ELEMENTS OF

HINDU
ICONOGRAPHY

T.A. GOPINATHA RAO

Second Edition
This treatise is one of the early attempts by
an archaeologist of our country for a
diligent search into the origin , descriptions,
symbols, mythological background,
meaning and moral aims of Hindu images.
The book is in two volumes , each
volume again in two parts. Vol . I, Part I
contains a long Introduction discussing
among other things the origin of Hindu
image worship in India, explanatory
description of the terms employed in the
work, Ganapati, Vişnu and his major and
minor avatāras and manifestations, Garuda
and Āyudha-Purushas or personified images
of the weapons and emblems held by gods.
Vol . I , Part II deals with Aditya and Nava
Grahas (nine planets) and their symbolic
features and images worshipped, Devī
(Goddesses ) , Parivāra-devatās , and
measurement of proportions in images.
Vol . II, Part I begins with an Introduction
discussing the cult of Śiva which is
followed by such important topics as Śiva,
Lingas, Lingodbhavamūrti,
Chandrasekharamūrti, Pāśupatamūrti and
Raudrapāśupatamūrti, other Ugra forms of
Śiva, Dakshināmūrti, Kankālamūrti and
Bhikshātanamurti, and other important
aspects of Śiva. Vol. II, Part II contains
descriptions of Subrahmanya,
Nandikeśvara and Adhikaranandi,
Chandeśvara, Bhaktas, Ārya or
Hariharaputra, Kshetrapālas, Brahmā , the
Dikpālakas, and demi-gods.
In addition the book contains 5
Appendices, three in Vol . I , Part II and two
in Vol . II , Part II , including Sanskrit texts
of Parivāradevatāh, Uttamadaśatālavidhih
and Pratimālaksanāni.
The treatment has been made interesting
by profuse illustrations, the two volumes
containing as many as 282 photographs of
sacred images.

ISBN : 81-208-0877-0 ( Vol . II )

MLBD
ISBN : 81-208-0878-9 ( Set )
Qoto /
 ELEMENTS OF
HINDU ICONOGRAPHY

This one

BGYN - BUS - H8W7

 ELEMENTS OF
HINDU ICONOGRAPHY

VOLUME Two
PART 1

T. A. GOPINATHA RAO

MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS

PRIVATE LIMITED • DELHI
 First Published : Madras, 1914
Reprint : Delhi, 1985, 1993
© MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED
All Rights Reserved

ISBN: 81-208-0877-0 (Vol. II)

ISBN : 81-208-0878-9 (Set)

Also available at:

MOTILAL BANARSIDASS
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PRINTED IN INDIA
BY JAINENDRA PRAKASH JAIN AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS,
A - 45 NARAINA , PHASE I, NEW DELHI 110 028
AND PUBLISHED BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JAIN FOR
MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD ,
BUNGALOW ROAD , DELHI 110 007
 DEDICATED
WITH KIND PERMISSION

To

HIS HIGHNESS SIR RAMAVARMA ,

Sri Padmanabhadasa , Vanchipala, Kulasekhara Kiritapati,
Manney Sultan Maharaja Raja Ramaraja Bahadur,
Shamsher Jang, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.,
MAHARAJA OF TRAVANCORE,
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, London,
Fellow of the Geographical Society, London,
Fellow of the Madras University, Officer de L'Instruction Publique.
Ву
HIS HIGHNESS'S HUMBLE SERVANT

THE AUTHOR .
 PREFACE .

In bringing out the Second Volume of the

Elements of Hindu Iconography, the author
earnestly trusts that it will meet with the same
favourable reception that was uniformly accorded
to the first volume both by savants and the Press,
for which he begs to take this opportunity of ten
dering his heart- felt thanks. No pains have of
course been spared to make the present publication
as informing and interesting as is possible in the
case of the abstruse subject of Iconography .
Though the illustrations appearing in the present
volume are by no means inadequate for the main
purpose of the work, yet they are not so full and
exhaustive as in the first, and a word of explana
tion in that connection may not be out of place.
To the great regret of the author, the liberal
pecuniary help offered for the preparation and
publication of the first volume has been, owing to
the somewhat straitened finances of the Travancore
State at present, withheld from him on the present
vii
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

