drivers

waste

S
of change
waste
T
Ec
En
P

2.0
© Text: the authors

waste
© Images: the authors

Edition
Chris Luebkeman
Arup Fellow and Director S
Global Foresight + Research + Innovation
T
Project Manager
Gereon Uerz Ec
Associate, Foresight Skill Leader, Europe
Editor
En
William Newton
P
Graphic design
Mark Pearsall, Alingo Loh
Research
Nils Gerstein, Matthias Geipel, Jonelle Simunich, Anna Pichugina
Printing and packaging
1st-Packaging, printed in 2017
 electronic waste

c Ivan2010
waste

where will your phone go?

social

In 2014 alone, the world generated 41.8 million tonnes of e-waste, containing
US$52bn in resources. Most is not collected for recovery or treatment.
—United Nations University (2015)
electronic waste 15
12.8

waste
E-waste (million tonnes)
11.8
Electronic waste consists of discarded electrical and 10
electronic equipment (EEE). As computers and mobile 7.0
6.3
devices have become an essential part of daily life in
5
industrialised countries, EEE increasingly constitutes 3.0

social
a significant percentage of the global waste stream; 1.0
small devices, with their frequent replacement cycles, 0

make up the largest share (Fig 1).

ps

iptm arge
IT

equ han e

iptm mall
een

exc atur
iptm ge

ent

ent
Lam

all

ent

S
L
Sm

Scr

per
Tem

equ

equ
In EU countries, 9.45 million tonnes of e-waste
was generated in 2012; only 35% of this figure was Fig 1: Total e-waste per category
officially reported, collected and recycled. [United Nations University, 2014]

The remaining 65% was exported (1.5m tonnes), 20

recycled locally under non-compliant conditions 16.0 mt

(3m tonnes), scavenged for parts, or simply added 15

Million tonnes
11.7 mt 11.6 mt
to the general waste stream.
10

Production and disposal of EEE carry significant long-

5
term social, health and environmental consequences 1.9 mt
0.6 mt
for developing countries, making the EEE value chain 0
a critical subject for future international regulations. Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
Although the 1989 Basel Convention restricts export 1.7 kg/inh. 12.2 kg/inh. 3.7 kg/inh. 15.6 kg/inh. 15.2 kg/inh.
of e-waste, an estimated 70% of global e-waste is
Lamps Temperature exchange equiptment
disposed of in China (Fig 2) with the remainder spread Small IT Large equiptment
across India and Africa, with little to no recycling Screens Small equiptment

regulation or oversight.
Fig 2: Total e-waste generation per category and
continent
[United Nations University, 2014] 01
 informal collection

c bmeabroad
waste

whose survival depends on your refuse?

social

20m to 80m people (0.5 to 2% of the global urban population) work in the
informal waste sector — the equivalent of the populations of Cambodia and
Italy, respectively. —Institution of Civil Engineers (2013)
informal collection

waste
beyond
Activities in the informal waste sector (IWS) provide

(shown as reducing the negative in Euros)

-3.5
both immediate and indirect value to society -3.0

Externality cost in million

whilst providing a livelihood for people unable to -2.5
obtain work in the formal economy. Waste pickers

social
-2.0
can reduce municipal expenditures on waste

-2.409
-0.184

-2.908

-0.104
-0.278

-7.231
-0.180

-0.478
-0.243

-6.013
-1.197
-1.5
management; urban externality costs are also
-1.0
reduced, as a result of the environmental benefits
-0.5
provided by waste picking (Fig 1). In Cairo, for
example, more material is recovered in the informal 0
Quezon Pune Lusaka Lima Cuj Cairo
(30%) than in the formal (13%) waste sector.
Informal Sector Formal Sector
While cities as a whole benefit from improved
general health due to informal collection activities, Fig 1: Environmental benefits associated with material
hazard exposure, unsafe procedures and lack of recovery in six cities
[GIZ, 2011]
legal representation makes waste picking an often
unhealthy and dangerous profession.

Fo
China estimates between 3 and 6 million people are

rm
Industry

al
involved in the IWS; in Latin America this number

int
e
rre
is estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and

lat
Brokers-traders

ed
4 million people. By and large, IWS participants

wit
h
are among the most highly vulnerable groups in

inf
orm
Intermediaries
society, including recent migrants, children, retired

al
se
cto
individuals and disabled persons. Waste pickers

r
Waste pickers
occupy the lowest position in the hierarchy of the
waste industry, providing crucial services but seeing
little profit (Fig 2). Fig 2: Recycling labour vs recycling profit pyramid
[WEGO/MIT, 2012] 02
 clothing

c Jorge Royan
waste

is your apparel a disposable asset?

social

In 2014, 16.2m tonnes of textile waste was generated in the United States
alone. Of that amount, only 16% — 2.6m tonnes — was recycled.
—US EPA (2016)
clothing

waste
100
Clothing is often viewed as disposable by consumers 90
Plastic fibre

in the developed world. Low-cost offshore labour 80

Natural fibre

and manufacturing has massively accelerated 70

Million tonnes
production and distribution of low-price retail clothing 60

social
in industrialised countries. In the US, the volume 50
40
of textile waste rose by 40% between 1990 and 2009
30
(Fig 1) to over 11 million tonnes, and is projected 20
to exceed 15 million tonnes by 2019. 10
0
Fully one-third of textile waste goes to landfill at

6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
2
199
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
199
the end of its usable life (Fig 2). According to the
US Environmental Protection Agency, textile waste Fig 1: Global apparel fibre consumption
[FAO/ICAC, 2013]
occupies nearly 5% of all available landfill space.
With the worldwide apparel market growing
and textile waste increasingly recognised as an
environmental threat, retailers are developing 14% Domestic re-use
strategies to stay ahead of ever-stricter regulation. 31%
Overseas re-use

Apparel manufacturers are increasingly committing to 34%

Recycling

waste reduction schemes. Casualwear brand H&M, 7% Incineration

for example, operates a clothing take-back system 14%
Landfill
to recover items at the end of their useful life, while
outdoor wear giant Patagonia offers in-house repairs
for worn items, free repair guides, and an annual Fig 2: Destinations of end-of-life clothing
‘wornwear’ swap and sale. [WRAP, 2011]

