force acts
on the blades due to the change of momentum and propel them.

Principle
The principle of steam turbine is the generation of high velocity steam jet by the
expansion of high pressure steam and then conversion of kinetic energy , so obtained into
mechanical work on rotor blades.

Classification of steam turbine

1.According to the mode of steam action
(i)Impulse turbine (ii)Reaction turbine

2.According to the direction of steam flow

(i)Axial flow turbine (ii)Radial flow turbine

3.According to the exhaust condition of steam

(i)Condensing turbine (ii)Non condensing turbine

4.According to the pressure of steam

(i)High pressure turbine (ii)Medium Pressure turbine (iii)high pressure turbine

5.According to the number of stages

(i)Single stage turbine (ii)Multi stage turbine

Impulse turbine
An impulse turbine is a turbine which runs by the impulse of steam jet of this turbine,
the steam is first made to flow through the nozzle. Then the steam jet impinges on the turbine
blades (which are curves like blades) that are mounted on the circumference of the wheel. The
steam jet after impinging glides over the concave surface of the blades and finally leave the
turbine.
Reaction turbine
In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the
blades.The steam, while gliding ,propels the blades and make them to move.As a matter of fact,
the turbine runner is rotated by the reactive forces of steam jets.The backward motion of the
blades is similar to the recoil of a gun.

For Further Reading

1) http://www.bosch-industrial.com/en/product-page/steam-boilers/
2) http://www.boilerindia.com/
3) http://www.thermaxglobal.com/boilers-and-heaters/packaged-boilers/coil-type-boiler/
https://cochran.co.uk/products/steam-boilers.aspx
 Fig.8.3 Pressure velocity change in Steam turbine

Difference between the steam and turbine and a steam engine

Sr Criteria Steam Turbine Steam Engine
No
1 Thermal Efficiency High Less
2 Balancing As there is no reciprocating Hard to achieve perfect balancing
parts in steam turbine, and needs heavy foundation.
perfect balancing is possible.
3 Speed Higher and greater range of Lesser range of speed.
speed is possible
4 Lubrication simple Complicated
5 Need of Flywheel As the power generation A flywheel is needed.
here is at a uniform rate, a
flywheel is not required.
6 Steam consumption Less More
7 Compactness More compact Bulky
8 Construction Lighter construction and Complex construction
easier maintenance
9 Cost Affordable cost than the Costly than the steam turbine.
steam engine
DO YOU KNOW?

History of boilers
Boilers were built as early as the 1st century ad by Hero of Alexandria but were used
only as toys. Not until the 17th century was serious consideration given to the potential of
steam power for practical work. The first boiler with a safety valve was designed by Denis
Papin of France in 1679; boilers were made and used in England by the turn of the 18th century.
Early boilers were made of wrought iron; as the advantages of high pressure and temperature
were realized, manufacturers turned to steel. Modern boilers are made of alloy steel to
withstand high pressures and extremely high temperatures.

Indian Boiler Regulation(IBR)

Steam boilers which are regulated by Indian Boiler Regulations are IBR Boilers:-

IBR boilers means any closed vessel exceeding 25 liters in capacity and which is used
expressively for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other fitting
attached to such vessel which is wholly or partly under pressure when the steam is shut off.
IBR steam pipe means any pipe through which steam passes from a boiler to a prime
mover or other user or both if pressure at which steam passes through such pipes exceeds 3.5
kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure or such pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter and
includes in either case any connected fitting of a steam pipe.

Non-IBR means any steam producing vessel or equipment having water holding
capacity less than 25 liters and producing steam below 1 kg/cm2.

Why does steam contains so much energy?

If you've ever burned yourself with steam, you'll know it's incredibly painful—and
much more so than an ordinary hot water burn. If water and steam are at the same temperature,
why does steam hurt more? Simply because it contains much more energy. To turn 1kg of water
at 100°C into 1kg of steam at the same temperature, you need to supply about 2257 kilojoules
of energy, or roughly 1000 times as much as an electric kettle or toaster uses in one second.
That's an absolutely huge amount of energy! It's what we call the latent heat of vaporization of
water: it's the energy you have to supply to move the molecules in the water far enough apart
to turn the boiling hot liquid into a hot gas.

So why does steam hurt more? If 100°C boiling water hits your body, it cools down
and gives up its heat; that's the energy that burns you. If 100°C steam hits your body, it first
turns back to water and then cools down, burning you the same way as the hot water but also
giving up the latent heat of vaporization to your body. It's this extra massive dose of heat energy
that makes a steam burn so much more serious and painful than a hot water burn. On the
positive side, this latent energy "hidden" in steam is what makes it so useful in steam engines
and steam turbines.
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What is blow down in boilers? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

2. What is super critical boilers? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

3. What is the importance of draught in boilers? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

4. What do you mean by staging of steam turbines? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

5. What do you mean by condensing turbine? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max 2):

Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
Hence , the steam generator and the steam turbine are studied.

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO :9 PERFORMANCE TEST ON STEAM GENERATORS

DATE:

AIM : To conduct a test on an Electric fired steam generator and

(i) To calculate the boiler thermal efficiency
(ii) To draw the heat balance sheet.

SPECIFICATIONS :
Type : NON IBR – Electric boiler with steam Turbine.
Capacity : 20 liters / hr.
Operating pressure : 12 kg/cm2(Maximum)

APPARATUS :
Steam generator Test Rig, and accessories.

PROCEDURE:
1. Start the feed water pump with the help of switch provided in the top left of the main
panel
2. Allow the water to the boiler to the marked level in gauge glass by opening the water
inlet valve
3. Switch ON the heaters (All six heaters) till the water gets converted in to steam for the
set pressure and temperature values.
4. Switch ON the turbine panel board main switch.
5. Allow the water to circulate through the condenser by switching ON the condenser
water supply pump.
6. Note down the temperature and pressure of the boiler.
7. Also note down the temperature of the condensate water temperature.
8. Repeat the experiment at various intervals.
9. Using the formula determine the boiler efficiency and rate of evaporation.
10. Switch OFF all the heaters and switch OFF the turbine panel board.
11. Release all the pressure in the boiler by slowly opening the blow down valve.
12. Allow the cooling water to the condenser by switch ON the pump.
13. Put OFF the condenser water circulating pump.

FORMULA:
Boiler feed water temperature tf = tinlet °C
Boiler outlet steam temperature tsup =

From Steam tables

tinlet = hf1 kJ/kg

tsup = hsup kJ/kg

Total heat supplied to steam formation = hsup-hf1 kJ/kg
Mass of steam generated ms = kg

Boiler Efficiency = ms x (hsup-hf1)/V x I x No of heaters

Gross heat supplied = V x I x No of Heaters kW

 Heat utilized in generating steam =ms(h sup-hfi) kJ/sec
Amount of Heat lost by Condensate =mw(hout-hin) kJ/sec
Factor of Evaporation =Fe= hsup-hf1/ hfg

TABULATION:
S.No Details kJ/s % S.No Details kJ/s %
1 Gross 1 Heat utilized in generating steam
amount of
Heat
supplied 2 Heat carried away by the condensate
water
3 Unaccounted loss

4 Total Heat

Table .9.1

Fig.9.1
LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

For Further reading

1)http://www.em-ea.org/Guide%20Books/book-4/4.1%20Boiler.pdf
2) https://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/news_room.aspx?Id=boilers&nid=112
3) http://iea-etsap.org/E-TechDS/PDF/I01-ind_boilers-GS-AD-gct.pdf
4) https://www.gepower.com/steam/products/boilers.html
SPACE FOR CALCULATION:
DO YOU KNOW?

There are two methods to measure the boiler efficiency 1) direct method 2) indirect method

Direct method -direct method of boiler efficiency test is more usable or more common. Where
the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of
the boiler fuel.

boiler efficiency =Q*(Hg-Hf)/q*GCV *100

Q =Total steam flow
Hg= Enthalpy of saturated steam in k cal/kg
Hf =Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg
q= quantity of fuel use in kg/hr
GCV =gross calorific value in Kcal/kg like pet coke (8200 KCAL/KG)

Indirect method Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy
input.
-to measure the boiler efficiency in indirect method, we need a following parameter like
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint, ash constraint)
• percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas
• flue gas temperature at outlet
• ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg
• GCV of fuel in Kcal/kg
• ash percentage in combustible fuel
• GCV of ash in Kcal/kg

The various factors affecting the boiler performance are listed below:
ƒ
1. Periodical cleaning of boilers
2. ƒ Proper water treatment programme and blow down control
3. ƒ Draft control
4. ƒ Excess air control
5. ƒ Percentage loading of boiler
6. ƒ Steam generation pressure and temperature
7. ƒ Boiler insulation
8. ƒ Quality of fuel

Boiler turndown
Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output when
operating at low fire. Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown
reduces frequent on and off cycling. Fully modulating burners are typically designed to operate
down to 25% of rated capacity. At a load that is 20% ofthe load capacity, the boiler will turn
off and cycle frequently.
Fig.9.2 Direct method of efficiency calculation for boiler (Coal/Oil fired)

Fig.9.2 Indirect method of efficiency calculation for boiler (Coal/Oil fired)

GRAPH:
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What are the classifications of Boiler? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

2. What is the function of condenser? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

3. Differentiate Boiler mountings and accessories. Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

4. What do you mean by IBR boiler and NON IBR boiler? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

5. What do you mean by evaporation ratio? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
The performance test of the given electrical boiler is conducted and heat balance diagram is
drawn.

