Significance of relevant theories and principles of learning and communication

Theories of how people learn are the basis upon which the aspects of accepted educational practice are built. Throughout the ages, many principles of learning have been firmly established and have then changed with the times. (East London College Notes 2009, Page 1) Just as there cannot be any education without communication, so also one would be right in saying the success of communication in teaching and learning is a significant factor of any educational system. Communication in teaching and learning, if it should be successful, must be based on principles and theories relevant to education. As to whether a principle is relevant or not to society, depends on societys main beliefs, values, philosophy, ideology, morality etc. Theories are based on philosophies, concepts, models, notions etc. To determine how teaching and learning should be communicated many theories and principles of education have been accepted, established and used over the ages. Well known principles related to how people learn, which have been used in the 20th century include; Behaviourist The main proponents of this approach include Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936), John B Watson (1878-1956) and Barrhus F Skinner (1904-1990). The behaviourist approach is about conditioning students to behave in an expected manner at the appropriate occasion. It is based on the belief in closed programme of instruction. That is the outcome of learning is predictable. The approach is teacher centred and bases teaching and learning on a rigidly structured process to achieve the outcomes. Behaviourist theorise that the mental process of the learner cannot be observed, and are therefore discounted. Neo-Behaviourist Neo-Behaviourism is an expansion on Pavlovs work by Skinner. Skinner believed that: Behaviour is a function of its consequences. He postulated that the learner will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows the behaviour. He also considered that while negative conditions introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behaviour and teaches the

individual not to repeat the behaviour which was negatively reinforced. (East London College Notes, 2009, Page 2) This simply implies honouring good behaviour to encourage more of it and punishing bad behaviour to deter it in future. The form of punishment however is a widely debated issue. Cognitive Cognitive approach is about getting the learner to think. The main proponent of this approach to teaching and learning was Jean-Paul Piaget (1896-1980) who considered the learners mind to be essential in the learning process. According to Piaget; The mind makes schemas or mental models. And the change/ reformulation of these schemas in response to experience lead to learning. East London College Notes, 2009, Page 2) John Dewey was another psychologist who believed in the cognitive approach. Humanist The humanist approach seeks to meet the emotional needs of learners. Carl Rogers (19021987) was one of the main proponents of this approach to learning. His principle of facilitative learning is based on the premise that learning will occur by the teacher acting as a facilitator. The teacher, by establishing a learning environment free of fear and comfortable learners will be able to consider new ideas. Rogers also states that though humans have a natural desire to learn, adult learners have a tendency to resist giving up what is currently held to be true. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was another humanist who believed that all humans have a set hierarchy of needs, which they want met. The first level of needs include Physiological needs for comfort requirements, followed by safety and shelter to be safe from harm. Next come Love and Sense of Belonging, then Self Actualisation and lastly Self Esteem.

Blooms taxonomy (Learning Domains) The Three Types of Learning The three domains of learning are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. These can be thought of as categories. Cognitive stands for mental skills (Knowledge); affective is for

development in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude), while psychomotor is for manual or physical skills (Skills). They can be seen as goals of the learning process. They are what learners should have acquired after a training session in terms of knowledge, skill and attitude. According to Blooms Taxonomy, human thinking skills can be broken down into the following six categories:

Knowledge: Remembering or recalling appropriate previously learned information to draw out factual (usually right or wrong) answers. Words and phrases such as: when, how many, where, define, list, describe, tell, identify, etc., are used to draw out factual answers, testing students' recall and recognition.

Comprehension: Understanding the meaning of informational materials. Words such as: describe, explain, estimate, predict, identify, and differentiate, etc., are used to encourage students to interpret, translate, and extrapolate.

Application: applying previously learned information (or knowledge) to new and unfamiliar situations. Words such as: demonstrate, apply, illustrate, show, solve, examine, classify, and experiment, etc. are used, to encourage students to apply knowledge to situations that are new and unfamiliar.

Analysis: breaking down information into parts, or examining (and trying to understand the organizational structure of) information. Words and phrases such as: what are the differences, compare, explain, analyse, separate, classify, and arrange, etc. are used, to encourage students to break information down into parts.

Synthesis: applying prior knowledge and skills to combine elements into a pattern not clearly there before. Use words and phrases such as: combine, rearrange, substitute, create, design, invent, what if, etc., to encourage students to combine elements into a pattern that's new.

Evaluation: judging or deciding according to some set of criteria, without real right or wrong answers. Use words such as: assess, decide, measure, select, explain, conclude, compare, and summarize, etc., to encourage students to make judgements according to a set of criteria.