03
 sharing

c Richard Masoner
waste

who will you ride with?

social

Global car sharing subscription has increased from 350,000 memberships in

2006 to nearly 5m in 2014, and is projected to reach 23.4m by 2024.
—ACEA (2014), Navigant Research (2015)
sharing Approximately 35 million drivers will use car-sharing services by 2021

waste
World Europe N. America Asia-Pacific
400
The “sharing economy” refers to the exchange and
350
sequential co-use of goods between a group of
300
users. A variety of sharing services have emerged

Drivers (in millions)

250
over the past decade, thanks to pioneers such as

social
Uber and AirBnB leveraging widespread mobile 200

31
385
81
50
253

153
46
75

35
14
6
15

3.5
1.4
0.6
1.5
device ownership. Car sharing is a prime example 150

of private assets shared via peer-to-peer online 100

marketplaces. Particularly in urban areas (Fig 1), 50

car sharing is a desirable alternative to the 0

Living in large 18+ years old with Registered with Multiple uses per
significant costs of a private vehicle ownership. urban areas a valid driver’s a car-sharing month
license provider
(Cities) (Driver’s License) (Registered) (Heavy use)
While living spaces and transportation make up
the bulk of sharing services (Fig 2), the concept Fig 1: Projected car-sharing users by 2021
has been applied to many other sectors. From [Boston Consulting Group, 2016]

high-end digital creative hardware to garden tools 55%

to children’s toys, the benefits of material waste

54% €15.10 billion

50% P2P accommodation
45%

47% €1.65 billion

reduction are applicable at a variety of scales. 40% Collaborative finance

18% €5.10 billion

18% €5.20 billion
35%

12% €0.45 billion

Public adoption of sharing principles remains a 30% P2P transportation

32% €1.15 billion

7% €1.95 billion

7% €0.25 billion
25%
challenge; while 96% of all Europeans feel

3% €0.75 billion
20%

2% €0.10 billion
On-demand household
that efficient resource use is a concern, as of 2013 15% services
only 21% have “rented” a shared product instead 10% On-demand
professional services
of buying it. 5%
0%
% of Total Transactions % of Total Revenues

Fig 2: Sharing economy transaction values vs. revenues

in Europe by platform 2015
[PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2016] 04
 food surplus

c Foerster
waste

do you throw away good food?

social

Saving just one-fourth of the food wasted globally each year would be
enough to feed almost 900 million people. —Food and Agriculture Organization (2016)
food surplus

waste
Developing Countries
Developed Countries
One-third of the roughly 1.3bn tonnes of food 35%
produced annually for human consumption
24% 24% 7%
is wasted. Edible food is lost or wasted at every
stage along the food value chain (Fig 1). The annual

social
amount of individual food waste is 95–115 kg per 14% 15% 12%
28%
capita in OECD countries and 6–11 kg per capita 4% 7%
in developing countries. 10% 9% 2%
2% 5%

Handling and Processing and Distribution

In developing nations, losses occur mainly at early Production
storage packaging and market
Consumption

stages of the food value chain due to financial,

Fig 1: Share of total food loss and waste by stage in the
managerial and technical constraints on harvesting value chain
techniques and storage facilities. In higher [World Resources Institute, 2013]
income countries, most food waste is related 100
to retailer benchmarks and consumer behaviour, 90
in particular due to quality standards over- 80

emphasizing appearance. 70

m3 per capita
60
50
Food waste has serious environmental 40
consequences. The estimated carbon footprint of 30

food waste is 3.3bn tonnes of CO2 a year. A total of 20

1.4bn hectares of land is used to produce food later 10

0
lost or wasted, and the associated water losses

Cen W As frica,
Asia d

Afr ran
ope

cea a

Asia

rica

rld
ze
& O meric

ica
nia

tral ia &

Wo
are felt the hardest in already drought-prone regions

ha

Asia
riali
Eur

me
SE
NA
-Sa
N. A

in A
ust

S&
(Fig 2). The estimated direct costs 
of food wastage

Sub
Ind

Lat
amount to US$750bn per year, equivalent to the
Fig 2: Blue water footprint of food wastage, by region —
annual GDP of Switzerland. per capita results
[FAO, 2013] 05
 upcycling

c Mira Kim
what could you reuse?
waste
technological

95% of post-consumer apparel can be reused or recycled into workshop

rags, insulation, felt, padding, paper, and new cloth, among other items.
—SMART (Secondary Materials And Recycled Textiles Association) (2016)
upcycling
Upcycling is the process of transforming waste

waste
Helix: Natural or synthetic fibers
materials into new products of better quality.
Successful waste reduction depends heavily on
imaginative reuse of recoverable materials across
product categories. Clothing manufacturers,
for example, are increasingly upcycling waste

technological
Recovered plastic (RPET)
plastics into fabrics; recycled beverage bottles, for
example, are regularly used in generating synthetic
yarns (Fig 1). Several firms, including global Core

sportswear brand Adidas, have launched apparel

lines sourced exclusively from recovered Fig 1: HLX synthetic yarn
plastic ocean waste. [Bionic, 2016]

Entirely new classes of synthetic materials

may help achieve significant waste reductions
throughout the product lifecycle. Shape memory
polymers, which respond to state changes such
as heating by altering their physical structure
(Fig 2), can allow products to “self-assemble”,
allowing more efficient transport of goods, or
to “self-reconfigure” at the end of the product’s
lifespan, making reuse or recycling easier. Original shape Secondary shape induced by
heating

Fig 2: Shape memory polymers

[Active Disassembly, 2013]