Signature of Faculty with date:

EXP NO :10 PERFORMANCE TEST ON STEAM TURBINES

DATE:

AIM : To conduct a test on the impulse steam turbine and to draw the performance curves and
draw a heat balance sheet.

SPECIFICATION :
Turbine : Impulse
No. Of nozzles :3
Inlet pressure : 12 kg/ cm2.
Steam flow rate : 0.01 kg/ s / nozzle
Speed of turbine : 2000 rpm
Output power : 500 W

Starting and running procedure :

1.Start the boiler and maintain a pressure of 10 kg/ cm2.

2. Switch on the steam turbine panel which is connected to a 3 phase 440 V power source with
neutral connection.
3. Switch on the vacuum reciprocating pump.
4.Main switch on the turbine panel board is switched on.When sufficient pressure ( 10 kg/ cm2
to 12 kg/ cm2) is built in the boiler, allow cooling water to circulate through the condenser by
switching on the condenser water supply pump.Slowly open the boiler main valve a little and
simultaneously open the main line valve’s bypass valve in the steam line and the ball valve
provided under the turbine.
5.When all the condensed water in the steam line and the turbine is driven out close the main
line bypass valve and the valve under the turbine.
6.Adjust the handle of dynamometer spring balance screw so that the balance is just loaded to
0 kg.
7.Open the steam valve and adjust so that a pressure of 10kg/cm2 , is maintained on the turbine
pressure gauge.
8.When the turbine speed reaches about 2000rpm, load the turbine by switching on the
individual switches to the bulbs.
9.Enter the speed of the turbine, voltmeter ,ammeter readings.
10.Switch on another bulb on the loading device and after few minutes note down all the
observations.
11.While doing the experiment control the pressure so that the turbine inlet pressure remains
at 10 kg/ cm2 and the sufficient water is in the boiler.

CALCULATIONS :
1.Conversion of kg/ cm2 to bar.
= [ 0.9807 x { p1 (kg/cm2 ) + 1.032 }] bar
p1 : Steam pressure at turbine inlet.

2.Total Steam Consumption , TSC.

=TSC + ( 1271 / tc) kg/ hr

tc : Time taken for 4 cm rise in water level of condensate tank in sec.
3.Specific Steam consumption , SSC
SSC = TSC / Pd kg/ kW
Pd : Turbine Output power

1.294  n  WD
Pd = kW
10000
n : Speed of the turbine in rpm.
WD: Dynamometer spring balance reading , kg.

4.Rankine Efficiency , η RE:

 h  T 
(T1 - T2 ) 1 + fg1  − T2 ln  1 
 RE =  T2   T2 
(T1 - T2 ) + h fg 2

T1 : Temperature of steam at turbine inlet °C

T2 : Temperature of steam at turbine outlet °C
hfg1 : Enthalpy of vaporization from saturated steam tables for T1
°C
hfg2 : Enthalpy of vaporization from saturated steam tables for T2
°C

TABULATION :
Steam Pr. Steam Pr. TSC Turbine Output SSC Rankine
Power Eff

inlet Outlet Kg/hr Pd Kg/ kWhr ηR

P1 bar P2 bar kW %

Table.10.1

GRAPHS :
1.TSC Vs TURBINE O/P POWER
2.TSC Vs RANKINE EFFICIENCY
3.TSC Vs BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
 Fig,10.1
HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS :

1.Heat input at turbine inlet , qi

Qi = TSC X h1 KJ /s

2.Heat carried away by condensate , qc

Qc = tsc x hfc .
Hfc : Enthalpy of condensate liquid for Tc °C

3.Heat equivalent of work done , Pd , kJ / s

4.Heat carried away by condenser cooling water .

Qw = mc (h fo − h fi )
mc = Cooling water mass flow rate measured from flow meter manometer in kg/ s.
mc = K M H m kg / s

∆Hm = cooling water flow meter manometer reading in mm.

KM = 2.081 x 10-3 constant
hfi : Enthalpy of water at inlet temperature of cooling water, Tw1 °C
hfo : Enthalpy of water at outlet temperature of cooling water, Tw2 °C
1. Unaccounted losses, Qun = 1 – ( 2+3+4 ) KJ /s
All the above are calculated for each of the 4 or 5 sets of readings.
 TABULATION:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
N Qi Qd Qc Qw Qun Refer Refer Refer Refer
below below below below
( 11) ( 12) ( 13) ( 14)
rpm KJ/s KJ/s KJ/s KJ/s KJ/s % % % %

Table.10.2
1.Turbine Speed
2.Heat input at turbine inlet
3.Heat Equivalent of work done
4.Heat carried away by condensate
5.Heat carried away by condensate cooling water
6.Unaccounted losses , Qun
7.% of heat used , = ( Qd / Qi ) x 100
8.% of heat carried away by condensate , ( Qc / Qi ) x 100
9.% of heat carried away by condenser cooling water ,
( Qw / Qi ) x 100
10.% of unaccounted heat loss ( Qun / Qi ) x 100
11. ( Qd / Qi ) x 100
12. ( Qc / Qi ) x 100
13. ( Qw / Qi ) x 100
14. ( Qun / Qi ) x 100

Fig10..2 Model Heat Balance Sheet

LAY OUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

For Further Reading

1) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27687
2) http://www.powerplant.vissim.com/
3) http://www.plant-maintenance.com/articles/steam_turbine_analysis.shtml
http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/features/steam-generator-
efficiency.html
SPACE FOR CALCULATION:
DO YOU KNOW?

.
Fig10.3 Steam turbine efficiency

Steam Turbine Efficiency

An ideal turbine with 100% efficiency is the one which converts all its input energy into
output work without dissipating energy in the form of heat or any other form. But in the real
world, it is not possible to build a turbine with 100% efficiency because of friction in the parts
of turbines, heat loss, and other such losses. In the case of steam turbines following factors
decides the overall efficiency f the turbine.
• Velocity of input steam (which in turn depends on the temperature and pressure of
steam)
• Angle of guiding vanes
• Blade angle on the rotor
• Radius of rotor

The electrical generating efficiency of standard steam turbine power plants varies
from a high of 37% HHV4 for large, electric utility plants designed for the highest practical
annual capacity factor, to under 10% HHV for small, simple plants which make electricity as
a byproduct of delivering steam to processes or district heating systems.

The maximum efficiency of impulse steam turbine is achieved at zero degrees

angle of inlet blades because this angle keeps the friction at the minimum by reducing the
surface area of the blade. It is also possible to link several turbines in series to utilize maximum
energy from steam before sending it back to the condenser. In this type of arrangement stage
efficiency calculation method works best. An important point to note here is that all this
discussion did not include the energy loss in heating water and condensing steam. Commercial
industries also calculate efficiencies of these operations to find out the overall efficiency of the
entire setup.

Different Efficiencies of Steam Turbines

Isentropic Efficiency: This is the efficiency which compares the actual output with the ideal
isentropic output to measure the effectiveness of extracted work.
CHP Electrical Efficiency: Combined Heat and Power (CHP) electrical efficiency measures
the amount of boiler fuel converted into electrical energy or electricity. It can be calculated by
following equation
CHP electrical efficiency = Net electricity generated/Total fuel into boiler
Total CHP Efficiency: This efficiency measures total output including electricity and steam
energy by the boiler fuel. It is calculated by following formula.
Total CHP efficiency = (Net electricity generated + Net steam to process)/Total fuel into boiler
Effective Electrical Efficiency: This efficiency is calculated by the formula
(Steam turbine electric power output) / (Total fuel into boiler – (steam to process/boiler
efficiency))
It is equivalent to 3,412 Btu/kWh/Net Heat Rate and
Net Heat Rate = (total fuel input to the boiler – the fuel that would required to generate the
steam to process assuming the same boiler efficiency/steam turbine electric output (kW)
Heat or power ratio is also an important factor in this discussion and it can be calculated by the
formula
Power/Heat Ratio = CHP electrical power output (Btu)/ useful heat output (Btu)

Fig.10.4 Steam Turbine Efficiency

GRAPH:
REVIEW ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What are the types of Turbines.? Blooms Level :
Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

2. What is meant by Cascading of Turbines? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

3. What do you know about governing of turbines.? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):

Answer:

4. What is the use of stationary blades in turbines? Blooms Level :

Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

5. What are the types of turbines used in thermal power Blooms Level :
plants. Marks (Max
2):
Answer:

Total Review Marks

RESULT :
Hence the performance of the steam turbine has been worked out and the corresponding graphs
drawn .The heat balance sheet has also been drawn.

Signature of Faculty with date:

 Ex No:11 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT BY GUARDED
HOT PLATE METHOD

Date:
AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of given insulating material using two slab
guarded hot plate method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Guarded hot plate setup.
2. Stop Watch.