occasion and he has, in consequence, not been able

to embody as many illustrations as he had intended
personally to gather for the purpose from various
parts of India with a view to present to the public
a series representative of the varied sculpture of
the different parts of this country But the
Travancore Durbar have, in gracious consideration
of the trouble and labour involved in the prepara
tion of the present volume, been pleased to permit
its publication by the author himself, for which he
begs to offer his respectful and grateful thanks
to the Dewan, Mr. Dewan Bahadur M. Křishņa
Nāir, B.A. , B.L.
Mention may here be made of a few points
worthy of notice in the book. In the Introduction
is given a collective description of all the peculiari
ties of the tenets and observances of some of the
ſaiva sects of which the general public has
hitherto been practically ignorant, and of certain
other cults that have died out without a trace .
The nature of Linga worship has been ex
amined critically in the light of original texts
gathered from such important sources as the
Śaivāgamas, Šaiva philosophical treatises, Purāņas
and Itibāsas, and with reference to the extant
sculpture of all ages of this symbol of worship, and
the matter has been thoroughly discussed and, what
viii
 PREFACE .

the author ventures to claim to be, an impartial

conclusion arrived at. In the body of the book,
several matters, which will be seen to be quite
new even to the informed Hindu, have been dealt
with ; to cite an instance, everybody knows that
ſiva begged for food with the broken skull of
Brahmā as an expiation for the sin of having cut
off one of Brahmā’s heads, but it is doubtful if it is
known why this curious sort of penance should bave
been resorted to by Śiva to get rid of His sin.
Again, it has been found possible with the help
of the knowledge derived from a close study of the
bulk of the science of Natya-śāstra together with
commentaries thereon to elaborate and treat fully
the manifold dances of ſiva, though only eight or
nine modes are described in the âgamic and other
works. The reader will, it is hoped , come across
many other instances of fresh information being
furnished on matters that have remained more or
less obscure hitherto.
The author cannot be too thankful to tbe
Proprietors of the Law Printing House for the
extraordinary care and trouble they have bestowed
upon the printing and general get up of the books
and for their readiness in coming forward and
generously offering their timely help but for which
the volume could not have been brought out. The
ix
II
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

author cannot also omit to express his sense of

gratitude to Dr. A. K. Anandakumāraswāmi, M.A.,
D. Sc., for the ready and willing permission granted
to him for reproducing the valuable article on the
dance of Śiva, contributed some time ago to the
Siddhānta - Dipikā by the learned Doctor. He has
also very great pleasure in recording here his high
appreciation of the help cheerfully rendered by his
Paņdit Mr. V. Śrīnivāsa Śāstri, Smțitiviśārada,
but for whose untiring industry and intelligent
collaboration this work could not have been brought
to a successful completion so soon. Messrs. Long
hurst, Stoney, Kay and Beardsell, have been so very
kind as to assist the author with photographs of
images in their respective collections and to accord
their gracious permission to reproduce them : to
these gentlemen , the author offers his grateful
thanks.
For reasons which need not be explained here,
it was not possible for the author personally to super
vise the printing of the work throughout so as to
ensure the presentation of an absolutely correct
text ; he had therefore to entrust the task to the
printers themselves. In spite of the care and
trouble ungrudgingly bestowed by them in the
midst of their multifarious duties, a number of
errors have unavoidably crept in. Though such of
X
 PREFACE .

them as have been subsequently noticed are noted

in the errata list, it is likely many more have
escaped detection, for which the author craves the
indulgence of his readers.
MADRAS,
January 1916.) THE AUTHOR.

xi
 CONTENTS OF VOL. II : PARTS I & II

PAGES.
PREFACE vii - xi

...

...

...
INTRODUCTION 1- 35
1. Śiva

...
37— 71

...
II. LINGAS 73-102
III. LINGODBHAVAMŪRTI, CHANDRAŠEKHARA
MŪRTI, PĂśUPATAMŪRTI AND RAUDRA-PĀŚU
PATAMŪRTI 103—126
IV. SUKHĀSANAMURTI, UMĀSAHITAMŪRTI,
SCMĀSKANDAMŪRTI AND UMĀMAHEŚVARA
127-141
...