06
 biological reprocessing

p Scott Bauer
what can your waste become?
waste
technological

Organic waste — including food, agricultural byproducts, and paper — can

be processed into fully biodegradable bioplastics capable of replacing
petroleum-based plastics in products from shopping bags to consumer
packaging. —Full Cycle (2017)
biological reprocessing Instant
coffee Transesterification Biodiesel
production
Biological reprocessing is the recovery and reuse

waste
of organic matter from municipal, commercial Fermentation Bioethanol
and industrial waste. Historically considered Lipid
an unpleasant and undesirable substance, little extract
Coffee Spent coffee Drying Extraction
biological waste is presently recovered; even less grounds with a
solvent Deffated
is recycled or repurposed. Fuel pellet

technological
solid waste
Beverage Slow Bio oil
Reuse of biological waste is a critical component from coffee pyrolysis
ground
of sustainable waste management. Disposing
of biomass removes both an important revenue Fig 1: Coffee ground recovery stream
stream and a valuable energy source. Biomass [biogasworld.com, 2015]

can be used in bio-refinery operations to produce

Wastewater
valuable chemicals, fuels and feed stocks. Fruit Commercial 7%
peels, for example, can be rendered to extract (single service sign on)
pectin, a crucial food thickener, while coffee 7%

grounds can be processed into biofuels (Fig 1). Residential SSO

6%

Industrial-scale anerobic digestion is the final

step in recovering value from biomass. During Landfill Gas
12%
composting, microorganisms break down organic
waste, producing digestate and bio-gas (Fig 2).
Agriculture
Nutrient-saturated digestate is a viable alternative 68%
to manufactured fertiliser. Bio-gas, rich in methane,
can be used for electricity and heat generation.
Fig 2: Biogas energy production potential by source
[biogasworld.com, 2015]

07
 waste-to-energy

p David Castor
could waste power your life?
waste
technological

Burning 10kg of residual waste — about the size of a bag of potatoes —

could generate enough electricity to power a laptop 24 hours a day for one
week, or 180 hours. —Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants (2014)
waste-to-energy 30

25
Waste-to-energy is the process whereby embodied

waste
Net CV (MJ kg-1)
20
energy in municipal and commercial waste is
converted into useful forms. The simplest method 15

of releasing this energy is incineration, which 10

reduces waste to 10% of its initial volume through

10.75

26.74

21.24

14.34

13.93

2.53

3.39

4.58

5.39

3.46

8.37
burning. Incineration of high-calorie waste such 5

technological
as plastics, paper and textiles can produce steam 0
power sufficient to heat buildings or produce

den
d

s
iles

ss
tals

ro

es
CV
stic

stic

tible

tible
car

Foo

anp
Gla

Fin
t

rall
Me
Gar
Tex
pla

pla
nd
electricity (Fig 1). 35 countries incinerate municipal

bus

bus

s/s

Ove
er a

se
Film

pie
om
com
Den
waste on a significant scale (Fig 2); this 170 million

Pap

Nap
cc
on-
Mis
cn
tonnes of waste incinerated per year generates the

Mis
energy equivalent of 220 million barrels of oil. Material
Fig 1: Calorific values by waste type
More advanced waste-to-energy schemes include [Ecoprog, 2014]

gasification and pyrolysis, which superheat waste

under precisely controlled conditions to generate
refuse-derived fuel (RDF) gases. The most efficient
method of RDF production is mechanical biological
treatment (MBT), which combines rigorous waste
sorting with anerobic digestion technology to
produce biogas. Greenpeace estimates that widely
implemented MBT could divert up to 85% of waste
from landfill without the need for incineration.

> 30% 11% – 30% < 10% n/a

Fig 2: Percentage of incinerated municipal waste

[UNSTATS, integrated with OECD library] 08
 industrial symbiosis

c United States Mission Geneva

can everything find a use?
waste
technological

Between 2005 and 2013, the UK’s National Industrial Symbiosis

Programme diverted 47 million tonnes of waste from landfill, reused 1.8m
tonnes of hazardous waste, saved 60m tonnes of virgin material and
reduced CO2 emissions by 42m tonnes. —International Synergies: NISP (2016)
industrial symbiosis Benefits
Cost savings to businesses (€)
Annual amount
243 million
General 5 year span
1.21 billion
Increased sales for businesses (€) 243 million 1.17 billion
Industrial symbiosis is the process whereby waste

waste
Jobs saved and created 10.000+
from one business becomes a useful raw material Private investment (€) 374 million
input for another, establishing a sustainable network Landfill diversion (tons) 9.4 million 47 million
of resource exchanges. (Fig 1). The resources Carbon savings (tons) 8.4 million 42 million
under exchange can be energy, water, materials Virgin raw materials savings (tons) 12 million 60 million

or industrial byproducts. In just one example, Hazardous waste eliminated (tons) 0.4 million 2.1 million

technological
Water conservation (tons) 15 million 72 million
chlorine and ethylene runoff from a caustic soda
Companies engaged in network 15.000+
mill can be harvested to make polymers for a PVC Rate of return on public funding 9:1
plant. Symbiosis can also function within a single
company: chemical giant BASF reuses steam Fig 1: Quantified Benefits of the UK National Industrial
and heat from its own processes for electricity Symbiosis Programme, 2016
[Laybourn, 2016]
generation, saving the firm 3.5 million metric tons of
greenhouse gases per year. Jobs in an economically Toolkit for farming / manufacturing
distressed neighborhood in vacant factories

Material flow analysis can help facilitate industrial

symbiosis, by quantifying all material inputs and O2
Light Electricity Turbine
Generator
850° Steam Building Heat
& Cool

outputs of a business and identifying potential CO2

input-output links. Chicago-based The Plant NO2 Food waste Biogas
Commerical
kitchen
Start-up
businesses

(Fig 2) serves as a pilot for interlinking ‘closed-loop’ Kombucha

brewery
Plants Nitrites
NH3
businesses. The Plant’s aquaponic farm grows
Food in a food
desert
Ammonia Fish Fish waste Anaerobic Food waste
tilapia and vegetables for sale to local businesses; digester
Waste
Kombucha
food waste from these shops is recovered and
anerobically digested, with the resultant biogas CO2
Cleaned
water
Algae
duckweed
Fertilizer Sludge Spent grain Brewery Beer

used to generate electricity for the farm. Spent barley

Food in a food Send to soil blender Mushrooms
desert

Fig 2: Closed Loop diagram of The Plant

[Matt Bergstrom, 2016] 09
 planned obsolescence

c Lemsipmatt
are your products designed to last?
waste
technological

Designing mobile phones to ease end-of-life deconstruction could halve the

costs of remanufacturing. Collecting 95% of discarded phones would generate
material cost savings of over US$1bn. —European Commission (2015)
planned obsolescence
Out-of-order device Faulty / defective device Working but want better device

Planned obsolescence is the practice of limiting

40

waste
the functional life of a product in order to stimulate
35

consumer demand. This practice is widespread

30

Percent
within the appliance and personal electronics
25

industries; recent research indicates that the reported

20

rate of complete device failure within 5 years

15

technological
of purchase more than doubled over a 10-year
10

period (Fig 1).