DESCRIPTION:
The Essential parts are the hot plates, the cold plates, the heater assembly,
Thermocouples and the specimen in position. For the measurement of thermal conductivity
what is required is to have a one dimensional heat flow through the flat specimen, an
arrangement for maintain ing its faces at constant temperature and some metering method to
measure the heat flow through a known area. To eliminate the distortion caused by edge losses
in unidirectional heat flow, the central plate is surrounded by a guard ring which is separately
heated. Temperatures are measured by calibrated thermocouples either attached to the plates
or to the specimens at the hot and cold faces. Two specimens are used to ensure that all the heat
comes out through the specimen only. Knowing the heat input to the central plate heater, the
temperature difference across the specimen, its thickness and the metering area one can
calculate k of the specimen.
SPECIFICATION:
Diameter of the heating plate : 100 mm
Width of the heating ring : 37 mm
Inside diameter of the heating ring : 106 mm
Outside diameter of the heating ring : 180 mm
Maximum Thickness of the Specimen : 25 mm
Minimum Thickness of the Specimen : 6 mm

Diameter of the Specimen : 180 mm

Mean Temperature Range : 40⁰C – 100⁰C
Maximum Temperature of the Hot Plate : 170⁰C
Diameter of the Cooling Plate : 180mm
Central Heater : Nichrome Strip Type Sandwiched
between Mica Sheets (400W)
Guarded Heater Ring : Nichrome Strip type Sandwiched

between Mica Sheets (400W)

DimmerStat 2Nos. : 0-2Amp, 0-240Volts
Voltmeter : 0-100/200V
Ammeter : 0-2Amp
Thermocouples : 6 Nos. (Chromel Alumel)
Insulation Box : 375mm x 375mm x 375mm(Approx.)
Temperature Indicator : 0-200⁰C
PROCEDURE:
1. The Specimens are placed on either side of the heating plate assembly, uniformly
touching the cooling plates.
2. Then the outer container is filled with loose fill insulation such as glass wool. The
cooling circuit is stared.
3. Then known input is given to central and guard heaters through seperate single phase
supply lines with a dimmerstat in each line and it is adjusted to maintain the desired
temperatures.
4. The guard heaters input is adjusted in such a way that there is no radial heat flow which
is checked from thermocouple readings and is adjusted accordingly.
5. The input to the central heater and the thermocouple readings are recorded after every
10minutes till a reasonably steady state condition is reached.
6. The readings are recorded in the observation table.
7. The final steady state values are taken for calculations.
 TABULATION:
CENTRAL HEATER GUARDED HEATER COOLING
PLATE
V Volts I T1 ºC T2 V Volts I Amps T3 ºC T4 ºC T5 ºC T6 ºC
Amps ºC

CALCULATION:
Central heater input W1 in W = V * I

Metering Area A = π/4(10+X)2

X – Gap between heater plates in mm = 2.5mm

Thermal Conductivity of Press Wood K in W/mK = (W*L) / [2A(Th-Tc)]

Th = (T1+T2+T3+T4) / 4
Tc = (T5+T6)/2

RESULT:
Thus the Thermal Conductivity of given Insulating material is determined using Guarded Hot
Plate method and the value of K = __________________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. How this method of finding Thermal Conductivity differs from lagged pipe method?

2. Explain why the central plate is surrounded by a guard ring in the experimental set up?

3. Draw the experimental set up and explain the working.

4. Name some insulating materials?

5. How Thermal conductivity influences in Heat transfer?

Ex.No.:12 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF PIPE INSULATION USING
LAGGED PIPE APPARATUS
Date:

AIM:
To find the thermal conductivity of the unknown material (saw dust)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Lagged pipe set up

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the unit and check if all channels of temperature indicator showing proper
temperature.
2. Switch on the heater using the regulator and keep one power input at some particular
value.
3. Allow the unit to stabilize for about 20 to 30 minutes. Now note the ammeter, Voltmeter
readings which give heat input.
4. Temperatures 1, 2, 3, - temperature of heating rod.
5. Temperatures 4, 5 and 6 - temperature on the asbestos
6. Temperatures 7&8 temperature on the saw dust lagging.
7. The average temperature of each cylinder is taken for calculation.
8. The temperatures are measured by thermo couple (Fe/Co) with multipoint digital
indicator.
9. The experiment may be repeated for different heat input.
TABULATION
Heater Temperature ̊C Asbestos Temperature ̊C Saw Dust
Temperature ̊C V A
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Volts Ampere
OBSERVATION:

Diameter of the heater rod D1= 20mm

Diameter of heater rod with asbestos lagging D2 = 40mm
Diameter of heater rod with asbestos & saw dust lagging D3 = 80mm
Effective length of the pipe L = 500mm

CALCULATION:
Ta in ºC= (T1+T2+T3)/3 =
Tb in ̊C = (T4+T5+T6)/3 =
̊ = (T7+T8)/2
Tc in C =

∆T1 in C
̊ = Ta - Tb (Temperature Difference between Heater and Asbestos) =
∆T2 in C
̊ = Tb - Tc (Temperature difference between Asbestos and Saw Dust) =

Q in W = Voltage x Current
Q=

Use HMT Data Book: Conduction formula

Thermal conductivity of Asbestos K1
K1 in W/m K =

Thermal Conductivity of Saw Dust K2

K2 in W/m K =

Result:
Thus the thermal conductivity of lagging material is found to be
For Asbestos K1 = ________________________
For Saw Dust K2 = ________________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. How this method of finding Thermal Conductivity differs from Guarded hot plate method?

2. What is Thermal Conductivity?

3. Draw the schematic diagram of lagged pipe set up?

4. Difference between material and non material?

5. Differentiate composite wall and lagged pipe?

Ex. No. :13 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER FROM A
VERTICAL CYLINDER
Date :

AIM:
To find the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube losing heat by natural convection.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Vertical Cylinder setup
2. Thermocouple readers
3. Dimmerstat and heater setup
FORMULA USED:
Heat transfer rate coefficient h = q / (As (Ts – Ta)) in W/m2K
As =Surface Area =
Average Surface temperature
Ts = (T1+ T2+ T3+ T4+ T5+ T6+ T7) / 7 in ºC =
Ta =Ambient Temperature =T8 in ºC =
Tf = (Ts+Ta)/2 =

{Nusselt’s Number Nu = hL/K = 0.59(Gr Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr Pr < 109
Nu=0.1(Gr Pr)0.333 for Gr Pr > 109 }
Nu =
Grasshoff’s Number (Gr) = g L3 β ∆T / γ2 =

β = 1/(Tf +273) in K -1 =

Prandtl Number (Pr) = CP μ / K =

Where K – Thermal Conductivity in W/mK

Temperature Difference ∆T = Ts - Ta =
Heat Transfer Coefficient h in W/m2K = Nu*(K/L) =

PROCEDURE:
1. The heater is switched ON and the Voltmeter, ammeter readings are set to the preset Values
using dimmer stat.
2. Now the setup is left free for some time to gain certain constant value of temperature
T1,T2…..T7 say 55ºC .
3. When the temperature reaches that value the Voltmeter, the Ammeter and temperature
reading are taken.
4. Next experiment is repeated for different values of constant temperature values like 65ºC ,
75ºC etc and proceeded in same manner.

FIG :13.1 - EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

TABULATION
S.No. T1ºC T2 ºC T3ºC T4ºC T5ºC T6ºC T7ºC TaºC V in I in
Volts Amps
CALCULATION (Use HMT DataBook When required)

1. As in m2 =
Where d = 38mm

2. q in W = V * I

3. Heat transfer rate coefficient h = q / (As (Ts – Ta)) in W/m2K

4. Average Surface temperature

1. Ts = (T1+ T2+ T3+ T4+ T5+ T6+ T7) / 7 in ºC
2. Ta =Ambient Temperature =T8 in ºC
3. Tf = (Ts+Ta)/2

5. Nusselt’s Number Nu = hL/K =

(Use HMT DataBook for the Gr Pr values)
6. Grasshoff’s Number (Gr) = g L3 β ∆T / γ2

7. β = 1/(Tf +273) in K -1

8. Prandtl Number (Pr) = CP μ / K

9. Temperature Difference ∆T = Ts – Ta
 10. Heat Transfer Coefficient h in W/m2K = Nu*(K/L)

RESULT:
The heat transfer coefficient of cylindrical pipe is found to be h = ___________________

Signature of Faculty with date:

 REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is the change in heat transfer if the cylinder is kept horizontal?

