Chapter-I: Introduction to JAVA

Introduction:
 JAVA is general purpose OOP language developed by “Sun Microsystems” of
USA in1991
 ‘James Gosling’ was the inventor (Creator) of JAVA language.
 Originally or firstly JAVA was named as “Oak” (Oak is name of tree which was
found in front of Goslings Office)
 Basically, JAVA was designed for the development of software’s for electronic
devices like TV’s, VCR’s, set-top box, Toastersetc.
 Java runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various
versions of UNIX.
 The ‘C’ and ‘C++’ languages had limitations in terms of reliability and portability
therefore they modeled their new language JAVA to overcome the drawbacks of
‘C’ and ‘C++’. Thus, JAVA made really simple, reliable, portable and powerful
language.
History OR Evolution of JAVA:
Following table shows some milestones happen in developing of JAVA language:
Year Development

Sun Microsystem decided to develop special software that could be used to

1990 manipulate with electronic devices. A team of Sun Microsystems programmer
headed by James Gosling was formed to undertake this task.

After exploring the possibility of such idea, the team announced a new
1991
programming language called ‘Oak’ (Oak was the first name for JAVA)

In this year, team of Sun Microsystems actual implements there language in home
1992
appliances like Microwave Oven etc. with tiny touch-sensitive screen.

In this year, team of Sun Microsystems came up with new idea to develop web
1993 based application that could run on all types of computers connected to Internet.
For that, they creates 'applet' (tiny program run on Internet by the browser)

In this year, team of Sun Microsystems developed web browser called "HotJava" to
1994
locate and run applet on Internet.

"Oak" was renamed as "JAVA" due to some legal snags (problems). Also, many
1995
popular companies like Netscape and Microsoft announced to support for JAVA

Sun Microsystem releases Java Development Kit 1.0 (JDK 1.0) to develop different
1996
kinds of software.
1997 Sun Microsystem releases Java Development Kit 1.1 (JDK 1.1)
Sun Microsystem releases JAVA 2 with JDK 1.2 of Software Development Kit (SDK
1998
1.2).
Sun Microsystem releases standard Edition of Java which was called J2SE( Java
1999
2 Standard Edition) and J2EE (Java 2 Enterprise Edition)
2000 J2SE with SDK 1.3 was released
2002 J2SE with SDK 1.4 was released
2004 J2SE with JDK 5 (JDK 1.5) was released
 Currently Java releases their JDK 7 (JDK 1.7) version. And Java is now under
administration of Oracle organization.
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 Features 0r Characteristics or Advantages of Java:
 Compiled & Interpreted:
 Usually, programming language is either compiled or interpreted. But
Java combines both approaches that make Java ‘two-stage system’.
 In case of Java, First Java compiler translates or converts Java source
program into ‘byte code’ ( Byte code is not machine instruction code &
byte codefile having extension ‘.class’)
 After compilation, Java Interpreter executes this byte code & thus we got
our desired output.
Thus, we can say that Java is Compiled & Interpreted language.
 Object Oriented:
 Java is pure object oriented language that supports for all OOP’s
concepts.
 Almost, In Java, everything is an Object. All data and methods are
resided (exist in) within an object and classes.
 The object model in Java is easy to extend because it supports for
Inheritance concept.
 Platform independent and Portable:
 Portable: We know that, after compilation of Java source program it
produce “.class” file i.e. byte code which is not machine dependent that’s
why such file is easily moved or transferred from one computer to
another computer and hence Java is Portable.
 Platform independent: After generation of byte code (.class file), this
byte code is easily interpreted or executed on different kinds of
computers having different platforms(Computers having different
Operating system like windows, Linux, Mac OS etc and different
processors etc).
 Simple:
 Java is designed to be easy to learn. If you understand the basic
concepts of OOP then it is easy to implement in Java language.
 Secure:
 We know that, most of viruses are attacked on files having extension
‘.exe’, ‘.doc’, ‘.gif’, ‘.mpg’ etc. but after compilation of Java source program
it produce “.class” file i.e. byte code and which is virus free. And hence,
Java enables us to develop virus-free, tamper -free systems.
 Architectural-neutral:
 Java compiler generates an architecture-neutral class file format which
makes the compiled code to be executable on many processors, with the
presence of Java runtime system.
 Robust:
 Java is strict type checking language which checks an error at both time
i.e at compile time and also at run time of program.
 Due to this ability of checking errors at run time (exception Handling), we
can eliminates any risk of crashing the system using Java.
 Multithreaded:
 Multithreaded means handling multiple tasks (jobs) simultaneously (at
one time).
 Java supports for multithreaded programs that means we need not wait
for the application to finish its task before beginning another.
 That is using Java, we can run multiple java applications without waiting
to finish another.
 Distributed:
 Java enables us to make such applications that can open and access
remotely over the internet or network.
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  That is, multiple programmers at multiple remote locations are capable
to work together on single project. That’s why Java is distributed.
 Dynamic and Extensible:
 Dynamic:Java is dynamic language which is capable to link new class
libraries, methods and objects dynamically.
 Extensible: Java supports to write functions in C or C++ language such
functions are called “native methods” and then we can add or link these
methods with Java such that they can be used in many applications.
 Ability to Deal with Database:
 Java supports for JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) to send & retrieve
data in tabular format with the database thus with the help of Java we
are able to deal with database.
 Automatic Memory Management:
 We know that ‘memory’ is very important issue while dealing with
computer and we have to manage it very efficient manner.
 Java language supports for ‘Garbage Collector’ that automatically
manages all the memory in efficient manner.