5

0
0-5 yrs 6-10 yrs 11+ yrs 0-5 yrs 6-10 yrs 11+ yrs

Technological acceleration has increased rates of 2004 2012 / 2013

Age of device
obsolescence. Everyday devices are increasingly
difficult for average users to repair, and upgrade Fig 1: Percentage of replaced major household
cycles lead to frequent replacement. Smartphones appliances differentiated by reason
are a prime example of the intersection between for replacement and age of the device
[University of Bonn, 2015]
technology and market demand. The life expectancy Average Years
of a smartphone is 4.6 years (Fig 2), after which Flat panel television 7.4
battery failure and old software render it unusable; Digital camera 6.5
however users in developed countries tend to replace DVD player or recorder 6.0
phones as often as every 1.5 years, as new models Desktop computer 5.9
are released. Blu-ray player 5.8
Video game console 5.7
Consumer awareness of planned obsolescence Notebook, laptop or netbook computer 5.5

is critical to reducing waste. French consumer- Tablet computer 5.1

protection regulations, for example, require that Cell phone that is NOT a smartphone 4.7
Smartphone 4.6
manufacturers clearly indicate devices’ estimated
lifespan, as well as how long parts and support will Fig 2: 2014 Expected product lifetime
remain available. [CEA, CE Product Life Cycle Study, 2014] 10
 green procurement

c GbbIT
will organizations vote with their wallets?
waste
economic

Korea created over 18,000 new jobs, saved 5m tonnes of CO2 and
retained US$1.2bn since 2005 by legislating for green public procurement.
—Korean Environmental Industry & Technology Institute (2015)
green procurement 25.0% 2012 2002

20.0%
Green procurement is the process of acquiring goods
and services with minimal adverse environmental 15.0%

impact. By making green budget decisions a priority, 10.0%

both public and private institutions can wield great
influence; public procurement alone accounts for 5.0%

accounts for €1 trillion of annual world trade and

waste
0.0%
represents 10–25% of GDP in at least 10 national

Netherlands

Finland

Sweden

Japan

Denmark

France

Germany

Czech Republic

United Kingdom

United States
economies, a share that has risen globally since the
early 2000s (Fig 1).

Procurement policies can impose eco-friendly

economic
Fig 1: Public Procurement as % of GDP, 2002 vs 2012
requirements such as improved recyclability, higher [OECD, 2014]
durability and higher amounts of recycled content.
One of the greatest barriers to widespread green Energy 59
procurement is a perception that environmentally sound CO2 and methane emissions 44
products must cost more than traditional alternatives. Waste to landfill 37
Water 35
Hazardous substances 31
Green procurement programmes serve as examples
Materials 31
of public institutions’ commitment to sustainable Local environment 28
objectives, demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of Biodiversity 25
eco-effective systems and materials, and provide moral Emissions to water 24
leverage to implement local policy frameworks. Other natural resources 22
The practical benefits extend beyond intangibles, freeing Other air emissions 16

landfill space for development options, providing

improved resident health outcomes due to cleaner air Fig 2: Environmental aspects cited by national
governments as priority in green procurement
and water, and reducing costs associated with toxic programmes
materials remediation (Fig 2). [UNEP, 2013] 11
 legacy costs

c Paul Home
what is the impact of your waste?
waste
economic

Improvements to municipal waste management offer environmental,

public health and financial benefits. By 2025, global annual solid waste
management costs are estimated to increase by US$170bn. —World Bank (2012)
legacy costs
The hidden costs of unmanaged municipal waste 3.3
%
Paper

include lost development opportunities from space Glass

14.6%
allocated to landfill, lost productivity due to human 27% Metals

health concerns, and the loss of investment in Plastics

13.5%
easily recyclable materials. Economic losses from Rubber, leather & textiles
4.5%
unmanaged waste accrue over time; cities without Wood

waste
6.2% 9.1%
waste prevention programmes are potentially 9%
Yard trimmings
12.8%
costing their regions between 40,000 and 180,000 Food

jobs through 2040, depending on prevention Other

methodology (Fig 1).

Fig 1: Potential regional job creation through 2040 for

economic
midsized cities, waste prevention sector
Governmental economic influence can enable [UN Food Wastage Footprint Report, 2014]
waste reduction across entire industries. In the
EU, for example, construction debris accounts
for 30% of all waste generated, despite the high 1.7
3.5
re-use potential of many construction materials
(Fig 2). By raising landfill prices for discarding 5.3 Construction
construction and demolition waste, EU member 7.3 Mining
states have effectively increased the recycling rates 32.9 Manufacturing
of concrete and timber, while eliminating hidden 8.5 Households
costs associated with long-term cleanup of Water management
these materials. 13.1
Other
27.8
Energy
Agriculture

Fig 2: EU waste generation by sector

[EU, 2011] 12
 pay-as-you-throw

p Hayden Hyatt
what should your waste removal cost?
waste
economic

Following implementation of Taipei’s Trash Per-bag Fee Collection Policy,

bag recycling rates increased twentyfold, from 23,000 bags in 1999 to
466,000 in 2013; simultaneously, general waste production declined by
one-third. —Taipei City Government Department of Environmental Protection (2016)
pay-as-you-throw

residential solid waste (RSW) disposed

1250
1100 lbs

Annual pounds per capita of

900 lbs
Pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) programmes, employed 1000

by EU nations for over 30 years, are gaining global 750

traction as a municipal waste management 500

500 lbs

option. PAYT, as distinct from traditional landfill taxes,

250
provides a direct economic incentive to decrease
waste generation, reducing waste management 0

waste
National National With full service
expenses and encouraging recycling. PAYT ensures average RSW average based PAYT
without RSW with
economically fair service delivery, as residents intervention intervention
are responsible for only their individual waste
treatment costs. Fig 1: Annual pounds per capita of residential solid
waste (RSW) disposed (US)

economic
[WasteZero, 2013]
Most PAYT programs charge annual fees per Recycling collection costs MBT costs Net costs
household, per waste container, or per kilogram Organic treatment costs Landfill costs
of waste removed, and report significantly higher Incineration costs Residual waste collection costs