2. What happened to heat transfer if the heater is kept in the middle of the apparatus?

3. What happened to heat transfer if the heater is kept in the bottom of the apparatus?

4. If the material changed for the same input what will be the output?

5. If the enclosure in the setup is removed what will happen to output?

Ex. No. :14 FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE TUBE

Date :

AIM:
To determine the heat transfer coefficient in a horizontal pipe under forced convection
mode for a particular flow rate.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Forced Convection Equipment
2. Dimmer stat
SPECIFICATION
Outer Dia of pipe (Do) : 33 mm
Inner Dia of Pipe (Di) : 28 mm
Length of Test Section (L) : 400mm
Diameter of Orifice (d) : 14mm
Blower Power : 0.28 HP
Heater : Nichrome wire 400 W heater
FORMULA USED
The rate at which air is heated qa :
Where m – Mass Flow Rate in kg/hr = Q* a

Q in m3 /hr = [Cd πd2(2gH(ρw / ρa))0.5] / 4

Where Cd – Coefficient of Discharge of Orifice meter

d – Diameter of Orifice
H – Height difference of Manometer
ρa –Air Density
ρw-Water Density

Heat Transfer Coefficient ha = Qa / (As ( Ts – Ta))

Where
Ts – Average Surface Temperature
Ta – Average of Temperature
Qa – Rate at which air is getting Heated
A – Test Cross Section Area
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the Blower and adjust the flow by means of gate valve to some desired value in
manometer level.
2. Start Heating of the test section with the help of dimmer stat and adjust desired heat
input with the help of voltmeter and ammeter.
Take Readings of all six thermocouples at an interval of 10min until steady state is
reached. Note down the heater input.

TABULATION
TABLE 1

S.No. Voltage & Current Temperature in ̊C Manometer

Setting Reading(mm)
V VOLTS I AMPS T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 h1 ((mm_)
h2

TABLE 2

m in kg/hr ha in W/m2 ̊C Re Pr Nutheo Nuact

CALCULATION

1. Q = [Cd πd2(2gH(ρw / ρa))0.5] / 4

 2. Mass Flow Rate m = Q*a

3. Ta = (T1 + T6 )/2

Take Cp & ρa from HMT data Book for Air at Ta Value

4. Rate at which air is heated qa = m Cp ΔT

5. ha = Qa / (As ( Ts – Ta))

6. Ts = (T2 + T3 + T4 + T5)/4

7. As = πDi L

RESULT:

Thus the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection mode for horizontal pipe is determined.

h = ________________________
 REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What happened to the Rate of heat transfer if the flow rate is increased or decreased?

2. What happened to the Rate of heat transfer if the orifice diameter is increased or decreased?

3. What is the equivalent of mmhg in meter of water column?

4. What is residential time?

5. Relation between residential time and rate of heat transfer?

Ex.No.:15 DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
COMPOSITE WALL
Date:

AIM:
To find the heat transfer through the composite wall

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Composite wall experiment set up

PROCEDURE:
1. Check if all the plates are arranged symmetrically on both sides of the heater plates.
2. Operate the hand press properly to ensure perfect contact.
3. Close the box by cover sheet to achieve steady state.
4. Start the power supply to heater by varying the dimerstat and adjust the input to desired
value.
5. Take readings of all thermocouples at intervals of 10 minutes until steady state is
achieved.
6. Note the readings

TABULATION

Temperatures(̊C)
V A
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Volts Ampere

CALCULATION:
Ta in ºC= (T1+T2)/2 =
Tb in ºC = (T3+T4)/2 =
Tc in ºC = (T5+T6)/2 =
Td in ºC = (T7+T8)/2 =

Calculations
Heat flux q =Q/A
Q= W/m2
Where A = π/4 *D2 where D is half diameter of plates

Total thermal resistance of composite slab is R total= Ta-Td

q

Thermal conductivity of composite slab K Composite = qxb /( Ta-Td)

Where b is total thickness of composite slab.

Result:
Plot the thickness of slab material against the temperature gradient.
 REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Why the d value should be taken half the diameter or calculation?

2. Name some practical applications of composite walls

3. What are the types of composite structures?

4. Why should the composite wall materials should be hard-pressed together before starting the
experiment.
 Ex.No.:16 DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
INSULATING POWDER
Date :

AIM:
To find out the thermal conductivity of insulating powder
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
2. Insulating powder apparatus

PROCEDURE:
7. Switch on the unit and check if all channels of temperature indicator showing proper
temperature.
8. Switch on the heater using the regulator and keep one power input at some particular
value.
9. Allow the unit to stabilize for about 20 to 30 minutes. Now note the ammeter, Voltmeter
readings which give heat input.
10. Temperatures 1, 2, 3,4 - temperature of inner sphere
11. Temperatures 4, 5,6,7,8,9,10 - temperature on the asbestos
12. Note temperatures T1 to T10

TABULATION
Inner sphere Temperature Outer sphere Temperature ºC
ºC V A
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Volts Ampere

OBSERVATION:

Diameter of the heater rod D1= 20mm

Diameter of heater rod with asbestos lagging D2 = 40mm
Diameter of heater rod with asbestos & saw dust lagging D3 = 80mm
Effective length of the pipe L = 500mm
CALCULATION:
W=VI

T1 in ºC= (T1+T2+T3 T4)/4 =

T2 in ºC = (+T5+T6+ T7+ T8+ T9+ T10)/10 =

q = -K.4π.r2 dT / dr Kcal / hr
Where,
K = thermal conductivity.

q=0.86 W Kcal / hr

K = q (ro- ri)
4πriro(Ti– To )

q=VI (SI units)

So, K = W (ro- ri)

4πriro(Ti– To )

Result:
Thus the thermal conductivity of insulating material is found to be---------------------------
 REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. How this method of finding Thermal Conductivity differs from lagged pipe method?

2. What is Thermal Conductivity?

3. Draw the schematic diagram of insulating powder apparatus?

Ex.No:17a HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINS-NATURAL CONVECTION

Date:

AIM:
To determine the temperature distribution of a PIN-FIN for natural convection and FIN
efficiency.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Consider a PIN-FIN having the shape of rod whose base is attached to a wall at a surface
temperature Ts, the fin is cooled along the axis by a fluid at temperature TAMB. The fin has a
uniform cross sectional area Ao is made of material having a uniform thermal conductivity K
and the average heat transfer co-efficient between the surface to the fluid. We shall assume
that transverse temperature gradients are so small so that the temperature at any cross section
of the fin is uniform.
The apparatus consists of a Pin-fin placed inside an open duct, (one side open) the other
end of the duct is connected to the suction side of blower, the delivery side of a blower is taken
up through a gate valve and an orifice meter to the atmosphere. The airflow rate can be varied
by the gate valve and can be measured on the U tube manometer connected to the orifice meter.
A heater is connected to one end of the pin-fin and seven thermocouples are connected by equal
distance all along the length of the pin and the eigth thermocouple is left in the duct.
The panel of the apparatus consists of voltmeter, ammeter and digital temperature
indicator. Regulator is to control the power input to the heater. U tube manometer with
connecting hoses.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Duct width b = 150 mm
Duct height w = 100 mm
Orifice dia. do = 18 mm
Diameter of delivery pipe D = 45 mm
Orifice co-efficient Cd = 0.64
Fin length(Characteristic length) L = 145mm
Fin diameter df = 12.7mm
Thermal Conductivity of fin material K = 110W/mºC
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to a 230V, 50Hz, 15A power and switch on the unit.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3. Turn the regulator knob to clockwise and set the power to the heater to any desired value by
looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Switch ON the blower.
6. Set the airflow rate to any desired value looking at the difference in U tube manometer limb
levels.
7. Note down the temperatures indicated by temperature indicator.
8. Repeat the experiment by
a. Varying the airflow rate and keeping the power input to the heater constant.
b. Varying the power input to the heater and keeping the air flow rate constant.
9. Tabulate the readings and calculate for different conditions.
10. After all the experiment is over, put off the blower switch, turn the energy regulator knob
anti clockwise, put off the main switch and disconnect the power supply.

TABULATION:
Voltage (V) =
Current (I) =

Fin surface temp. ºC Ambiant

S.No. Temp. ºC

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
CALCULATIONS :
Power in Watts = V x I =

Surface Temperature = Ts in ºC = (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5) / 5 =

Film Temperature Tf in ºC = (Ts + T6) / 2 =

At Tf Note down the properties of air from HMT Data Book

Pr =

K=

β = 1/ (Tf + 273) =

ΔT in ºC = Ts – T6 =

Gr = Grashof number = (gβ ΔT D3 )/ γ2 =

Gr* Pr =
Local Nusselt Number (Refer HMT Data Book)
Nu =

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

h in W/m2K= (Nu*K)/D =

m = (hP/KA)0.5

K for brass = 110W/mK

A in m2 =

Perimeter P in m =
HEAT LOST BY FIN

Q in Watts = (hPKA)0.5 [T1-T6] tanh(mL) =

Fin Effectiveness
ε = tanh(mL)/(hA/KP)0.5 =

Fin Efficiency ηf in % = [tanh (mL)]/mL

RESULT :
The efficiency of the fin is found to be _________________________
The heat transfer coefficient is _____________________________
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What happened to fin efficiency if the copper is replaced by aluminium?