MŪRTI
... 143—202
...

V. SAHĀRAMŪRTIS :
1 Kamantakamūrti 147—149
2 Gajāsura -saṁharamürti 149–156
156164
...

...

3 Kālārimurti
...

4 Tripurāntakamūrti 164—171
5 Sarabhaśamūrti 171-174
...

6 Brahma- śiraśchhēdakamürti ... ... 174182

( a ) Bhairava 177
(6 ) Vațuka- Bhairava 177—179
( c) Svarņakarshana Bhairava 179
180182
...

( d ) Sixty -four Bhairavas

7 Virabhadramürti 182–188
8 Jalandhara -hara -murti 188-191
191–192
...

9 Malläri- Sivamurti
...

10 Andhakasuravadhamurti 192–194

xiii
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY

PAGES
VI. OTHER UGRA FORMS OF SIVA ... 195–202
11 Aghoramūrti 197–200
12 Daśabhuja -Aghoramūrti

...
200201
13 Mahakala and Mahäkäli

...
201—202
VII . ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS : 203-220
1 Chandeśānugrahamūrti

...
205—209
2 Vishộvanugrahamūrti ( = Chakradāna
mūrti) 209-212
3 Nandiśānugrahamūrti 212—213
4 Vighnesvarānugrahamurti 213—214
5 Kirătărjunamurti 214–217
6 Rāvaņānugrahamūrti 217—220
VIII. NĶITTAMŪRTIS 221-270
...

IX . DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTIS -
...

2714292
Vyakhyānadakshinamurti 273—283
Jñanadakshiņāmūrti 284
Yogadakshiņāmūrti 284289
Viņādharadakshiņāmūrti 289—292
X. KANKĀLAMŪRTI AND BHIKSHĀTANAMURTI 2934309
XI. OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF ŚIVA :- 311-358
Gangadharamūrti 313-321
Ardhanåriśvaramurti
...

321-332
Haryardhamūrti ... 332–337
Kalyāṇasundaramūrti
...

337–352
Vșishaváhanamūrti 352-356
Vishapaharaṇamūrti ... 356_358
XII. MISCELLANEOUS ASPECTS OF ŚIVA : 359—411
(i) Sadāśivamūrti and Mahăsadāśivamūrti 361-374
(ii) Pañchabrahmás or Iśanadayah 375–379

xiv

1
 CONTENTS

PAGES.

(iii) Mahēšamūrti 379—386

(iv) Ekadaśa Rudras 386392
(v) Vidyeśvaras 392–403

...
( vi) Mūrtyashtaka 403—407
( vii) Local legends and images based upon
Māhātmyas 407-411
XIII. SUBRAHMANYA

...
413—451
XIV . NANDIKEŚVARA

...
453—460

...
XV . CHANDEŚVARA 461-469

...
XVI. BHAKTAS
...

471-481
XVII. ARYA OR HARIHARAPUTRA
...

483—492
XVIII. KSHETRAPĀLA
...

...

493—498
XIX . BRAHMA ...
...
...

499—512
XX . DIKPALAKAS 513538
...

...

...

XXI. AŚVINIDEVATAS ... 539-545

...

XXII. DEMI -GODS 547–570

(i) Vasus 550553
(ii) Någadeva and the Nägas ... 554558
(iii) Sadhyas 558–559
(iv) Asuras 5594561
( v) Apsarasas 561-562
:

(vi) Pisachas 562

:

(vii) Vētāļas 562

(viii) Pitris 562-564
...

...

( ix ) Rishis 564—567
(x ) Gandharvas 568569
(xi) Marut-ganas 569-570
...
... ...

APPENDIX A. 571—578
APPENDIX B. 1–279
...

INDEX
...