Financial costs, million euros 2013 real terms

recycling rates than conventional flat-rate waste € 3,000

management programs. In US communities with a € 2,000

PAYT intervention, the amount of annual household € 1,000

solid waste disposed decreased by 17% on €0

average as a result of the program (Fig 1). -€ 1,000

-€ 2,000

As of 2015, PAYT schemes have been adopted -€ 3,000

by over half of EU member nations. Widespread -€ 4,000

implementation of PAYT is an important step -€ 5,000

5
towards reaching the European Commission’s goal 201

201

202

202

203

203
of recycling 50% of all solid waste by 2020 (Fig 2).
Fig 2: EU28 financial costs scenario with the 2020 and
2030 target (PAYT implemented)
[European Commission DG Environment, 2014] 13
 personal excess

c Hadley Paul Garland

what does your wealth leave behind?
waste
economic

It is estimated that global urban municipal solid waste generation will more
than double from 1.3 billion tons in 2013 to 2.72 billion tons in 2050.
—OECD/IEA (2016)
personal excess 350

300 GDP
Personal excess is the condition of owning more 250
material possessions than one needs. A feature of the 200
Total municipal
waste generation
market economy, excess creates waste both directly,
150
through consumption of resources and generation of Population
waste material, and indirectly, in terms of the wasted 100

labour and energy used to create, package and ship

waste
50
superfluous objects. In general, the more developed 0
and industrialised the country, the more waste it

0
198

198

199

199

200

200

201

201

202

202

203
produces (Fig 1). The United States alone, home to
less than 5% of the world’s population, is responsible Fig 1: Decoupling of OECD GDP from national country
for 19% of the world’s 1.2bn tonnes of municipal municipal waste generation, 1980–2030

economic
[OECD, 2010]
waste, generating over 700kg per capita each year.
Australia and Western Europe are close behind, Waste composition in Waste composition in
responsible for 600–700 kg annually per capita per low-income countries high-income countries

year. The majority of people in developing countries

17% 17%
produce far less waste. Estimations of annual waste 3% 28%
3%
generation are 220 kg per capita in Nairobi, Kenya and 6%
7%
120 kg per capita in Mumbai, India. 8% 64%
5%
11%
31%
Composition of waste varies with income levels as
well. In the US, 69% of household waste consists of
Organic Plastic Metal
expensive-to-recycle or outright toxic remnants of
Paper Glass Other
mass-produced consumer goods, including plastics,
chemicals and metals. In a country such as Uganda, Fig 2: Composition of municipal waste in the US
on the other hand, up to 70% of household waste and Uganda
[EPA, 2005]
consists of food, vegetables or garden matter and can
be safely composted (Fig 2). 14
 circular economy

© Daniel Image / Arup

can we close the loop?
waste
economic

Remanufacturing a product costs up to 65% less than creating a new

product, and uses 85% less energy. —Carbon Trust (2014)
circular economy Biological Cycles Renewable
Energy
Mining / Materials
Manuacturing
Technical Cycles

A circular economy is a system that reduces Parts Manufacturer

waste and pollution by operating as a restorative
Farming /
closed loop, reusing materials and products Collection Product Manufacturer

wherever possible and significantly reducing Biosphere Biochemical Feedstock Service Provider
material and labour inputs (Fig 1). In a circular
economy, business generation and value depends

waste
Biogass Anaerobic Extraction of Consumer User Maintenance Reuse / Refurnish / Recycle
Digestion / Biochemical Redistribute Remanufacture
upon services such as maintenance, material Composting Feedstock

redistribution, and input-output matching. Products Energy Recovery

as well as their assembly and distribution systems

in a circular economy would be designed to be Landfill
Leakage to be Minimised

entirely recoverable at the end of their service lives,

economic
Fig 1: The Circular Economy: restorative process model
as opposed to current systems and products built [Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013]
with only one ‘product lifetime’ in mind. Effect of circular system on primary material demand in widget market
700 Demand, BAU2
The current linear economy, a ‘take-make-use- 600
500
Virgin material
dispose’ model on a planet with finite resources, is 400
300
substituted by
circular material
reaching the limits of consumption. Due to upward 200
100 Demand under circular system
trends in both life expectancy and urbanisation, by 0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
2030 the world will have added two billion more
Effect of circular system on material stock and landfill
middle class consumers. A circular economy will 7000 Material stock
accommodate this growth, by actively lowering
2
6000 BAU
Material landfilled
5000
the amount of virgin material consumed over 4000
In use
Circular system
3000
time (Fig 2). 2000
1000
0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Fig 2: Benefits of Circular Economy to resource
availability
[Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013] 15
 resource depletion

c Trocaire
can we prevent over extraction?
waste
environmental

The planet has 1.9 hectares of biologically productive land per person
available to supply resources and absorb wastes; the average person already
consumes the resources of 2.3 hectares. —Worldwatch Institute (2016)
resource depletion 2.5

2.0
Resource depletion is the process of consuming a

Number of planet Earths

Business as usual
substance faster than it can be replenished. Data 1.5
Earth Overshoot Day: June 28, 2030

indicates that the global community requires the

annual total resource output — all fossil fuel use, 1.0
biological resource harvesting, and water use — of Carbon emissions reduced 30%
Earth Overshoot Day: September 16, 2030
1.6 
Earths to maintain present consumption rates, 0.5

much of which ends up as waste. By 2030, without

0.0
a change in consumption patterns, we will require

0
twice as many resources per year as the planet can

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203
provide (Fig 1).

waste
Fig 1: When will we overshoot Earth’s resource
capacity?
As of 2017, we extract about 60 billion tonnes of [Global Footprint Network, 2016]

raw materials a year, 50% more annually than 30

years ago. This trend, combined with demographic
Percentage of CO2 emissions by world population
shifts and rapid urbanisation, threatens to make

environmental
Richest
resource scarcity a major concern within our 10% 49%
Richest 10% responsible for almost half of total
lifestyle consupmtion emissions