2. What happened to fin efficiency if fin area is increased?

3. Give 4 ways to increase the fin efficiency?

4. Name some fin application areas?

5. What are the types of Fins?

EX.NO:17B HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINS (FORCED CONVECTION)

Date:

AIM:
To determine the temperature distribution of a PIN-FIN for forced convection and FIN
efficiency.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Consider a PIN-FIN having the shape of rod whose base is attached to a wall at a surface
temperature Ts, the fin is cooled along the axis by a fluid at temperature TAMB. The fin has a
uniform cross sectional area Ao is made of material having a uniform thermal conductivity K
and the average heat transfer co-efficient between the surface to the fluid. We shall assume
that transverse temperature gradients are so small so that the temperature at any cross section
of the fin is uniform.
The apparatus consists of a Pin-fin placed inside an open duct, (one side open) the other
end of the duct is connected to the suction side of blower, the delivery side of a blower is taken
up through a gate valve and an orifice meter to the atmosphere. The airflow rate can be varied
by the gate valve and can be measured on the U tube manometer connected to the orifice meter.
A heater is connected to one end of the pin-fin and seven thermocouples are connected by equal
distance all along the length of the pin and the eighth thermocouple is left in the duct.
The panel of the apparatus consists of voltmeter, ammeter and digital temperature
indicator. Regulator is to control the power input to the heater. U tube manometer with
connecting hoses.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Duct width b = 150 mm
Duct height w = 100 mm
Orifice dia. do = 20 mm
Orifice co-efficient Cd = 0.6
Fin length L = 14.5cm
Fin diameter df = 12.5mm
(Characteristic length)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to a 230V, 50Hz, 15A power and switch on the unit.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3. Turn the regulator knob to clockwise and set the power to the heater to any desired
value by looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Switch ON the blower.
6. Set the airflow rate to any desired value looking at the difference in U tube manometer
limb levels.
7. Note down the temperatures indicated by temperature indicator.
8. Repeat the experiment by
a. Varying the airflow rate and keeping the power input to the heater constant.
b. Varying the power input to the heater and keeping the air flow rate constant.
9. Tabulate the readings and calculate for different conditions.
10. After all the experiment is over, put off the blower switch, turn the energy regulator
knob anti clockwise, put off the main switch and disconnect the power supply.
TABULATION:

Manometer Fin surface temp. ºC Ambient

Sl.No. reading(mm) temp. ºC

h1 h2 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
CALCULATIONS :
Power in Watts = V x I

Surface Temperature = Tf = (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5) / 5 =

Velocity of air flowing through the duct in m/s

U = {Cd *a* (2gΔh (ρw/ ρa) )0.5 } / Duct Area =

Duct Area =
Where Cd = co-efficient of orifice = 0.6
g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/sec2
ρw = Density of water.
ρa = Density of air at T6 value from HMT data book
Δh = manometer differential head.

REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF AIRFLOW:

Reynold’s number Re = (D * U) / γ =
Where U = Velocity of air in the duct. In m/s
D = Diameter of fin = 0.0125 m
γ = Kinematic Viscosity of air at toC. in m2/s from HMT data book

Nusselt Number Nu =
(Refer HMT Data Book)

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

h in W/m2K= (Nu*K)/ D =
HEAT LOST BY FIN
Refer HMT data book for m value , tanh = hyperbolic tan
Q in Watts = (hPKA)0.5 [T1-T6] tanh(mL) =

Fin Effectiveness ε = (hA/KP)0.5

Fin Efficiency ηf in % = [tanh (mL)]/mL

RESULT :
The efficiency of the fin is found to be_______________________
The heat transfer coefficient is____________________________
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What happened to the fin efficiency if the fluid flow rate is changed?

2. What happened to the fin efficiency if the fin shape is changed?

3. What happened to fin efficiency if orientation of the fin is changed?

4. Which cooling system is best?

5. If fin surface is rough what will happen to the cooling rate?

Ex.No:18 DETERMINATION OF STEFAN – BOLTZMAN CONSTANT

Date:
AIM:
To determine the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Stefan – Boltzman law which establishes the dependence of integral hemispherical
radiation on temperature. We can verify this phenomenon in this unit. The experimental set
up consisting of concentric hemispheres with provision for the hot water to pass through the
annulus. A hot water source is provided. The water flow may be varied using the control valve
provided, thereby to control the hot water temperature. A small disk is placed at the bottom of
the hemisphere, which receives the heat radiation and can be removed (or) refitted while
conducting the experiment. A multi point digital temperature indicator and thermocouples
(Fe/Ko) are provided to measure temperature at various points on the radiating surface of the
hemisphere and on the disc.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Mass of the disc = 0.005 kg.
2. Dia. of the disc = 0.020 m.
3. Material of the disc = Copper
4. Cp of Copper = 0.381 KJ/Kg K
PROCEDURE:
1. Allow water to flow through the hemisphere remove the disc from the bottom of
the hemisphere. Switch on the heater and allow the hemisphere to reach a steady
state temperature.
2. Note down the temperature t1, t2 , t3. The average of these temperature is hemisphere
temperature th.
3. Refit the disc at the bottom of the hemisphere and start the stop clock.
4. The raise in temperature t4 with respect to time is noted.
5. Also note down the disc temperature t4 where steady state is reached.
 TABULATION:

Avg.temp.of Steady temp. of the disc.

Sl.No. T1ºC T2ºC T3ºC T4ºC
hemisphere ThºC Td ºC

FIG 1. Experimental Set Up

TABLE 2

Time in Seconds Temperature in C (T5)

10
 Time in Seconds Temperature in C (T5)

15

20

25

30

CALCULATION

Steady Temperature of Disc Td in K =

Average Temperature of Hemisphere Th in K =

Area A = П D2/4
D=0.02m

Stefan Boltzmann Constant σ = [mCp( ΔT/dT)]/[A(Tavg4-Ts4)]

RESULT:
Stefan Boltzman constant is found to be______________________W/m2 K4
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is Stephan boltz man law?

2. What is the application of Stephan boltz man constant?

3. What is the mode of heat transfer in the Stefan boltz man apparatus?

4. What is the relation between temperature and radiation?

5. Draw the experimental setup of Stephan boltman apparatus.

Ex.No.:19 DETERMINATION OF EMISSIVITY OF A GREY SURFACE

Date :
AIM:
To determine the property of emissivty of the test plate surface at various temperatures.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

• Black Plate , Test Plate

• Dimmer Stat

• Voltmeter and Ammeter Setup.

• Diameter of Black Plate D1 = 160mm

• Diameter of Test Plate D2 = 160mm

• Thermocouples –Chrome Nickle

FORMULA USED:
W1-W2 = ( Eb - E)*σ*A*(Ts4 - Ta4)
Where
W1 = Heat Input to Black Plate = V1*I1 Watts
W2 = Heat Input to Test Plate = V2*I2 Watts
A = Area of Plate = ПD2/4
Ts = Surface Temperataure of Plate = (T1 + T2 )/2
Eb = Emissivity of Black Plate = 1
E =Emissivity of Test Plate
σ =Stefan Boltzman Constant
PROCEDURE:
• Switch on the heater and check if all the channels of temperature are showing proper
readings
• Regulate the heater using the dimmer stat knob and keep the power input at same constant
value.
• Allow the unit to stabilise for 20-25min note down the voltmeter, ammeter readings to
measure the power input.
• Check the temperature of the two plates with small time intervals and adjust the input of the
test plates only by the dimmerstat so that the two plates will be maintained at the same
temperature.
• This will require some trial and error and one has to wait for sufficient time to obtain steady
state condition.
TABULATION:
PLATES VOLTS AMP Temperature(ºC) Ts (ºC) Ta (ºC)

BLACK V1 I1 T1 =
PLATE

TEST V2 I2 T2 =
PLATE

CALCULATION:
T1 = Test Plate Temp.
T2 = Black Plate Temp.
Ta = Ambient Temp.(T3)
W1-W2 = ( Eb - E)*σ*A*(Ts4 - Ta4)

E=

RESULT
The Emissivity of the given test plate was found as__________________________
 REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is a black body?

2. What is emissivity?

3. What is the emissivity of your skin?

4. Define Grey body?

5. Why umberla clocth made by black colour?

Ex.No:20a EFFECTIVENESS OF PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

Date:
AIM:
To find the overall heat transfer co-efficient and effectiveness in parallel flow
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
Common examples of the heat exchangers are the radiator of a car, condenser at the back of
domestic refrigerator etc. Heat exchangers are classified mainly into three categories. 1.
Transfer type 2. Storage type 3. Direct contact type.
Transfer type of heat exchangers are most widely used. A transfer type of heat
exchanger is one in which both fluids pass simultaneously through the device and head is
transferred through separating walls. Transfer type of exchangers are further classified as
1. Parallel flow type in fluids flow in the same direction.
2. Counter flow type in fluids flow in the opposite direction.
3. Cross flow type in which fluids flow at any angle to each other.
A simple heat exchanger of transfer type can be in the form of a tube arrangement. One
fluid flowing through the inner tube and the other through the annulus surrounding it. The heat
transfer takes place across the walls of the inner tube. The apparatus consists of a concentric
tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid i.e. hot water is obtained from an electric geyser and flows
through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of the ends
enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow apparatus or a counter flow apparatus.
This can be done by operating the different valves provided. Temperatures of the fluids can be
measured using thermometers. Flow rate can be measured using stop clock and measuring
flask. The outer tube is provided with adequate asbestos rope insulation to minimize the heat
loss to the surroundings.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of Heat Exchanger L = 1.65m
Inner copper tube ID = 12mm
OD of copper tube = 15mm
Outer GI tube ID = 40mm
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect water supply at the back of the unit. The inlet water flows through geyser and
inner pipe of the heat exchanger and flows out.
2. Also the inlet water flows through the annulus gap of the heat exchanger and flows out.
3. For parallel flow open valve V2 , V4 and V5
4. For counter flow open valve V3, V1 and V5.
5. Control the hot water flow approximately 2 lit./min. and cold water flow approximately
5 lit./min.
6. Switch ON the geyser. Allow the temperature to reach steady state.
7. Note temperatures T1 and T2(hot water inlet and outlet temperature respectively).
8. Under parallel flow condition T3 is the cold-water inlet temperature and T4 is the cold
water outlet temperature. Note the temperatures T3 and T4.
9. Note the time for 1 liter flow of the hot and cold water.Calculate mass flow rate Kg/sec.
10. Change the water flow rates and repeat the experiment.
TABULATION- FOR PARALLEL FLOW
Time for 1 Litre. of Hot Time for 1 Litre. of cold T1 T2 T3 T4
Sl.No.
Water (sec) water (sec) ºC ºC ºC ºC