137

XV
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .*

PLATE Page
No.
I – Three different views of the Bhita Linga
( A.S.U.P ) Between 65-66
II— Front, side and back views and the section
of the Guļimallam Linga
III— Bust of the image of Śiva on the
Gudimallam Linga To Face 66
Details of ornaments in the Gudimallam Sculpture.
IV– Fig. 1 , The head-gear of the Apasmāra
purusha 67
IV — Fig . 2, The kundala in the ear of Śiva ... 67
IV - Fig. 3, The ornamental band on the upper 99

arm of the same 67

IV- Fig. 4, The details of the bracelets of the
same 67
IV - Fig. 5, The details ofthe jațāmakuța of the 99
same 67
IV - Fig. 6, The details of the hāra on the neck
of the same 67
IV - Fig. 7 , Do. of the Apasmara - purusha. 67
V - Fig. 1 , The Chennittalai Linga 69
V - Fig. 2 , The Parasu in the left hand of the
image of Śiva in the Guļimallam
Linga 69
V - Fig. 3 , The kamandalu in the same 69

V-Fig. 4, The ram held in the right hand of

the same 69
VI–The Ādhya, Anādhya, Surēdhya and
Sarvasama lingas 94
VII — Fig. 1 , The Trairāśika Linga 95
VII — Fig. 2, The Ashtottara -sata- linga 95
VII --Fig. 3, The Mukhalinga 95
VIII—Fig. 1 , Ashtottarasata linga, Tiruvorri
yūr 96
VIII - Fig. 2, Sahasra linga Do. 96

*T.S.A. Trivandram School of Arts; A.S.M. Archaeological Survey of Madras;

A.S. My. Archaeological Survey of Mysore; A.S. Bo. Archaeological Survey of
Bombay; A.S.I. Archaeological Survey of India; I. M. India Museum and A.S.U.P.
Archaeological Survey of United Provinces. The pho graphs and drawings which are
not followed by any of the abbreviations given above belong to the author's collection.
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

PLATE Page
No.

IX - Fig. 1 , Mukhalinga with a single face To Face 97

99
IX - Fig. 2 , Do. Do. 97
X - Fig. 1 , Linga with brahma sūtras 98
X - Fig. 2, Mukhalinga with three faces 98
X - Fig. 3 , Dhārā-linga, Tiruvorriyūr 98
XI – Mukhalinga, Joti (Cuddappah District)... 99
XII — Bhadra - Pitha, Vajra -Padma, Srikara
Pītha , Pītha -Padma 100
XIII — Lingodbhavamūrti, Kailāsanāthasvāmin
temple, Conjeevaram
XIV- Fig. 1 , Do. Daśāvatāra Cave, Between 109-110
Ellora .
XIV— Fig . 2 , Do. Ambar -Māgālam .
XV- Fig. 1 , Kēvala - Chandraśēkharamūrti,
Tiruppalatturai ( A.S.M. )
XV - Fig. 2, Umā -sahita -Chandraśēkhara Between 121-122
mūrti, Agaram Śēttūr
XVI - Kēvala -Chandrasekharamūrti, Õņakkūr.
XVII — Umā-Sahita-Chandraśēk haramurti,
Tiruvorriyūr ( A.S.M ) To Face 122
XVIII — Fig . 1 , Do. Madeour. 123
XVIII — Fig, 2, Ālingana - Chandraśēkharamūrti,
Mayūranāthasvāmin temple,
Māyavaram ( A.S.M. ) 123
XIX- Fig. 1 , Alingana- Chandrasekharamūrti,
Pațțīśvaram , ( A.S.M.)
XIX - Fig. 2, Do. Marudāntanallūr( A.S.M.) Between 124-125
XIX - Fig. 3 , Do. Kõvilūr (A.S.M. )
XX Do. Āngūr (A.S.M. )
XXI - Fig . 1 , Umā -sahita -Sukhāsanamūrti,
Madeour
XXI - Fig . 2, Do. Agaram - Śēttür Between 133-134
XXII — Fig . 1 , Sõmāskandamūrti, Madeour
XXII — Fig . 2, Do. Nellore ( Mr. M.K.
Rangasāmi Ayyangār)
XXIII - Umā-maheśvaramūrti, Bāgaļi (A.S.M . )... To Face 134
XXIV– Do. Aihole (A.S.Bo.) 135
XXV Do. Trivandram (T.S.A. )... 136
XXVI — Fig. 1 , Do. Havēri ( A.S.Bo.) 137
XXVI --Fig . 2 , Do. Ajmere Do. 137
XXVII— Do. Ellora
XXVIII Do. Ellora ::] Between 139-140
...