World population arranged by income

lifetimes. Adding to the complexity of the issue is 19%
11%
the inequality of consumption distribution, with
7%
developed countries consuming resources and

(decibles)
4%
creating waste at a much faster rate than the 3%
Poorest 50% responsible
developing world (Fig 2). 2.5% for only around
Poorest
50% 2% 10% of total lifestyle
1.5% consupmtion emissions
1%

Fig 2: Carbon emissions by income decile

[Oxfam, 2015]
16
 emissions

c SuSanA Secretariat
how much do you produce?
waste
environmental

Methane, the gas produced through the decomposition of organic waste

in landfill sites, has a global warming potential 23 times higher than carbon
dioxide. —US Composting Council (2016)
emissions Landfill site

Gas flare Gas flare

Organic matter decomposing in landfill typically
generates a gas composed of 50% methane and
50% carbon dioxide. Both are potent greenhouse Landfill gas
main line
gases (GHGs), which trap heat in the atmosphere,
contributing to climate change. Without Dump radiator Blower
intervention, this gas escapes into the ecosystem;
when captured, however, these emissions can be Electrical Exhaust
Energy gas
converted into useful fuels (Fig 1). One tonne
of biodegradable waste can produce 20 MJ/m3 Fig 1: Landfill gas collection
(or 5.5 kWh/m3) of energy. [Clarke Energy, 2016]

waste
100%
GHGs are emitted at every stage in manufacturing
processes, from raw material extraction to 80%

transport, processing and use, through final 60%

treatment and disposal of waste. Waste reduction

environmental
40%
is the single most important management
20%
technique with regards to reducing GHGs, as it
prevents emissions at every stage of a product’s 0%
lifecycle. While recycling requires energy input, -20%

Asphalt shingles
Asphalt concrete
Tires
Concrete
Copper wire
Steel cans
HDPE
Mixed plastics
PET
Mixed metals
Personal computers
Carpet
Aluminum cans
Aluminum ingot
Glass
Fly ash
Newspaper
Phonebooks
Mixed paper (primarily from offices)
Mixed paper (primarily residential)
Mixed paper (general)
Mixed recyclables
Corrugated containers
Magazines / Third-class mail
Textbooks
Medium-density fiberboard
Dimensional lumber
Office paper
Drywall
the greenhouse gas emissions associated with
recycling processes are miniscule relative to
emissions offset from both the production of raw
materials and
 the disposal of materials to landfill.
To take just one example, global glass recycling
already relieves the climate of 897,000 tonnes
Fig 2: Recycling GHG benefits attributable to energy
of CO2 equivalents per year (Fig 2). savings (relative to landfilling)
[United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015] 17
 persistent pollutants

c Massachusetts Dept. of Environmental Protection

what toxins surround you?
waste
environmental

Global chemical consumption has reached 400 million tonnes per year and
consists of over 100,000 different substances. Many of these chemicals
produce further hazardous wastes, which pollute water, contaminate soils,
and enter the food chain, harming plants, animals and people.
—World Wide Fund For Nature (2016)
persistent pollutants
Between 1930 and 2000, global chemical production
increased by 400%. The chemicals that make much
of modern life possible, such as plastics, do not
biodegrade. Over time, chemical byproducs including
oil, toxic metals and persistent organic pollutants
(POP) accumulate in ecosystems and accrete in animal 1 2 3 4
tissue, causing disease, genetic mutations and death. Elemental
Mercury Emissions
Transport of
Atmospheric Mercury
Food Chain
Contamination
Harmful Effects
of Exposure
Elemental mercury Precipitation transports Plants contaminated with Humans and wildlife
is emitted into the atmospheric mercury mercury are consumed consume contaminated
Phthalates, a class of plastic softeners found in many atmosphere via
industrial activity,
to soil and water
where it is absorbed
by small fish species;
concentrations increase
fish and shellfish.
Ingesting toxic metals can
resulting in broad by plants. as larger fish species have serious effecs on
consumer products, disrupt hormone production, with

waste
distribution. consume small fish. the kidney, liver, central
nervous system and other
long-term effects on reproductive health. Mercury, organs.

a widely used industrial chemical, bio-accumulates Fig 1: Mercury pollution cycle

[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011]
up the food chain, contaminating marine life and
the humans that consume it (Fig 1). Up to 10% of 40
2025 (projection)
American women carry mercury concentrations near

environmental
35 2010
the level considered to put foetal development at risk 30

Billions of pounds.
of neurological damage. 25

20
To reduce these impacts, most countries have 15
signed the Stockholm Convention on POP. Pollutants 10
continue to accumulate, however; the world’s largest
5
waste site is the Pacific Garbage Patch, a mass of
0
tiny plastic particles 1,400,00km wide floating off the China
Indonesia
Philippines
Vietnam
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Egypt
Malaysia
Nigeria
Bangladesh
South Africa
India
Algeria
Turkey
Pakistan
Brazil
Burma
Morocco
North Korea
US
coast of California. An estimated 80% of this marine
litter originates on land, much of it non-biodegradable
Fig 2: Total annual output of mismanaged plastic waste
plastic that will persist for years (Fig 2). by coastal populations
[Jambeck et al, Science, 2015] 18
 resource intensity

c Beyond Coal & Gas Image Library

how much does your lifestyle cost the earth?
waste
environmental

It takes 100 tons of gold ore to get 10 ounces of the precious metal, but
recyclers can extract the same amount of gold from just one ton of printed
circuit boards. —Wharton (2016)
resource intensity +40

35

Consumer products are responsible for vast

Material intensity (kg/kg)