CALCULATIONS:
mh in kg/s =
mc in kg/s =
mh- Mass flow rate of Hot Fluid , mc- Mass flow rate of Cold Fluid
Refer HMT data book for water specific heat values at the average fluid temperature
Cph in kJ/kgK =
Cpc in kJ/kgK =
Hot Water Heat Transfer Qh in Watts= mhCph (T1 – T2)
Cold Water Heat Transfer Qc in Watts = mcCpc (T4 – T3)

Q = (Qh+Qc)/2

LMTD (ΔTm) = ΔT1 – ΔTo / ln (ΔT1 / ΔTo)

Please note:
ΔT1 and ΔTo to be calculated as per HMT data book for Parallel flow
Q = A U ΔTm
Hence the overall Heat transfer co-efficient U = Q / A Δtm
di = 10.5mm
Inner Area Ai = πdiL
d0 = 12.5mm
Outer Area Ao =πdoL
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient at inner Surface Ui in W/m2K = Q/(Ai*ΔTm)
Ui =
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient at Outer Surface Uo in W/m2K = Q/(Ao*ΔTm)
Uo =
Effectiveness of Heat Transfer ε = [mcCpc (T4 – T1)]/[mhCph (T1 – T4)]
ε=

RESULT :
Parallel flow
Overall heat transfer coefficient for Inner Surface = ____________W/ m2 K
Overall heat transfer coefficient for Outer Surface = ____________ W/ m2 K
Effectiveness ε =_____________
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What happened to heat transfer rate if the flow rate is changed?

2. Plot the temperature distribution curve for parallel flow heat exchanger.

3. What do you mean by LMTD ?

4. What happened to heat transfer rate if the hot fluid and cold fluid is interchanged in the
heat exchanger?

5. What are the types of Heat Exchangers?

Ex.No:20b EFFECTIVENESS OF COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

Date:

AIM:
To find the overall heat transfer co-efficient and effectiveness in counter flow.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another.
Common examples of the heat exchangers are the radiator of a car, condenser at the back of
domestic refrigerator etc. Heat exchangers are classified mainly into three categories. 1.
Transfer type 2. Storage type 3. Direct contact type.
Transfer type of heat exchangers are most widely used. A transfer type of heat
exchanger is one in which both fluids pass simultaneously through the device and head is
transferred through separating walls. Transfer type of exchangers are further classifies as
1. Parallel flow type in fluids flow in the same direction.
2. Counter flow type in fluids flow in the opposite direction.
3. Cross flow type in which fluids flow at any angle to each other.
A simple heat exchanger of transfer type can be in the form of a tube arrangement. One
fluid flowing through the inner tube and the other through the annulus surrounding it. The heat
transfer takes place across the walls of the inner tube.The apparatus consists of a concentric
tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid i.e. hot water is obtained from an electric geyser and flows
through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of the ends
enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow apparatus or a counter flow apparatus.
This can be done by operating the different valves provided. Temperatures of the fluids can be
measured using thermometers. Flow rate can be measured using stop clock and measuring
flask. The outer tube is provided with adequate asbestos rope insulation to minimize the heat
loss to the surroundings.
FOR COUNTER FLOW

SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of the heat exchanger = 1.65m
Inner copper tube ID = 12mm
OD = 15mm
Outer GI tube ID = 40mm
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect water supply at the back of the unit. The inlet water flows through geyser
and inner pipe of the heat exchanger and flows out.
2. Also the inlet water flows through the annulus gap of the heat exchanger and flows
out.
3. For parallel flow open valve V2 , V4 and V5
4. For counter flow open valve V3, V1 and V5.
5. Control the hot water flow approximately 2 lit./min. and cold water flow
approximately 5 lit./min.
6. Switch ON the geyser. Allow the temperature to reach steady state.
7. Note temperatures T1 and T2 (hot water inlet and outlet temperature
8. respectively).
9. Under counter flow condition T4 is the cold-water inlet temperature T3 is the cold-
water outlet temperature.
10. Note the time for 1 liter flow of the hot and cold water. Calculate mass flow rate
Kg/sec.
11. Change the water flow rates and repeat the experiment.
 TABULATION
Time for 1 Lit. of Time for 1 Lit. of
S.No. T1 ºC T2 ºC T3 ºC T4 ºC
Hot Water (sec) cold water (sec)

CALCULATIONS:

mh in kg/s =
mc in kg/s =
mh- Mass flow rate of Hot Fluid , mc- Mass flow rate of Cold Fluid
Refer HMT data book for water specific heat values at the average fluid temperature
Cph in kJ/kgK =
Cpc in kJ/kgK =
Hot Water Heat Transfer Qh in Watts= mhCph (T1 – T2)

Cold Water Heat Transfer Qc in Watts = mcCpc (T3 – T4)

Q = (Qh+Qc)/2

LMTD (ΔTm) = ΔT1 – ΔTo / ln (ΔT1 / ΔTo)

Please note ΔT1 and ΔTo to be calculated as per HMT data book formula for Parallel flow
Q = A U ΔTm
Hence the overall Heat transfer co-efficient
U = Q / A Δtm =
di = 10.5mm
Inner Area Ai = πdiL =
d0 = 12.5mm
Outer Area Ao =πdoL =

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient at inner Surface Ui in W/m2K = Q/(Ai*ΔTm)

Ui =
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient at Outer Surface Uo in W/m2K = Q/(Ao*ΔTm)
Uo =
Effectiveness of Heat Transfer ε = [mcCpc (T3 – T1)]/[mhCph (T1 – T3)]
ε=

RESULT :
Counter flow
Overall heat transfer coefficient for Inner Surface = _________ W/ m2 K
Overall heat transfer coefficient for Outer Surface = _________ W/ m2 K
Effectiveness ε = _________
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What happened to heat transfer rate if the flow rate is changed?

2. Plot the temperature distribution curve for counter flow heat exchanger.

3. Differentiate Heat exchanger effectiveness and Efficiency.

4. What happened to heat transfer rate if the hot fluid and cold fluid is interchanged in the
heat exchanger?

5. Give examples for heat exchanger types

Ex.No.:21 DETERMINATION OF COP OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Date :

AIM:
To conduct a performance test on a refrigeration test rig to determine the co-efficient of performance
(COP).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Refrigeration unit
2. Stop clock
3. Measuring Jar

DESCRIPTION:
A Refrigerator consists of a compressor connected by suitable pipelines to a condenser,
capillary tube and an evaporator. Refrigerant (Freon 12) in vapour state from the evaporator
is compressed in the compressor and is sent to the condenser. Here, it is condensed into liquid
and is then throttled. Due to throttling, temperature of the refrigerant drops and the cold
refrigerant passes through the evaporator absorbing heat from the object to be cooled. The
refrigerant is then returned to the compressor and the cycle is completed.
The test rig consists of a 1/3 HP hermetically sealed compressor. The compressed
refrigerant from the compressor is sent to an air-cooled condenser and the condensate in liquid
form is sent to the capillary tube for throttling. Due to throttling, temperature of the refrigerant
falls and the cold refrigerant absorbs heat from the water in the evaporator tank. The refrigerant
is then returned to the compressor.
A suitable filter and a gauge glass to visually observe the liquid refrigerant are fitted in
the refrigerant line from condenser to evaporator. A thermometer is provided to measure the
temperature of the water in the evaporator tank. An energy meter is provided to measure the
energy input to the compressor. Suitable pressure gauges are provided at the inlet and outlet
of the compressor and evaporator to study the refrigeration cycle. A voltmeter and an ammeter
are provided to monitor the inlet power supply. Provisions are provided in the refrigerant
pipelines for charging the test rig with additional Freon if necessary.
FORMULA USED:

1. Refrigeration effect per hour = Wcp * Cpw * (To – Tf)

t * 3600
Where, Wcp = capacity of water in kg
Cpw = specific heat of water in kJ/kg
To = initial temperature
Tf = final temperature
t = Time taken for the change in water temperature in hr

2. Energy input = Ef – Eo
t
Where, Ef = final energy meter reading in kW hr
Eo = initial energy meter reading in kW hr
t = Time taken for the change in energy meter reading in hr