XXIX Do. Ellora To Face 141

xviii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

PLATE Page
No.
XXX - Gajāsura -samhāramūrti, Ampitapura
To Face
( A.S.My. ) 152
XXXI Do. Valuvūr ( A.S.M. ) 153
XXXII —Fig. 1 , Do. Dārāsuram (A.S.M. )
XXXII -- Fig. 2, Do. Tiruchchengāțțan
gudi . Between 155-156
XXXIII — Gajāsura -saṁhāramūrti, Hoysalēśvara
temple, Halebidu
XXXIV - Kālārimūrti, Daśāvatāra Cave, Ellora
XXXV —- Fig. 1 , Do. Kailāsa Cave , Ellora ... Between 161-162
XXXV -Fig. 2, Do. Pațțīśvaram (A.S.M .)...
XXXvi - Fig. 1 , Do. Tiruchchengättangudi .... To Face 164
XXXVI - Fig. 2, Do. ( Mr. R.F. Stoney's 99

Collection ) 164
XXXVII — Tripurāntakamūrti, Daśāvatāra Cave,
Ellora 169
99
XXXVIII – Tripurantakamūrti, Kailāsa temple, Ellora 170
XXXIX Do. Kailā sa nāthas vāmin
temple, Conjeevaram 171
XL Do. Madura 172
XLI - Bhairava, Pațțiśvaram (A.S.M. )
XLII -Fig. 1 , Bhairava, Indian Museum,
Calcutta ( A.S. Bo. ) Between 178-179
XLII —Fig. 2, Do. Madras Museum
XLII — Fig. 3 , Do. Roy. As. Soc. Museum,
Bombay
XLIII -Atiriktānga-Bhairava, Rāmēśvara Cave,
Ellora To Face 183
XLIV - Fig. 1 , Virabhadramūrti, Madras
Museum . 186
XLIV -Fig. 2, Virabhadramūrti , Tenkāśi 186
XLV–Fig. 1 , Daksha-Prajāpati and his wife,
Angūr ( A.S.M. ) 189
XLV -Fig. 2, Andhakāsuravadhamūrti, Daśa
vatāra Cave , Ellora 189
XLVI - Andhakāsuravadhamūrti, Elephanta 192
99
XLVII Do. Kailā sa , Ellora 193
XLVIII - Fig . 1 , Aghoramūrti, Pattisvaram
( A.S.M.) 200
XLVIII —Fig. 2, Aghoramūrti, Tirukkalukkunſam . 200
XLIX - Fig. 1 , Chaņņēšanugrahamūrti, Gan 99

gaikondaśðlapuram , (A.S.M.) ... 208

XLIX-Fig. 2, Chandēšanugrahamūrti Kaila 99

sanāthasvā min temple, Conjeevaram 208

xix
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

PLATE Page
No.
L - Fig. 1 , Chandēšanugrahamūrti, Madura.
L- Fig. 2, Chandēšanugrahamūrti, Suchin Back of 210
dram
LI — Fig. 1 , Vishņvanugrahamūrti, Conjee
varam Back of 211
LI - Fig. 2 , Do. Madura
LII- Fig. 1 , Kirātamūrti, Tiruchchengāțgan
gudi To Face 215
LII- Fig. 2, Pasupatāstra -dānamurti, Sri
śailam ( A.S.M.) 215
LIII - Rāvaņānugrahamūrti , Daśāvatāra Cave,
Ellora
LIV Do. Dhumar Lena Cave , Between 218-219
Ellora
LV Do. Bēlūr
LVI Națarāja, Madras Museum
LVII Do. Kottappadi
LVIII — Fig. 1 , Do. Rāmēśvaram ( A.S.M. ) Between 252-253
LVIII — Fig. 2 , Do. ( Ivory) Trivandram (T.S.A. )...
LIX Do. Pattīśvaram (A.S.M.)
LX Do. Teņkāśi
LXI- Nſittamūrti, Tiruchchengāțţanguļi
LXII – Kațisama dance, Ellora
] Between 255-256
To Face 258
LXIII – Lalita dance, Do. 263
LXIV — Fig. 1 , Lalāța -tilaka dance, Tiruchchen
gāțſangudi 264
LXIV- Fig. 2, Do. Conjeevaram 264
LXV - Fig. 1 , Do. Tenkāśi 265
LXV - Fig. 2 , Tāramangalam
Do.
99
( A.S.M. ) 99
265
LXVI — Fig. 1 , Chatura -dance, Bādāmi 266
LXVI — Fig. 2, Do. Tiruvarangulam
...