50
amounts of waste before they even enter our 40

14.43

37.00

0.85

5,260,000.00

320,301.00

540,000.00

7,500.00

2.52

5.70
homes. Waste is generated in the extraction of raw
30
materials, manufacturing, packaging and transport
of goods. The amount of this ‘hidden waste’ 20

associated with production is known as an object’s 10

resource intensity (Fig 1). 0

Stainless Steel

Aluminium

Recycled aluminium

Diamond

Platinum

Silver

Gold

High density polyethylene

Styrol butadien rubber

Production of a single microchip requires a material
investment over 100,000 times the chip’s weight;

waste
for a laptop the resource intensity figure is close
Material
to 4,000 times the weight of the finished product.
The manufacture of one tonne of paper requires 98 Fig 1: Material intensity of selected materials
tonnes of various resources. [Wuppertal Institut, 2013]

environmental
In a consumer product such as a bed, for example,
materials account for nearly 90% of the object’s
carbon footprint (Fig 2), eclipsing transport, 2% Materials
distribution and site energy costs. Mining for raw Distribution
materials is responsible for a large portion of most 9% 87%
Site energy
products’ resource intensity. It is estimated that the 2% Inbound transport
mining industry in the US alone emits nearly nine
times the amount of waste generated by all the
nation’s cities and towns combined.
Fig 2: Hotel bed carbon footprint breakdown
[Carbon Trust, 2015]

19
 irresponsible disposal

c Nfrastructure
c image credit
does your trash go where it should?
waste
environmental

Up to 10 billion cigarettes are disposed of in the environment every day.

Cigarette butts account for 30–40% of all litter collected in coastal and urban
clean-ups. —World Health Organization (2017)
irresponsible disposal Illegal waste dumping
(in tonnes)

Littering and fly-tipping are the illegal scattering China

22,037,858 tonnes
and deposition of waste. Litter is associated 22,037,850

with small waste items, whereas fly-tipped waste

is generally larger in size or quantity. 12,372,450

While developed countries tend to generate 5,468,602

larger quantities of waste per capita, disposal is a 1,326,288

more significant problem in less wealthy nations
747
without the oversight or infrastructure required for
regulation (Fig 1). Unregulated disposal can cause

waste
Fig 1: Global illegal waste dumping by country
water supply pollution and accelerate disease [Let’s Do It Foundation, 2016]

transmission, as blockage of open water drains An individual product’s degradation rate

Paper towels: 2-4 weeks
creates breeding pools for malarial mosquitoes Newspaper: 6 weeks
ultimately depends on its composition and
environmental conditions.
and cholera. Cotton ropes: 1-5 months

environmental
Apple cores / cardboard boxes: 2 months

Common litter items include cans, bottles, fast Waxed milk cartons: 3 months
Photodegradable beverage holders: 6 months
food packaging and plastic bags. Eight million Plywood: 1-3 years
tonnes of plastics are disposed of into the ocean Wool socks: 1-5 years

every year; degradation rates for this waste Plastic bags: 1-20 years

can reach hundreds of years (Fig 2). Tin cans / foamed plastic cups: 50 years
Average life expectancy in Western Industrialized
countires: around 80 years
Aluminum cans: 200 years
Plastic beverage holders: 400 years
Disposable diapers / plastic bottles: 450 years
Fishing line: 600 years

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Fig 2: Degradation rate of marine litter

[World Ocean Review, 2016] 20
 waste collection

c Prayitno
who picks up your garbage?
waste
political

2 billion people worldwide lack access to solid waste collection.

In some developing countries only 10%–50% of waste is collected.
—OECD/IEA (2016) and Waste Atlas (2016)
waste collection 100%

80%
Waste collection is the transfer of solid waste from
60%
disposal point to landfill or treatment. Poor waste
collection is a problem in cities worldwide; 40%
coverage rates in some EU countries hover around
20%
75%, including Ireland (76%), Estonia (79%)
and Romania (82%). 0%

Democratic Republic of
the Congo

Tanzania

China

Uzbekistan

India

Philippines

Ireland

Romania

Peru

Brazil

Colombia
More than half of the fastest growing economies
have waste collection rates below 80% (Fig 1),
Economic development is positively correlated
with the migration of populations from rural areas
to cities, resulting in increasing levels of municipal Fig 1: Waste collection coverage in fastest
developing economies
waste generation. Implementation of effective [Waste Atlas Partnership, 2014]
long-term city waste management strategies is a
growing opportunity. 100%

waste
80%
Landfill is the primary means of disposal for
collected waste (Fig 2); the challenge for developed 60%
countries is to increase recycling rates beyond 40%
their current average 10%. Landfilling costs

political
cities worldwide $75 per tonne on average, 20%

or approximately US$1 million per day. Waste 0%

treatment and recycling technologies can provide Africa Asia Europe N. America Latin America

cities with immediate revenue by reducing Recycling Incineration Open burning

Sanitary landfill Open dump
these costs, as well as lasting savings in terms Other

of improved resident health outcomes. Fig 2: Municipal solid waste disposal by region
[The World Bank, 2012] 21
 producer responsibility

c Bluedisk
are you accountable?
waste
political

Aluminium recycling rates have surpassed 90% in European countries with

mature container-deposit EPR laws. Recycling aluminium saves 95% of
the energy required for developing products from virgin ore. —Upstream (2017)
producer responsibility 450

400

350
Extended producer responsibility (EPR) regulation

kg / inh / year
300
encourages manufacturer accountability for
250
collection and recycling of products at the end of
200
their (first) life cycle (Fig 1). By providing a financial 150
incentive to ‘design out waste’, EPR contributes 100
to both the development of reusable, recyclable 50
and compostable consumer goods as well as 0
sustainable processes for their construction and Total waste
Product EPR EPR separate
waste coverage collection
transport. Batteries, to take one example, contain
toxic materials; EPR legislation introduced in the Fig 1: Summary of total waste, product waste, EPR
EU levied an average EUR €5400 fee against coverage and EPR separate collection in Europe
producers, driving battery collection and recycling [Redesigning Producer Responsibility, 2015]

rates to 72% in some areas. Total waste Product waste

EPR coverage EPR separate collection
In the EU, over 370 products were banned in 600

waste
2014 alone due to harmful substances present in

kg / inh / year
450
production processes. In addition to improving
health, EPR regulation can reduce per-capita waste 300

generation (Fig 2) and move markets towards 150

a ‘zero waste’ paradigm, where all materials are

political
recovered and reused rather than disposed of 0

in landfill.