Experiential learning Kolb's experiential learning theory (learning styles) model Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles (or preferences), which are based on a four-stage learning cycle which might also be interpreted as a 'training cycle. In this respect Kolb's model is particularly elegant, since it offers both a way to understand individual people's different learning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all. Kolb includes this 'cycle of learning' as a central principle his experiential learning theory, typically expressed as four-stage cycle of learning, in which 'immediate or concrete experiences' provide a basis for 'observations and reflections'. These observations and reflections are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts' producing new implications for action which can be 'actively tested' in turn creating new experiences. Kolb says that ideally (and by inference not always) this process represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner 'touches all the bases', i.e. a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. Immediate or concrete experiences lead to observations and reflections. These reflections are then assimilated (absorbed and translated) into abstract concepts with implications for action, which the person can actively test and experiment with, which in turn enable the creation of new experiences. Kolb's model therefore works on two levels - a four-stage cycle:

Concrete Experience - (CE) Reflective Observation - (RO) Abstract Conceptualization - (AC) Active Experimentation - (AE)

and a four-type definition of learning styles, (each representing the combination of two preferred styles, rather like a two-by-two matrix of the four-stage cycle styles, as illustrated below), for which Kolb used the terms:

Diverging (CE/RO) Assimilating (AC/RO) Converging (AC/AE) Accommodating (CE/AE)

Andragogy The concept of andragogy was brought to the fore by Malcolm Knowles (1913-1998). He states that the experience of the learner is the central issue for adult learners. Experience in this context is described as the interaction between the learner and his environment. According to Alan Rogers;
The andragogic approach to learning is organised student led learning. This involves my making a concerted effort to assist the students to learn in a way that enhances their capabilities to function as selfdirected learners (East London College Notes, 2009, Page 2)

Pedagogy The pedagogic approach is teacher dominated learning. The teacher does almost all the talking and dictates the pace of learning. Up until late 1900s, learning was often delivered by means of indoctrination, in a sterile environment usually by very strict disciplinarians. Humiliation, degradation as well as corporal punishment were forms of discipline.

The impact of two principles learning on the planning and delivery of teaching own setting
In my planning and delivery of teaching, own setting, I am likely to meet to categories of learners: young adults and mature adults. As such there are too principles of learning I will have to consider being andragogy (to a higher extent) and pedagogy (to a minimal extent):
The authoritarian style emphasising self-choice, is likely to win confidence. A transaction between equals free from any suggestion has been suggested as an ideal pattern for adult student teaching learning. Curzon (2002). The andragogic approach, in my opinion, is especially so where the learners experience is in the same discipline as that which they are studying as adults. Self-directed learning as practiced in the andragogic approach blended with teacher-centred approach of andragogy at a minimal frequency will take prevalence in my own practice and professional development. This will ensure that while using

the cognitive approach to get student to think often, care is taken to direct them in a constructive and objective line of sturdy as they cannot be left on their own to structure their own learning for instance. Scheme of work and session plans for instance will not be left for students to do, though they may be allowed to work at own pace to some degree, not putting too much pressure on them, as they may have other commitments aside studying. Their emotional needs will have to be considered as well ensuring they are mentally sound and able to cope with the rate of cognition require of them while learning. To make a concerted effort to assist learners, they should be guided to interact often with their environment, observing, discussing and using materials and objects there, so as to get knowledge, insight, and understanding. As well new skills will be acquired as learners appreciate and experiment in and with the environment. The teacher dominated approach may come in only to guide learners and on very rare occasions to ask leading questions and setting scenarios and to dictate the pace of learning to some extent. With full grown adults however, there ought to be much more of a learner centred approach of andragogy than with young adults. There have to be much more responsibility for the learner and less for the teacher. The teacher guides, supervises assists and advices the learner, becoming more of a facilitator instead of spoon-feeding the learner with knowledge. In both instances, of young adult and mature adult learners, effort must be made to arrange seating appropriately to suit each learning circumstance. As well, environmental issues such as heating, ventilation and lighting will have to be adequate to ensure learners comfort. As well, the teacher/facilitator must maintain confidentiality by treating students fairly and ensure structure and logical sequence to lessons. Meanwhile all teaching and learning must be planned to promote inclusivity and interaction among student, and at the same time treat all learners with dignity.

The impact of these insights on own practice and professional development

The goal of education in my opinion is to become employable and useful to society and oneself, able to meet ones needs as they come in ones walk in life. This is the task of the facilitator/teacher and all responsible for educating any individual. The process by which it can be done is clearly illustrated by Abraham Maslow. He attempts to place five levels of need he identified into a classroom setting, with examples of what teachers might do in order to promote the individual learners achievement of those needs. By ensuring comfort Meeting the environmental needs and comfort of students make them feel comfortable and not distracted from the learning process. This is vital as all learning processes require some level of concentration, to ensure successful communication between learners and

facilitators/teachers. Without it there cannot be an assurance there will be any meaningful learning. Seating, heating, lighting and ventilation will have to be good enough. Ensuring safety and shelter When health and safety is ensured in a learning environment and learners feel safe from harm and any form of threat, and when they are treated fairly and sheltered, learning is enhanced as they will be more open to the process. Showing love and belonging By showing love and belonging with all learners, they feel cared-for and included in the learning process. This encourages a cohesive climate among learners and so they give more of themselves to the learning process. Promoting optimism By showing enthusiasm and support, and by encouraging plans and being positive and promoting optimism, the facilitator will enhance self actualisation. The learning would then be almost at the peak of their educational goal. Encouraging self esteem Planning and delivery of teaching should include encouraging students to become independent, praising their works and achievements, and welcoming their ideas. By so doing they will feel dignified and their level of self esteem will be raised. All of these must be included in the planning and delivery of all learning processes. Then learners will have attained their goal in education, capable of meeting the demands of life as they come across them in their quest to contribute meaningfully and profitably to themselves ant society.