( A.S.M.) 266
LXVII Do. Nallūr ( A.S.M. ) 267
LXVIII — Talasaṁsphoțita dance, Conjeevaram ... 268
LXIX Do. Chengannūr
...

Back of
Plate LXVIII
LXX - Nrittamūrti, Conjeevaram
...

Facing
Plate LXIX
LXXI - Jñana- Dakshina -mūrti, Deogarh
( A.S. Bo. ) 278
LXXII — Fig. 1 , Do. Āvūr ( A.S.M. )
LXXII - Fig. 2 , Do. Between 280-281
Tiruvorriyūr
...

LXXIII Do.
XX
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .

PLATE Page
No.
LXXIV - Fig. 1 , Do. Suchindram To Face -281
99
LXXIV - Fig. 2 , Do. Kāvēripakkam 281
LXXV- Fig. 1 , Do. Tiruvēngavāśal
( A.S.M. ) 282
LXXV- Fig. 2 , Do. Mr. Kay's Collection 282
LXXVI - Yoga -Dakshiņāmūrti, Tiruvorriyūr 285
79

LXXVII Do. Conjeevaram 286

LXXVIII Do. Conjeevaram 287
99

LXXIX- Dakshiņāmurti, Na ñjangāļu (A.S. My. ) 288

99

LXXX - Viņādhara -Dakshiņā mūrti, Madras

Museum Between 290-291
LXXXI Do. Vadarangam (A.S.M. )
LXXXII — Kankāļamārti, Dārāsuram (A.S.M. )
LXXXIII Do. Tenkāśi ( A.S.M.)
LXXXIV – Kankāļa mūrti, Suchindram
LXXXV - Fig. 1 , Do. Kumbhakõnam
LXXXV–Fig. 2, Do. Tiruchchengāțțan
gudi
LXXXVI—Fig. 1 , Bhikshāțanamūrti, Conjee Between 308-309
varam

LXXXVI — Fig. 2, Do. Tiruchchengā tangudi...

LXXXVII — Fig. 1 , Do. Kumbhakoņam
LXXXVII — Fig. 2 , Do. Tiruveņkāļu ( A.S.M .)...
LXXXVIII Do. Valuvūr (A.S.M.)
LXXXIX Do. Pandaņanallūr (A.S.M. )
XC — Gańgādharamūrti, Elephanta To Face 318
XCI Do. Trichinopoly 319
XCII—Fig. 1 , Gangād haramūrti, Ellora Back of 319
XCII —Fig. 2, Gangadharamūrti , Vaittiśvaran
kõyil (A.S.M.) Back of 319
XCIII-— Do. Tāramangalam (A.S.M.) Back of 320
XCIV - Arddha nārīśvaramūrti, Bādāmi To Face 326
99

XCV- Fig. 1 , Do. Kumbhakõņam 329

XCV - Fig. 2, Do. Mahābalipuram 329
XCVI - Fig. 1 , Do. Madras Museum
XCVI - Fig. 2, Do. Tiruchchengāțțan
gudi Between 330-331
XCVI —Fig. 3, Do.
XCVII Do. Conjeevaram
XCVIII Do. Madura
XCIX - Haryarddhamūrti, Bādāmi To Face 335
C Do. Poona ( A.S.Bo.) 338

xxi
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

PLATE Page
No.
Ci - Kalyānasundaramūrti, Tiruvorriyūr To Face 343
CII Do. Ratanpūr (Bilaspur
Dt . ) ( A.S.Bo. ) 344
CIII Do. Elephanta ( A.S.Bo .)...
CIV Do. Ellora Between 346-347
CV Do. Ellora
CVI Do. Madura Between 349-350