Barcelona
Berlin
Brussels
Bucharest
Copenhagen
London
Madrid
Oslo
Paris
Rome
Sofia
Stockholm
Tallinn
Warsaw
Zagreb
Fig 2: Waste per habitant and year according to
EPR performance
[Zero Waste Europe, Brussels, 2015]
22
 impact awareness

c Scott Macpherson
is recycling the best option?
waste
political

Recycling 1 ton of aluminum saves the equivalent in energy of 2,350 gallons

of gasoline. This is equivalent to the amount of electricity used by the typical
home over a period of 10 years. —Zero Waste (2016)
impact awareness Cradle-to-grave With recycling

Energy Consumption: megajoules per kilogram

30
Impact awareness is an organization or individual’s
25
ongoing cognizance of the environmental
consequences of their actions. Impact awareness 20
around waste is a challenge: humans are not used 15
to thinking on the timescales that environmental
responsibility requires, and effective waste 10

management can require complex logistics and 5

input/output matching.
0
Hot dipped
Hot-rolled
Weighing the business and environmental impact Sections
coil
galvanized
steel
of waste reduction strategies is crucial to choosing
Fig 1: Energy consumption for selected steel products:
effective reduction practices. Recycling has great with and without recyling
name recognition, but is subject to significant price [World Steel Association, 2015]
volatility and can produce new waste and pollution
streams of its own (Fig 1). Recycling 1kg of > $1 billion < $1 billion

waste
aluminum, for example, saves 5 to 8 kg of bauxite; 50%

as most bauxite is mined in the tropics, this

helps preserve tropical rainforests. At the same
time, aluminum recycling emits metallic chloride 24%
21%
and oxide particulates, as well as acid and

political
16% 15%
chlorine gases. 8%
6% 6%

Products designed for disassembly, remanufacture Biodegrability/

Recyclability Disassembly Remanufacture
or biodegradability are one solution, but adoption compostability

of these methods lags far behind recycling as an

Fig 2: Alternative reuse strategy adoption rates, major
impact-mitigation strategy, particularly among EU manufacturers
smaller manufacturers (Fig 2). [Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2015] 23
 prevention

c Susanne Nilsson
is zero waste achievable?
waste
political

In developed regions such as Europe, 16 tonnes of materials are consumed

by the average person each year, of which 6 tonnes become waste.
—European Commission: Waste (2016)
prevention
400
Waste prevention means reducing the amount of

Disposal millions tonnes per year

350
waste generated, reducing the hazardous content
300
of that waste and reducing the impact of that waste
250
on the environment. At present, most municipal
200
solid waste, over 300m tonnes worldwide, goes
150
to landfill (Fig 1), requiring expensive treatment as
100
well as consuming valuable land. The business
50
case for waste prevention is straightforward: waste
0
not generated in the first place is waste whose
Landfill Recycled wTE Dump Compost Other
treatment, shipment and landfill space don’t have
Disposal options
to be paid for later on.
Fig 1: Total annual municipal solid waste disposal
Waste prevention is a more sustainable option [The World Bank, 2012]
than waste minimization; even with the assistance
Most preferable
of government waste management strategies,

waste
recycling can only recover a small percentage Avoid and reduce waste
of materials from traditional consumer products
compared to those designed with the entire Reuse waste

life cycle in mind (Fig 2). Municipalities and Recycle waste

organizations can promote waste-prevention

political
Recover energy
activities at all scales. The EU, for example,
has adopted a common methodology for waste Treat waste

prevention that regional users can tailor to their Dispose of waste

community, including awareness events, business
Least preferable
guides for reselling used goods, and regulatory
frameworks to strategically reduce use of Fig 2: Sustainability of waste treatment options
disposable goods. [New South Wales EPA, 2015] 24
 urban leadership

c oatsy40
can cities legislate behaviour change?
waste
political

Cities produce twice as much waste as rural communities; urban solid waste
generation, currently 1.3 billion tonnes per year, will reach 2.72 billion tonnes
per year by 2050. —Nature (2013), OECD/IEA (2016)
urban leadership

Incentive / Disincentive

Programme / Project
City-wide

Policy / Regulation
Potential Actions
Pilot

Procurement
Significant
Urban waste generation significantly exceeds that Proposed

of rural areas. Between 1990 and 2015, worldwide

municipal solid waste (MSW) generation tripled and is Improve the efficiency of
4 3% 54% 0% 43%
likely to double again by 2030. A trend towards rising waste collection

global affluence and the resulting increase in waste Landfill management 5 4% 38% 5% 53%
generation has placed waste management high on the Recyclables and organics
agenda of municipal governments around the globe. separation from other 5 6% 62% 0% 32%
waste
Recycling or composting
23 9% 35% 2% 54%
Knowledge sharing is critical to the development collections and / or facilities

of effective waste remediation schemes. 40% of all Waste prevention policies

22 12% 52 0% 36%
and programmes
verified climate protection action (Fig 1) in the waste
0 200 400
sector within the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group
is reported to depend on informal networking and Action count
best practice exchange. Through information sharing, Fig 1: Buildings sector waste action snapshot
[Arup, 2015]
waste management strategies pioneered in resource-

waste
constrained cities like Tokyo and San Francisco can 3500 High income
become templates for waste remediation in urban hubs 3000
& OECD
East Asia &
throughout an increasingly crowded world. 2500
Pacific

Tonnes per day

Latin America
2000 & the Caribbean
Africa, urbanising more quickly than any other

political
1500 Europe &
continent, is likely to lead the world in total waste 1000
Central Asia

generation beyond 2050 (Fig 2). The challenges faced 500

South Asia

by growing cities in improving waste management are 0

Sub-saharan
Africa
significant, but these same cities have the opportunity
0

0
0

0
Middle East
201

202

203

205

206

208

209

210
204

207
to become innovation leaders by introducing local and North
Africa
policy frameworks incentivising progressive waste Fig 2: Total MSW generation by region
management schemes. [UNEP, 2015] 25
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Boston University. Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 Commons, CC0 1.0
01 electronic waste http://bit.ly/2nhpnx2
CWIT (2015). Countering WEEE 04 sharing technological
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UNEP SBC (accessed 2017). The http://bit.ly/2nhsZyU http://bit.ly/2nitDMH Development Canada (2002).
Basel Convention at a Glance. Shape Memory Polymers:
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