 Limitations or Disadvantages of Java:

 Slow language:
 As compared to C and C++ languages, Java language compiler took
much more time to compile the program & also Java interpreter took
much more time to interpret the program that’s why Java is slow
language.
 Strict type checking language:
 Due to strict type checking, Java language checks much run time errors
& that’s why Java application took much time to execute.
 Case sensitive language:
 Due to case sensitive language, we must have to write correct spelling of
inbuilt methods, classes, interfaces etc. while doing programming.
 Java does not support for Multiple Inheritance but we can
implement it by using ‘interface’.

 Difference Between C and Java:

‘C’ Language Java Language

1) It has ‘sizeof’ and ‘typedef’ keywords 1) It has not ‘sizeof’ and ‘typedef’
keywords
2) It supports for data type ‘struct’ and 2) It does not supports for data type
‘union’ ‘struct’
and ‘union’
3) It does not support for data type 3) It does supports for data type ‘class’
‘class’
4) It has type modifier keywords like 4) It does not have type modifier
auto, keywords
extern, register, signed and unsigned. like auto, extern, register, signed and
unsigned.
5) It supports for ‘pointer’ 5) It does not supports for ‘pointer’
6) It has preprocessor directive 6) It has no preprocessor directive
statements statements
like #define, #include etc. like #define, #include etc.
7) It is not OOP language. 7) It is pure OOP language.

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 Difference Between C++ and Java:

‘C++’ Language Java Language

1) It supports for operator overloading. 1) It does not supports for operator
overloading
2) It supports for template classes. 2) It does not support for template
classes.
3) It supports for ‘Multiple inheritance’ 3) It does not supports for Multiple
Inheritance but we implement it using
‘interface’
4) It supports for global variable. 4) It does not have global variable
5) It supports for ‘pointer’ 5) It does not supports for ‘pointer’
6) It supports for “destructor” 6) It does not supports for “destructor”
but it
is replaced by finalize( ) method.
7) It has ‘goto’ statement. 7) It has not ‘goto’ statement.
8) It has preprocessor directive 8) It has no preprocessor directive
statements statements
like #define, #include etc. like #define, #include etc.
9) It has three access specifiersviz: 9) It has four access specifiersviz: public,
public, Private, protected and default.
private and protected
10) It is not pure OOP language. 10) It is pure OOP language.

Following fig. shows overlapping of C, C++ and Java:

C++

C Java

From above fig.

We know that, ‘C++’ is superset of ‘C’ language therefore every ‘C’ program is
easily executed by ‘C++’ compiler.
But, Java language is partly combination of ‘C’ and ‘C++’ language and it having
its own extra features therefore Java can be considered as first cousin of ‘C++’
and second cousin of ‘C’

Java Environment:
 The main part of Java Environment is JDK (Java Development Kit).
 JSL (Java Standard Library) also called as Java API (Application Programming
Interface) is the main part of JDK that contains thousands of Packages.
 Further, Packages contains thousands of classes, methods, interfaces etc.
Following Fig. shows Java Environment:

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 Classes
Methods
Interfaces

Packages

JSL

JDK

Java Environment

JDK tools or Components:

Following is the list of tools or components of JDK which are used to develop and run
the java programs:
Sr.NO Tool or Component Description or Use
It translates or converts java source program into
1 javac (Java Compiler) byte code file & that file understood by java
interpreter
It runs java applications by reading corresponding
2 java (java Interpreter)
byte code file & gives result.
It runs or views java applets onto the web
3 appletviewer
browser.

4 javap (Java disassembler) It converts byte code file into program description

It creates or produces HTML format

5 javadoc
documentation of java source file.
It creates or produces header files for use of
6 javah
native methods.

7 jdb (Java Debugger) It helps us to checks errors in java program.

Java Virtual Machine (JVM):

 Java Virtual Machine plays vital or important role in execution of java program
therefore it is heart of java program execution.
 JVM takes byte code file as input & convert each byte code instruction into
machine language instruction such that it is easily executed by microprocessor.
Note:
 Java Compiler generates or creates byte code which is machine independent or
platform independent therefore it is easily interpreted by any JVM that’s why it is
called as “write once run anywhere”.
 But, JVM is platform dependent i.e. windows, linux, Mac OS, Unix etc. operating
system having their different-different JVM’s.
Following Figure shows Architecture of JVM:

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  First of
all, java
source
file (.java file) is converted into byte code (.class file) by the java compiler and
this byte code file is given to the JVM.
 In JVM, there is one module or program called ‘Class loader sub system’ which
performs following functions:
 First, ‘Class loader sub system’ loads the ‘.class’ file into memory.
 Then it verifies whether all byte code instructions are proper or not.
 If it finds some problem in byte code then it immediately terminates the
execution.
 If byte code is proper then it allocates necessary memory to execute the
program.
Also, this memory is divided into 5 parts called ‘Runtime data area’ & these parts as
follows:
1) Method area:
In this memory area; all class code, variables codes, methods codes etc. are
stored.
2) Heap:
In this memory area, all objects are created or stored.
3) Java Stacks:
Actually, java methods are stored in ‘Method area’ but actual execution of such
java methods are happen under ‘Java stacks’ area.
4) PC registers:
This area contains the memory addresses of instructions of the methods.
5) Native method stacks:
All native methods (C, C++ functions) are executed under native methods
stacks.
And all native methods are connected with JVM by ‘native method interfaces’
After, allocation of memory into corresponding parts then it comes towards ‘Execution
Engine’.
 Execution Engine can consists from two things VIZ:
1) Interpreter 2) JIT (Just In Time) compiler.
This interpreter and JIT compiler are responsible for converting byte code into
machine instruction such that it easily executed by microprocessor.
After, loading the “.class” file into memory, JVM first identifies which
code is to be left to interpreter and which one to JIT compiler so that the
performance is better. The blocks of code allocated for JIT compiler are also
called ‘hotspots’. Thus, the interpreter and JIT compiler will work
simultaneously to translate the byte code into machine code.
Note that: JIT compiler is a part of JVM which increases execution speed of program.
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Java does not support for pointer:
 1) We know that ‘pointers’ are used to hold memory address. And most of
viruses are
trying to attack on memory that’s why Java does not support for pointer and
hence
Java is secured.
2) Also, pointers are helpful for dynamic memory allocation i.e. it is used for
run time
memory management, but in Java all memory management is automatically
done by ‘
‘Garbage collector’ that’s why not need of pointer.

Java Programming Fundamentals

Structure of JAVA Program
 We know that single Java program may contains multiple classes but out of
these classes, one class should be public and that class contains main( )
method from which JVM interprets the bytecode.
 Note that: Java is pure OOP language i.e. all programs must have classes and
objects.
A typical Java Program is divided into several Sections which are shown in
following figure:
Documentation Section
Package statement
Section
Import statement Section
Interface statement
Section
Class definition section

main( ) method Section

{
// main() definition
}

1) Documentation Section:
This section contains set of comments lines showing details of java source program
such as program name, programmer name, date of program, version etc. this
help program readability.
In Java, we can give comments by three ways VIZ:-
1) Single line comment:
If we have to specify general information of program within single line then
single line comment is used. Single line comment is given by //
notation.
Also, we can specify this comment anywhere in program.
e.g.
// Program Name= Addition of two numbers.
2) Multiline comment:

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 If we have to specify general information of program within multiple lines then
multi line comment is used. Multiline comment is given by
/* ----------
----------
---------- */ notation.
e.g.
/* Program Name: Multiplication
Programmer: James Gosling */

3) Third Style comment: (Java documentation Comment)

This type of comment is specially used for documentation purpose.
If we specify description using ‘Third style comment’ then it is shown in HTML
files created by using ‘Javadoc’
This comment is used to provide description for every feature in Java source
program.
Third Style comment is given by
/** -----------------------
----------------------- */ notation
e.g.
/** This class is used for addition */
public class add
{
/** This method is used for addition */
public void addition( )
{
// statements
}
}
In above example, two times documentation comment is used that will show
description of class ‘add’ and description of method ‘addition( )’ in HTML file.
Note that: For generation of HTML documentation of java source program
using ‘javadoc’ component, class and method should be public or protected.
2) Package statement Section:
This section is used to declare our own package. When we declare own package
then it informs to the java compiler to link all classes with our java source
program.
 Syntax to specify package statement:
packagepackage_name;
e.g.
package student;
More about package will be discussed in next chapter.
3) import statement Section:
In this section we can import existing package in our java source
program.
We know that, in case of ‘C’ language if we have to use printf( ) method
then we include
‘stdio.h’ header file using preprocessor directive ‘#include’.
Similarly, if we have to use existing classes or exiting methods for JSL
(Java Standard
Library) then we have to import that package in our source program
using ‘import’
statement.
 Syntax to import package in program:
importpackage_name;

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 e.g.
import java.lang.* ;

Difference between #include & import:


 When we include header file in program then C/C++ compiler goes to the standard library (
it is available at c:\tc\lib) and searches for included header file there. When it finds the
header file, it copies entire header file into the program where the #include statement is
written. Thus, if our C/C++ program has only 10 lines still C/C++ compiler shows hundreds
of line compiled this is due to copy of included header file at #include statement. Therefore
our program size increases & hence it causes memory wastage.
 When we import package in Java program then JVM checks whether imported package is
present in JSL or not. If JVM finds imported package then it executes corresponding method
code there and only returns its result to source program therefore size of source program in
not increased as happened in C/C++. And hence, memory wastage is solved.

4) interface statement Section:

In this section we can define interfaces.
Interfaces are similar to the classes which are collections of methods etc.
This is optional section, used while implementing multiple inheritance in
java.
5) classdefinitionSection:
We know that single Java program may contain multiple classes and
every class has its own attributes (data members) and methods. Such type of
classes can be defined under class definition section.
Note that:
 We know that single Java program may contains multiple classes but out of
these classes, one class should be public and that class contains main( )
method from which JVM interprets the byte code.