3. COP
Actual COP = Refrigeration effect
Input energy

Theoretical COP = h1-h4

h2-h1

From P-H chart for freon –12 corresponding to points 1,2,3 and 4

Relative COP = Actual COP

Theoretical COP

Carnot COP = Minimum temperature in K

Difference between maximum and minimum temperature in K
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Fill up the evaporator tank with a known quantity of water
2. Switch on the compressor
3. After about 5 minutes note down the initial energy meter reading and water temperature in
the evaporator.
4. After a known period of time, say 30 minutes note down the energy meter reading and
water temperature.
5. Before noting the water temperature, physically stir the water to ensure that the temperature
is uniform in the water tank
6. Calculate the COP

TABLE 1
Refrigeration Effect / hourEnergy Input Actual COP From P – H chart (enthalpy) Theoretical Relative Carnot COP
Kw kW COP COP
H1 H2 H3 H4
KJ/kg KJ/kg KJ/kg KJ/kg

TABLE 2

CALCULATION:

1. Refrigeration effect per hour = Wcp * Cpw * (To – Tf)

t * 3600

2. Energy input = Ef – Eo
t
3. COP
Actual COP = Refrigeration effect
Input energy

Theoretical COP = h1-h4

h2-h1

From P-H chart for freon –12 corresponding to points 1,2,3 and 4

Relative COP =

Carnot COP =

RESULT:
Thus the performance test on refrigeration rig has been conducted.

1. Actual COP =________________________

2. Theoretical =________________________
3. Carnot COP =________________________
4. Relative COP = _______________________
 REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. Differentiate COP & Efficiency.

2. What is TON of refrigeration?

3. What is the working fluid in this test set up?

4. Types of Refrigeration system?

5. Explain about CFC?

Ex.No.:22 EXPERIMENTS ON PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESS

Date :

AIM:
To conduct experiment and find the psychrometric process
INTRODUCTION:
Year round air conditioning system will provide comfort condition throughout the year.
It must be capable of maintaining a specified temperature and humidity within the air-
conditioned spaces regardless of outside weather conditions.

The processes uncounted in a year round air conditioning system are

1. Heating and humidification in winter.
2. Cooling and dehumidification in summer.

COMPONENTS:
1. Heating coil
2. Cooling coil
3. Dampers
4. Thermostat
5. Humidistat
6. Fan

COOLING COIL:
The cooling coils, which are used in air conditioning system, are mainly of two types.
1. Direct expansion coil
2. Secondary refrigerant coil.
In direct expansion coil, the refrigerant from the expansion valve is directly expanded in
the coil used for cooling purpose. The type of arrangement for the transfer from the air to
refrigerant may be parallel, counter or cross. In most of the application, the coils used are
provided with fins for increasing effective heat transfer. Secondary refrigerant coil carrying the
chilled water are preformed for large air conditioning system. In this system the water (or)
brine is cooled in the evaporator of the refrigeration circuit in a centralized place and then
distributed for further cooling the air used for air conditioning propose.
HEATING COIL:
Simple heating of air takes place if it flow over a heating coil similar to cooling coil,
whose temp is higher than the DBT of air. There is no limit to the coil temp for sensible heating
the heating medium through the coil is usually steam or hot gases from a furnace. In general,
three methods are commonly employed for winter heating of air.
1. Hot water or steam coils
2. Direct finned furnace gases coil
3. Finned electric strip heaters.
In hot water coils, boilers are run on high fuel oil. The boiler provides hot water at
about 920C to the heating coil. The water returned to the boiler at about 700C. Furnaces are
either oil fired (at 75% efficiency) or gas fired (at 80-85% efficiency).
DAMPERS:
Dampers are used to regulate the air coming from outside (atmosphere) (i.e. entering
air).
In year round air-conditioning system the following types of dampers are used.
1. Outside air damper
2. Recirculating air damper
3. By pass air damper.

THERMOSTAT:
It is a controlling system or element, which give direct response to the change in
temperature.

TYPES:
1. Bimetal type
2. Sealed bellow type
3. Electrical type
4. Thermocouple type
5. Electrical thermostat
HUMIDISTAT:
The element, which is used for controlling the humidity according to the requirements,
is known as Humidistat. Humidistat is a device, which is sensitive to moisture changers and
which will operate the equipment to maintain a designed humidity in the air-conditioned space.
Rhe element, which is generally used, is human air (hygroscopic material).
FANS:
Fan produced air motion and can be designed as roto dynamic machine that propels air
or gas continuously. Fan is used for handling small capacity of air and blower is used for
handling large capacity.

TYPES:
1. Axial flow fans
2. Centrifugal fans

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
During summer, heating coil is kept idle, inactive and cooling coil is used. Here the air
is cooled and generally dehumidified. The outside air passes through the damper and mixes
up with Recirculated air then it passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities.
The air now passes through a cooling coil. Then the conditioned air is supplied to the
conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of used air is exhausted to
atmosphere. The removing part of the used air is again used in the cycle. During winter, the
cooling coil is kept idle. The atmospheric air mixed with Recirculated air. This air enters
through filter for removing dirt and other impurities. Then it passes through a heating coil of
then it is supplied to the conditioned space by fan. From the conditioned space a part of used
air is exhausted to atmosphere. The remaining part of used air again mixed with fresh air and
thus the cycle repeats. Thus the year round air conditioning system supplies hot air in winter
and cold air in summer seasons depending upon the climatic conditioning system.

DBT &WBT

Station1ºC Station2 Station3 Station4

Td1 ºC Tw1 ºC Td1 ºC Tw1 ºC Td1 ºC Tw1 ºC Td1 ºC Tw1 ºC

HUMIDITY

Station1ºC Station2 Station3 Station4

Rhd 1 ºC Rh 2 ºC Rh 3 ºC Rh41 ºC

FORMUALA USED

Humidity ratio

Percentage saturation
CALCULATION

RESULT: The psychrometric experiment was conducted.

REVIEW QUESTIONS :

1. Differentiate relative humidity and absolute humidity

2. What is dew point temperature and what is its significance?

3. What is the human comfort level?

4. What is the use of psychrometric chart?

5. Explain the working of sling psychrometer.

Ex. No. :23 PERFORMANCE TEST ON TWO STAGE RECIPROCATING
AIR COMPRESSOR
Date :
AIM:
To conduct a load test on the two stage reciprocating air compressor and to determine
the following at various delivery pressure.
1. Cooling factor of inter cooler
1 input power per kg of air and output power
2 Compression index
3 Volumetric efficiency
4 Isothermal Efficiency.

SPECIFICATION:
Low Pressure Cylinder Bore DL = 89.5mm
High pressure Cylinder Bore DH = 63mm
Stroke Length L = 88.9mm
Clearance l = 2mm
Speed N = 700RPM
Air Receiver Capacity Q = 0.33m3
Orifice Diameter d = 0.01m
Area of Orifice A = 7.88 X 10-5 m2
Coefficient of Discharge of Orifice Cd = 0.6

PROCEDURE:
1 Switch on the air compressor setup
2 Adjust the knob in the compressor tank till obtaining the steady pressure say
1kgf/cm2 in the delivery pressure indicator
3 Note down the following set of readings
a. Tank Pressure and Delivery pressure
b. Manometer Reading h1 and h2
c. Speed N
d. Time taken for N revolution in Energy meter say 3 revolutions
e. Temperature indicated in the digital display
 Repeat the experiment by varying the delivery pressure and note down the above reading
in the tabular column.

FORMULA USED:
Head of air (Carry air Flow)
Hair = ((h1-h2)/100)*(ρ water/ρ air) =

Take ρ water , ρ air from HMT data book

Actual Volume of Air at RTP

V a’ = Cd * a* (2gHair)0.5

C
Where d =Coefficient of Discharge
g = Acceleration Due to Gravity
Actual Volume of Air at NTP
Va = V a’ [TNTP /TRTP] =

Stroke Volume Vs = ( /4) * DL2 * L * (N / 60) =

Where DL- Diameter of Low Pressure Cylinder

L – Stroke Length
Volumetric Efficiency Vol = (Va / VS) *100

Input Power = (n X 3600 X 0.8) / (t * E) =

Where t – time taken for 3 revolutions in energy meter

E – Energy meter Constant.