6) main( ) method Section:

We know that in case of C/C++, main( ) function is compulsory from
which execution of program starts. Like that java program also have main( )
method from which JVM starts program interpretation. This is compulsory
section. Also, main( ) method in Java must be public. If we made main( ) as
private or protected then it is not assessable for JVM also.
main( ) method should be defined under any class of program.
-----------------------------------
Simple Java Program:
Let’s consider following simple java program;

import java.lang.*;
class first
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
System.out.println(“Welcome in JAVA programming”);
}
}

In above program,

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  “java.lang” is a package which is imported using ‘import’ keyword. This package
contains lots of inbuilt classes such as System, String, Integer, Float etc.This is
default package i.e. there is no necessary to import it.
 Here, main( ) method is compulsory which is declared as public, static and
void
 It is public because it made available for JVM for interpretation of java
program.
 It is static because it should be called without any object; it is invoked
by JVM with classname.
 It is void because it does not return any value.
 Also, main( ) method accepts array of string as argument which is called as
command line argument. The passed values are stored in args[ ] array at
individual indices.
 System.out.println( ) statement:
 “System” is inbuilt wrapper class which was found under ‘java.lang’
package.
 “out” is object of ‘System’ class which is ‘static’ & hence it is accessed by
‘System’ class name.
 “println( )” is a method was found in “System” class used to display
output and called by using “out” object.

Steps to execute Java Program:

Following flowchart shows compiling and interpreting Java program;

Start

CodeJava source
program

Save Java source program

Compile Java program

NO
Compiled
Successfull Update Java source
y? program

YES
Byte code

Interpret Byte Code

NO
Got
desir
ed
Outp YES 10
ut ?
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Stop
 Syntax to Compile Java Source program:
Java program is compiled with ‘java source program’ name along with
‘javac’ component which is given as fallow:

javac JavaSourcePgmName.java

E.g. Consider, we have ‘good.java’ source program then we can compile it as

follow:

javac good.java

If ‘good.java’ program have one class named ‘good’ then ‘good. Class’ byte code
is generated.
Syntax to Interpret or Run or Execute the Byte code:
Java program is interpreted or run or execute using bytecode (.class file) along with
‘java’ interpreter which is given as fallow:
javaByteodeFile

E.g. Consider, we have ‘good.class’byte code then it isinterpreted as follow:

javac good

Note that: After compilation of java source program, byte code (.class file) is
generated. And then JVM interpret that byte code and we got our result.

Syntax to pass arguments to main( ) method while interpretation

of bytecode :
We can also pass some string type arguments to main ( ) method called ‘command
line arguments’ using following syntax.
javacByteCodeFile arg1 arg2 - - - - argN

In above syntax;
arg1, arg2, - - - - ,argN are the command line arguments passed to main() method
while interpreting.
Note that: All passed arguments are stored in formal parameter (String type array) of
main( ) method at individual indices.
E.g. Consider following Program:
import java.lang.*;
class first
{ public static void main(String args[ ])
{
System.out.println(“FirstName= ”+ args[0]);
System.out.println(“MiddleName= ”+ args[1]);
System.out.println(“LastName= ”+ args[2]);
}
}
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javac first.java
java first SACHIN RAMESH SHINDE
 In above example; three command line arguments are passed to main( ) method.
They are SACHIN RAMESH SHINDE.
All these arguments are stored in ‘args’ String type array in main( ) method at
individual indices as fallow;
args[0]=> SACHIN

args[1]=> RAMESH

args[2]=> SHINDE

Also, we use ‘+’ operator to concatenates two strings with each other.
Java Source filecreation or declaration rules:
As the last part of this section let's now look into the source file declaration rules.
These rules are essential when declaring classes, import statements and
package statements in a source file.
 A source file can haveonly one public class.
 A source file can have multiple non-public classes.
 The public class name should be the name of the source file and which should
be stored by .java extension.
For example : Consider there is public class Employee{} Then the source file should
be as
Employee.java
 If the class is defined inside a package, then the package statement should be
the first statement in the source file.
 If import statements are present then they must be written between the
package statement and the class declaration. If there are no package
statements then the import statement should be the first line in the source file.
 Import and package statements will imply to all the classes present in the
source file. It is not possible to declare different import and/or package
statements to different classes in the source file.
Java Tokens:
“Token is nothing but smallest individual unit of java source program.”
We know that Java is pure OOP language i.e. every program has classes and every
classes has some methods and methods contains executable statement and
every executable statement contains the tokens i.e. statements are made up of
several tokens.
Following are the several tokens in Java program:
1) Keywords 2) Data type 3) Identifier 4) Variable
5) Constant or Literals 6) Operators 7) Special symbols.
Let us see all tokens in details:
1) Keywords (Reserve words):
 The words whose meaning is already known by java compiler are called as
‘Keywords’.
 These words having fix meaning and we are not able to change that meaning
therefore they are also called as ‘Reserve Word’.
 Java language contains more than 50 keywords and they are listed as fallow:

abstract continue for new switch

assert default package synchronized
Boolean do if private this

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 break double implements protected throw
byte else import public throws
case enum instanceof return transient
catch extends int short try
char final interface static void
class finally long strictfp volatile
float native Super while
2) Data Type:
 Data: “Data is nothing but collection of raw information or unprocessed
information that we provide for the computer for processing”
e.g. numbers, string, alphanumeric etc.
 Data Type:
 Concept: When we give data to the computer for processing at that time
compiler does not know which type of input data is.
Generally, Data types are used to tell the compiler which type of input data is.
 Definition: “Type of Data is called as Data Type”
Following tree diagram shows data types in Java language:

Let us see all these data types in details:

Primitive Data Types:

There are nine primitive data types supported by Java. Primitive data types are
predefined by the language and named by a keyword.
1) byte:
 byte data type is an 8-bit(1 byte) integral data type.
 Its Minimum range value is -128 (i.e. -2^7)
 Its Maximum range value is 127 (inclusive)( i.e. 2^7 -1)
 Its Default value is 0
 byte data type is used to save space in large arrays, mainly in place of integers,
since a byte is four times smaller than an int.
 Example: byte a = 100; byte b = -50;
2) short:
 short data type is a 16-bit (2 bytes) integral.
 Its Minimum range value is -32,768 (i.e. -2^15)
 Its Maximum value is 32,767 (inclusive) (i.e. 2^15 -1)
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  Short data type can also be used to save memory as int data type. A short is 2
times smaller than an int
 Its Default value is 0.
 Example: short s = 10000, r = -20000;
3) int:
 int data type is a 32-bit (4 bytes) signed integral data type.
 Its Minimum range value is - 2,147,483,648.(i.e. -2^31)
 Its Maximum range value is 2,147,483,647(inclusive).(i.e. 2^31 -1)
 int is generally used as the default data type for integral values unless there is a
concern about memory.
 Its default value is 0.
 Example: int a = 100000, b = -200000;
4) long:
 long data type is a 64-bit (8 bytes)signed integral data type.
 Its Minimum range value is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808.(i.e. -2^63)
 Its Maximum range value is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive). (i.e. 2^63
-1)
 This type is used when a wider range than int is needed.
 Its Default value is 0L.
 Example: long a = 100000L, int b = -200000L;
5) float:
 float data type is a single-precision 32-bit (4 bytes) floating data type.
 Its Minimum range value is - 3.4e38 to -1.4e-45 for negative value.
 Its Maximum range value is 3.4e38 to 1.4e-45 for positive value.
 Float is mainly used to save memory in large arrays of floating point numbers.
 Its default value is 0.0f.
 Float data type is never used for precise values such as currency.
 Example: float f1 = 234.5f;
6) double:
 double data type is a double-precision 64-bit(8 bytes)floating data type.
 Its Minimum range value is -1.8e308 to -4.9e324 for negative value.
 Its Maximum range value is 1.8e308 to 4.9e324 for positive value.
 This data type is generally used as the default data type for decimal values,
generally the default choice.
 Double data type should never be used for precise values such as currency.
 Its Default value is 0.0d.
 Example: double d1 = 123.4;
7) boolean:
 boolean data type represents one bit of information.
 There are only two possible values: true and false.
 This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions.
 Its default value is false.
 Example: booleanone = true;
8) char:
 char data type is a single 16-bit (2 bytes)non-numeric character data type.
 Its Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0).
 Its Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).
 Char data type is used to store any character.
 Example: char letter ='A';
9) void:
 voidmeans no value
 This data type is generally used to specify return type of method.
 If return type of method is void then that method does not return any value.

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 Reference Data Types:
 There are three kinds of reference data types in Java VIZ. class, interface and
array.
 If we declare variables of data type Classor interface or array then we can say
that declared variables follows reference data type.(Note that: we cannot create
object of interface since they contains abstract methods but we create its
reference)
 Default value of any reference variable is null.
 A reference variable can be used to just refer or just store any object of the
declared type or any compatible type.
 Example: 1) Consider there is one Class named ‘Animal’ then we can create
its reference as :
Animal monkey;
Here, ‘monkey’ is reference object of ‘Animal’ class which is used to refer
another object of Animal class.
Animal tiger=new Animal( );
Here, ‘tiger’ is an object of ‘Animal’ class.
Then, Reference object ‘monkey’ can be referred to ‘tiger’ as fallow:
monkey = tiger ;
Note that:
* Reference object is not similar to object.
* When we create or declare reference object of class or interface then constructor is
not invoked or it is not suitable to invoke class methods. It is just used to refer or
store existing object.
* But when we create object of class then constructor automatically invoked and
objects are used to invoke class methods also.
3) Identifier:
 “Identifier is the name given by the programmer for any variable, package,
class, interface, array, object etc.”
 There are several rules to declare or define the identifier:
1) Identifier should not be keyword.
2) Identifier should not start with digit.
3) Identifier can be combination of alphabets, digits or underscore.
4) Identifier should not contain special symbol except underscore.
5) Identifier should not contain any white space character like horizontal
tab, vertical tab, new line etc.
6) Identifier should be meaningful.
7) Identifier can be of any length.
 Naming Conventions in Java:
Naming Conventions specify the rules to be followed by java programmer while
writing or coding java source program.