Output Power = (ρ g + ρ a) V a’ / 1000 =

ρ g = Pressure in Tank
ρ a = Atmospheric Pressure.
 Overall Efficiency
εo = Output Power / Input Power. =

Compression Index
n = 1 / (1-{[ln (T0/T1)]/ [ln(P0/P1)]}) =

Volumetric Work done = nR (T0 – Ti)/(n-1) =

Where R is Universal Gas Constant

Isothermal Work done = RTi ln (Po/Pi) =

Intercooler Cooling Factor f = (T2 – T3)/(T2 – T1)

Where T1 Suction temperature of Compression.
T2 temperature of Outlet air from Low pressure Cylinder
T3 Temperature of air outlet from intercooler
TABULATION

S. Tank Delivery Manometer Time Spring Compress Temperature ºC

No Pressure Pg Pressure Reading(mm) Taken For Balance ion Speed T0 T1 T2 T3 T4
Pg h1 h2 3 Rev in Reading rpm
Energy Hg
Meter
t
CALCULATION:

Head of air (Carry air Flow)

Hair in m = ((h1-h2)/100)*(ρ water/ρ air) =

Actual Volume of Air at RTP

V a’ in m3/s = Cd * a *(2gHair)0.5 =

Actual Volume of Air at NTP

Va in m3/s = V a’ [TNTP /TRTP] =
Stroke Volume
Vs in m3 = (π/4) * DL2 * L * (N / 60) =

Volumetric Efficiency
εVol in % = (Va / VS) *100

Actual Input Power in kW = (n * 3600 * 0.8) / (t * E)

Output Power in kW = (ρ g + ρ a) V a’ / 1000

Overall Efficiency in %
εo = Output Power / Input Power.

GRAPH:
Various graphs were plotted between various parameters as follows
1. Delivery pressure Vs Overall Efficiency
2. Delivery Pressure Vs Isothermal Efficiency
3. Delivery Pressure Vs Volumetric Efficiency

RESULT
Thus the Performance on a two stage reciprocating Air Compressor was conducted and
efficiency at various loads were found
REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by FAD?

2. What is the function of multistage compression?

3. What is meant by horse power of air compressor?

4. What are the types of compressors?

5. What is inter cooling and After cooling?

Ex.No.:24 PERFORMANCE TEST OF HC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Date :

AIM:
To conduct a performance test on a refrigeration test rig
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Refrigeration unit
2. Stop clock
3. Measuring Jar

DESCRIPTION:
A Refrigerator consists of a compressor connected by suitable pipelines to a condenser,
capillary tube and an evaporator. Refrigerant (Freon 12) in vapour state from the evaporator
is compressed in the compressor and is sent to the condenser. Here, it is condensed into liquid
and is then throttled. Due to throttling, temperature of the refrigerant drops and the cold
refrigerant passes through the evaporator absorbing heat from the object to be cooled. The
refrigerant is then returned to the compressor and the cycle is completed.
The test rig consists of a 1/3 HP hermetically sealed compressor. The compressed
refrigerant from the compressor is sent to an air-cooled condenser and the condensate in liquid
form is sent to the capillary tube for throttling. Due to throttling, temperature of the refrigerant
falls and the cold refrigerant absorbs heat from the water in the evaporator tank. The refrigerant
is then returned to the compressor.
A suitable filter and a gauge glass to visually observe the liquid refrigerant are fitted in
the refrigerant line from condenser to evaporator. A thermometer is provided to measure the
temperature of the water in the evaporator tank. An energy meter is provided to measure the
energy input to the compressor. Suitable pressure gauges are provided at the inlet and outlet
of the compressor and evaporator to study the refrigeration cycle. A voltmeter and an ammeter
are provided to monitor the inlet power supply. Provisions are provided in the refrigerant
pipelines for charging the test rig with additional Freon if necessary.
FORMULA USED:

1. Refrigeration effect per hour = Wcp * Cpw * (To – Tf)

t * 3600
Where, Wcp = capacity of water in kg
 Cpw = specific heat of water in kJ/kg
To = initial temperature
Tf = final temperature
t = Time taken for the change in water temperature in hr

2. Energy input = Ef – Eo
t
Where, Ef = final energy meter reading in kW hr
Eo = initial energy meter reading in kW hr
t = Time taken for the change in energy meter reading in hr

3. COP
Actual COP = Refrigeration effect
Input energy

Theoretical COP = h1-h4

h2-h1

From P-H chart for freon –12 corresponding to points 1,2,3 and 4

Relative COP = Actual COP

Theoretical COP

Carnot COP = Minimum temperature in K

Difference between maximum and minimum temperature in K
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Fill up the evaporator tank with a known quantity of water
2. Switch on the compressor
3. After about 5 minutes note down the initial energy meter reading and water temperature in
the evaporator.
4. After a known period of time, say 30 minutes note down the energy meter reading and
water temperature.
5. Before noting the water temperature, physically stir the water to ensure that the temperature
is uniform in the water tank
6. Calculate the COP
 TABLE 1
Refrigeration Effect / hourEnergy Input Actual COP From P – H chart (enthalpy) Theoretical Relative Carnot COP
Kw kW COP COP
H1 H2 H3 H4
KJ/kg KJ/kg KJ/kg KJ/kg

TABLE 2

CALCULATION:

1. Refrigeration effect per hour = Wcp * Cpw * (To – Tf)

t * 3600

2. Energy input = Ef – Eo
t

3. COP
Actual COP = Refrigeration effect
Input energy

Theoretical COP = h1-h4

h2-h1

From P-H chart for freon –12 corresponding to points 1,2,3 and 4
 Relative COP =

Carnot COP =

RESULT:
Thus the performance test on refrigeration rig has been conducted.

5. Actual COP =________________________

6. Theoretical =________________________
7. Carnot COP =________________________
8. Relative COP = _______________________
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate COP & Efficiency.

2. What is TON of refrigeration?

3. What is the working fluid in this test set up?

4. Types of Refrigeration system?

5. Explain about CFC?

Ex.No.:25 PERFORMANCE TEST IN A FLUIDISED BED COOLING TOWER

Date :

AIM:
To conduct a performance test in a fluidised bed cooling tower .
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.Cooling tower apparatus

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1.Connect the water connections of the tower to mains of water line

2.Start the air supply through blower and adjust pre determined air flow rate by gate

valve provided.

3.Start water pumping and adjust predetermined water low rate.

4.Put ON geyser to attain the temperature required at inlet to cooling tower

5.Before starting the unit see that all the thermo meters are set in Position.

FORMULA

Partial pressure of vapour of DBT at inlet

Psi=P’ssi-(Pat-P’ssi)(tdi-tw1)
1527.4-1.3tw1
Where Pssi’=Saturation vapour pressure at WBT kg/cm2
Pat=atm pressure Kg/cm2
tdi=DBT of air at inlet °C
Pa2=Pat-Ps2 Kg/cm2
The specific humidity

W1 at inlet = Psi x 0.622 kg/cm2

Pai

At out let

W1 at inlet = Ps2 x 0.622 kg/cm2

Pa2

By continuity ma=ma1=ma2
Ma=Mass flow rate of air kg/hr
2
Qa=Cd ᴨ/4 d2 √2𝑔ℎ𝑄𝑤
Qa
Cd=Coefficient of discharge
D=diameter of orifice 40mm
h=Manometer head m
Qw=Density of water =1000kg/cm2
Qa =Density of air at DBT of ait inlet

Ma=Qa X ρa X 3600 kg/hr.

Ms1=ma1x W1 at inlet, ms2=ma2 x W2 at outlet

WHER MS = Mass of water vapour in bulk air

B conversion of mass ms1+mw2=ms2=mw1

Where mw=water flow rate per unit area packing

mw1=ms1+mw2-ms2

Theoretical evaporation loss =ms2-ms1 kg/hr

At inlet

Φ1= %

Similarly at out let

Φ2= Ps2/Pss2’ %

Pss2’ saturation vapour pressure at outlet DBT kg/cm2

By Daltons law Pat=Ps1+Pa1

Pa1=Pat-Ps1
Kg/cm2
Pat=Ps2+Pa2

Pa2=Pat-Ps2 Kg/cm2

The specific humidity W1at inlet = Psi x 0.622

Pa1

hs2=hg2+Cps(td2-t’2) Kcal/kg

change in energy of air

= ma Cpa (td2-td1) +(ms2hs2-ms1hs1) Kcal /kg

Change in energy of water

mw2 Mass water flow rate at outlet

Qw2 = Tank area x 0.1

Time req. for 10 cm of water
m3 /sec

mw2 = Qw x ρw x3600
Kg/Hr

Change in energy of water

mw2hw2-mw1hw1

where mw=mass flow rate of water

hw = specific enthalpy of water.

Here energy change in air stream

=Energy change in water

Thus,
Energy change in air steam neglecting potential

Energy term =ma x cpa (td2-td1) + (ms2 hs2-ms1 hs1)

Where
Ma=Mass flow rate of air
Cpa=specific heat ofair at mean air temperature
Ms mass of water vapour
Td=DBT of air °C
hs=Specific enthalpy of superheated vapour Kcal/kg

Where
hs1=hg1+ cps(td1-t1)
where hg1=enthalpy of saturated steam
t1=saturated vapour temperature at vapour pressure Ps1
Cps=Specific heat of super heated vapour
 TABULATION

Water flow rate Air temperature Air temperature

Air mass Water temp. C
in lit/hr Inlet outlet
flow rate in
manometer
Cm of water inlet outlet DBT WBT DBT WBT DBT WBT

CALCULATION
RESULT: The experiment on cooling tower is conducted and graph is drawn
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.What is cooling tower range?

2. What are the types of cooling towers?

3. What is meant by evaporative cooling?

4.What is meant by carry over losses?

5.What is the efficiency of cooling tower?

Additional Graph Sheet
Additional Graph Sheet
Additional Graph Sheet
Additional Graph Sheet