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 We know that java program contains the package, classes, interfaces, methods,
variables etc. and all these have separate naming conventions they are as
follow:
Naming Conventions for Package:
 We know that, Package is one kind of directory that’s contains the classes and
interfaces.
 Package name in java should write in small letters only.
Example:
java.lang
java.awt
javax.swing
Naming Conventions for class or interface:
 We know that, class is model for creating object.
 Class specifies the properties and action for objects.
 An interface is similar to class but it has abstract methods only.
 Class and interface name in java should start with capital letter.
Example:
System
String
Integer
Float etc.
Naming Conventions for methods:
 We know that, methods contain the executable statements or instructions after
execution it produce desired result.
 The first word of a method name is in small letters, then from second word
onwards, each new word starts with capital letter as:
Example:
println();
readLine();
getNumberInstance();
Naming Conventions for variables:
 Naming conventions for variable is same as that of methods i.e. The first word of
a variable name is in small letters, then from second word onwards, each new
word starts with capital letter as:
Example:
age;
empName;
empNetSal;

4) Variable:
“Variable is the name given to the memory location where the data is stored such
quantity is called as Variable”
OR
“The quantity that changes during program execution is called as Variable”
Concept:
The main concept behind variable is that every variable has an ability to store the
data.
Syntax to declare variable:

DataType variableName ;

Here;
DataType is any valid data type in ‘Java’ language.
variableName is an identifier.
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 Example: int rollno;
Char x;
 There are several rules to declare the variable:
1) Variable should not be keyword.
2) Variable should not start with digit.
3) Variable can be combination of alphabets, digits or underscore.
4) Variable should not contain special symbol except underscore.
5) Variable should not contain any white space character like horizontal
tab, vertical tab, new line etc.
6) Variable should be meaningful.
7) Variable can be of any length.
8) Declared variable must be initialized anywhere in block.

Types of Variables in java:

 Local variables:
 The variables which are declared inside methods, constructors or blocks
are called local variables.
 These variables are declared and initialized within the method and they
will be destroyed automatically when the method has completed its
execution.
 Instance variables:
 Instance variables are variables which are declared within a class but
outside any method.
 These variables are instantiated when the class is loaded.
 Instance variables can be accessed from inside any method, constructor
or blocks of that particular class but not accessed within static method
directly.
 Class variables:
 Class variables are variables which are declared within a class but
outside any method and declared with the static keyword.
 These types of variables are common to all objects of class i.e. all static
data are shared among all objects of class commonly.

5) Constant (Literals):
A literal represent a fixed value that is stored into variable directly in the program.
They are represented directly in the code without any computation.
Literals can be assigned to any primitive type variable.
For example:
 bytep = 68;
 char a = 'A';

Java has different types of literals VIZ:

1) Integer Literals
2) String Literals
3) Character Literals
4) Float Literals
5) Boolean Literals
Let us see all literals in details:
1) Integer Literals:
Integer literals represent the fixed integer values like 23, 78, 658, -745 etc.
The data type byte, int, long, shortbelongs to decimal number system that uses 10
digits ( from 0 to 9 ) or octal number systemthat uses 8 digits (from 0 to 7) or

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 hexadecimal number system that uses 16 digits (from 0 to F) to represent any
number.
Note that:
Prefix 0 is used to indicate octal and prefix 0x indicates hexadecimal when using these
number systems for literals.
For example:
 intdecimal = 100;
 intoctal = 0144;
 inthexa = 0x64;

2) String Literals:
String literals are collection of characters which are representing in between a pair
of
double quotes.
Example:
 String x="Hello World";

3) Character Literals:
Character literals are characters which are representing in between a pair of single
quotes.
Character literals are like ‘A’ to ‘Z’, ‘a’ to ‘z’, ‘0’ to ‘9’or Unicode character like
‘\u0042’ or
escape sequence like ‘\n’, ‘\b’ etc.
Example:
 Char x= ‘ Z’;
4) Float Literals:
Float literals representsfractional values like 2.3, 86.58, 0.0, -74.5 etc.
These types of literals are used with float and double data types.
While writing such literals, we can use E or e for scientific notation, F or f for float
literal and D or d for double literals (this is default and generally omitted)
For Example:
float p = 9.26;
double q = 1.56e3;
float m =986.8f;
5) Boolean Literals:
Float literals representsonly two values – true or false. It means we can store either
‘true’ or ‘false’ into a Boolean type variable
For Example:
boolean p =true;

6) Operators:
An‘operator’is a symbol that tells computer to perform specific task.
OR
An ‘Operator’ is a symbol that operates onto the operand to perform specific
task.

Following are the several operators present in Java:

1) Arithmetic operators
2) Relational operators
3) Logical operators
4) Increment and decrement operator
5) Assignment operator
6) conditional operator
7) Bitwise operators
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 8) ‘new’ operator
9) ‘instanceof’ operator
10) cast operator
(Note that: All the operators listed above from 1 to 6 are same as C/C++ language
therefore refer notes of C/C++ language)

Let’s see some operators of Java language as follows:

7) Bitwise operators:
 Bitwise operators are used to manipulate data at bit (0 or 1) level.
 These operators act on individual bits of the operands.
 Bitwise operators only act on integral data types such as byte, int, short, long.
That is they are not worked on float and double data type.
 When these operators work on data then internally (automatically) data is
converted into binary format & then they start their working.
 There are 7 different bitwise operators present in Java as follows:

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR (i.e. XOR)
~ Bitwise Complement
<< Bitwise left Shift
>> Bitwise Right Shift
>>> Bitwise Zero fill Right shift

The truth table or working of bitwise operator & , | and ^ is shown in following
table:

Op1 Op2 Op1 & Op2 Op1 | Op2 Op1 ^ Op2

1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0

Bitwise AND operator (&):

This operator performs ‘AND’ operation on individual bits of the numbers. To
understand the working of ‘&’ operator see following example.
E.g.:
1) 22&5

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
22  0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
5  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
22&5  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

In above table, ‘1’ bit is found in ‘4’ column only therefore ‘22&5’ gives result ‘4’
Bitwise OR operator (|):
This operator performs ‘OR’ operation on individual bits of the numbers. To
understand the working of ‘|’ operator see following example.
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 E.g.:
1) 35|7

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
35  0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
7  0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
35|7  0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

In above table, ‘1’ bit is found in ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘4’ and ‘32’ columns therefore ‘35|7’ gives
result
1+2+4+32= 39
Bitwise XOR operator (^):
This operator performs ‘exclusive OR’ operation on individual bits of the
numbers. Its symbol is denoted by ‘^’ which is called cap, carat or circumflex
symbol. To understand the working of ‘^’ operator see following example.
E.g.:1) 47^4

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
47  0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
4  0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
47^4  0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

In above table, ‘1’ bit is found in ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘8’ and ‘32’ columns therefore ‘47^4’ gives
result
1+2+8+32=43
Bitwise Complementoperator (~):
This operator gives complement form of the given number. Its symbol is denoted
by ‘~’ which is called ‘tiled’ symbol. To understand the working of ‘~’ operator
see following example.
E.g.:
1) ~47
 It gives result= -48
2) ~(-26)
 It gives result= 25
Bitwise leftshiftoperator (<<):
This operator shifts the bits towards left side by a specified number of positions.
Its symbol is denoted by ‘<<’ which is called double less than symbol. To
understand the working of ‘<<’ operator see following example.
E.g.:1) 15<<3

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
15  0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

In above table, ‘1’ bit is found in ‘8’, ‘16’, ‘32’ and ‘64’ columns therefore ‘15<<3’
gives result
8+16+32+64=120
Bitwise Rightshiftoperator (>>):
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 This operator shifts the bits towards right side by a specified number of
positions. Its symbol is denoted by ‘>>’ which is called double greater than
symbol. To understand the working of ‘>>’ operator see following example.
E.g.:1) 25>>3

12 6 3 1
8 4 2 1
8 4 2 6
2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
5 

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

In above table, ‘1’ bit is found in ‘1’, and ‘2’ columns therefore ‘25>>3’ gives result
1+2=3
Bitwise Zero Fill Rightshiftoperator (>>>):
This operator also shifts the bits towards right side by a specified number of
positions. But, it stores ‘0’ in the sign bit. Its symbol is denoted by ‘>>>’ which
is called triple greater than symbol. Since, it always fills ‘0’ in the sign bit
therefore it is called zero fill right shift operator.
In case of negative numbers, its output will be positive because sign bit is filled
with ‘0’

8) ‘new’ operator:
 ‘new’ operator is used to create object of class.
 We know that, objects are created on ‘heap’ memory by JVM dynamically.
Syntax to create object:
className obj=new className( );
Here,
‘className’ is name of the class.
‘obj’ is name of created object which is an identifier.
Example: Consider, there is class named ‘Employee’ then we create its object as
follow,

Employee emp = new Employee( );

Here, ‘emp’ is an object of class ‘Employee’

9) ‘instanceof’ operator:
 ‘instanceof’ operator is used to check an object belongs to class or not.
 This operator also used to check an object belongs to interface or not.
Syntax:
booleanvar=objinstanceofclassName;
OR
Boolean var=objinstanceofinterfaceName;
Here,
‘var’ isvariable of boolean data type.
‘obj’ is object of class or interface.
‘className’ is name of class.
‘interfaceName’ is name of interface.
Example:
boolean x=empinstanceof Employee;
Here, ‘instanceof’ operator checks an object ‘emp’ is an object of class ‘Employee’ or
not.
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 If ‘emp’ is an object is class ‘Employee’ then ‘instanceof’ operator return ‘true’
otherwise it returns ‘false’
// Program that demonstrate use of ‘instanceof’ operator
class Worker
{

}
class Employee extends Worker //Inherited from Worker Class
{
public static void main(String []args)
{
Employee emp=new Employee( );
Worker wk=new Worker( );
boolean x=wkinstanceof Employee;
if(x == true )
{
System.out.println("It is object of Employee class");
}
else
{
System.out.println("It is object of Worker class");
}

}
}
OUTPUT: It is object of Worker class (Since, ‘wk’ is object of ‘Worker’
class)

10) ‘cast’ operator:

castoperator is used to convert one data type into another data type.
To convert data type of any variable or an expression, just we have to specify
conversion data type before variable or expression within simple bracket
(braces).
Example:
1) double x=15.26;
int y=x; //Error- because data type of ‘x’ and ‘y’ are different.
To store value of ‘x’ into ‘y’, we have to convert data type of ‘x’ into data type of ‘y’
as follow,
int y= (int) x; //here, the data type of ‘x’ is converted into data type of ‘y’ using (int) cast
operator

2)
int x=65;
char y = (char) x;//here, the data type of ‘x’ is converted into data type of ‘y’ using (char)
cast operator

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 Control Statement in Java:
The statement that controls the flow of execution of program is called as “Control
statement” or “Control Structure”.
The following tree diagram shows control statements in Java language:

(Note that: All the Control Statement in Java is same as that of C/C++ language
therefore refer notes of C/C++ language)
for-each loop:
 This loop is specially designed to handle elements of ‘collection’.
 Collection represents a group or set of elements or objects.
For example: We can take an ‘array’ as collection because ‘array is set or group of elements
 Also, any class in ‘java.util’ package can be considered as ‘collection’ because any class
in ‘java.util’ package handles group of objects such as ‘stack’, ‘vector’, ‘LinkedList’ etc.
 The for-each loop repeatedly executes a group of statements for each element of the
collection.
 The execution of for-each loop depends upon total number of elements or objects
present in the collection.
Syntax:
for (datatypevar : collection )
{
Statements;
}

Here,
‘var’ is an identifier which represents each element of collection one by one. Suppose, the
collection has 5 elements then this loop will be executed 5 times and ‘var’ will store each
element of collection one by one.
‘datatype’ is any valid datatype in Java which is same as collection.
‘collection’ is any collection such as array, stack, linked list, vector etc.

// Program that demonstrate use of for-each loop

classmyloop
{ public static void main(String []args)
{ intarr[]={5,6,7,8,9};
for (int i : arr ) // ‘i' represents each element of
‘arr’
{
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}

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 ‘continue’statement:
 ‘continue’statement is specially used in looping statement.
 When ‘continue’ statement is executed then control transferred back to check the
condition in loop and rest of statements are ignored.
// Syntax or execution of ‘continue’ statement

While ( condition1 )
{
if ( condition2 )
{
continue;
}
-----------
-----------
}

// Program that demonstrate use of ‘continue’ statement

classmyloop
{
public static void main(String []st)
{
int i=10;
while(i>=1)
{
if(i>5)
{
System.out.print(“\t”+i);
i--;
continue;
}
else
{
i--;
}
}
}
}
OUTPUT: 10 98 7 6

Reading Input using ‘Scanner’ class of ‘java.util’ package:

 We can read varieties of inputs from keyboard or from text file using methods of
‘Scanner’ class.
 Scanner class belongs to ‘java.util’ package.
 When Scanner class receives input, it breaks the input into several pieces,
called ‘tokens’ and these tokens can be retrieved using object of Scanner class.
 Note that: Following methods of Scanner class are non-static therefore they are
called or accessed with the help of object of Scanner class.
We can create object of Scanner class as follows:

Scanner obj=new Scanner(System.in);

Here, ‘obj’ is object of Scanner class.

‘System.in’ represents InputStream object, which is by default represents
standard input
device i.e. Keyboard.
There are several methods of Scanner class used to take different inputs as follows:

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 Method Working
next( ) It is used to read single string
nextByte( ) It is used to read single byte type value
nextInt( ) It is used to read single integer type value
nextFloat( ) It is used to read single Float type value
nextLong( ) It is used to read single Long type value
nextDouble(
It is used to read single Double type value
)
nextShort( ) It is used to read single short type value

Following program demonstrate the use of different methods of Scanner class.

Import java.util.Scanner;
class cricket
{
public static void main(String []args)
{
byte no;
String name;
long contact;
int t_sc;
shortt_wk;
floatball_avg;
double bat_avg;
Scanner sc=new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter Cricketer No= ");
no=sc.nextByte();
System.out.print("Enter Cricketer Name= ");
name=sc.next();
System.out.print("Enter Cricketer Contact No= ");
contact=sc.nextLong();
System.out.print("Enter Cricketer Total Score= ");
t_sc=sc.nextInt();
System.out.print("Enter Cricketer Wickets= ");
t_wk=sc.nextShort();
System.out.print("Enter Ball AVG= ");
ball_avg=sc.nextFloat();
System.out.print("Enter Batting AVG= ");
bat_avg=sc.nextDouble();
System.out.println("-------------------------------------------");
System.out.println("CricketerNO="+no);
System.out.println("CricketerName="+name);
System.out.println("ContactNo="+contact);
System.out.println("Total SCore="+t_sc);
System.out.println("Total Wickets="+t_wk);
System.out.println("Balling AVG="+ball_avg);
System.out.println("Batting AVG="+bat_avg);
}
}

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