...
CVII Do. Madura To Face 350
CVIII — Vșishavā hanamūrti, Vēdāraṇyam

...
( A.S.M. ) 353
CIX Do. (From the Viśvakaram )...
CX Do. Tāra mangalam (A.S.M.)
CXI– Vpisha vāhanamūrti, Ma hābalipuram ...
Between 354-355
CXII — Fig. 1 , Do. Halebidu
CXII — Fig. 2 , Do. Madura
CXIII—Fig. 1 , Sadāśivamūrti, Mr. Beardsell's
Collection To Face 372
CXIII—Fig. 2, Do. Mr. K. Kay's Collection. 372
CXIV— Fig. 1 , Mahēśamūrti, Gokak Falls
(A.S. Bo. ) Back of 382
CXIV - Fig. 2, Mahāsadāśivamūrti, Vaittis
varanköyil (A.S.M. ) Back of 382
CXV — Sadāśivamūrti, Elephanta ( from Viſva
karma ) To Face 373
CXVI- Mahēśmūrti, Kāvēripakkam 380
CXVII- Do. Elephanta Back of 383
CXVIII- Do. Chitorgarh To Face 385
CXIX- Fig. 1 , Ēkapādamūrti, Jambukēśvaram
( A.S.M.)
CXIX- Fig. 2, Śiva as a sow suckling its
young ones .
CXX - Fig. 1 , Pārvati doing Between 409-410
penance
CXX- Fig. 2 , Pārvati Pațțiśvaram
embracing ( A.S.M. )
Siva .
CXXI-Fig. 1 , Skanda or Vēlāyudha Subrah
manya, Mr. M.K. Nārāyaṇa
swāmi Ayyar's Collection
CXXI — Fig. 2, Kumāra , Tiruppālatturai (A.S.M.)
CXXII – Subrahmanya with his consorts Dēva Between 444-445
sēnā and Valli , Kumbhakõnam.
CXXII- Do. Tiruvorriyūr
CXXIV- Do. Ellora
xxii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . *

PLATE Page
No.
CXXV- Do. with his consorts Dēvasena
and Valli, Kumbakonam
CXXVI— Fig. 1 , Do. Trivandram (T.S.A. )
CXXVI— Fig. 2, śikhivāhana, Kumbhakāņam. Between 446-447
CXXVI—Fig. 3, Sēnāpati, Madras Museum
CXXVII — Shaņmukha, Pațțīśvaram (A.S.M .)...
CXXVIII- Do. Nallūr ( A.S.M. )
CXXVIIla - Tārakāri-Subrahmanya , Aihole
CXXIX - Dēvasēna -Kalyālņasundramūrti, Between 448-449
Tirupparaṇkuņram
CXXX- Dvărapălaka of the Subrahmanya
shrine, Tanjore (A.S.M. ) To Face
99
450
CXXXI - Adhikāra -Nandin, Vaļuvūr (A.S.M.) 460
CXXXII - Nandi , Panchanadikuļam ( Tanjore Dt . )
( A.S.M.) ... 461
CXXXIII -Fig. 1 , Chandēśvara , Tirruvorriyūr 468
CXXXIII — Fig. 2, Do. Marudāntanallūr
i 99

( A.S.M. ) 468
CXXXIV–Kaņņappa Nāyanār, Madras Museum. Back of 480
CXXXV — Siruttoņda Nāyanār and others, Tiru
chchengāțţangudi (A.S.M.) To Face 476
CXXXVI — Āļvārs, Tāļikkombu ( A.S.M. ) Facing
Plate CXXXIV
CXXXVII—Fig. 1 , Tirujñānasambandha, Padma
nābhapuram
CXXXVII— Fig. 2, Māņikkavāchakar Tiruchchen Back of
CXXXVII- Fig. 3, Apparsvāmigal godū ( A.S.M.) Plate CXXXVI
CXXXVII — Fig. 4, Sundaramūrti, Padmanā bha
puram
CXXXVIII- Māņikkavāchakar ( Viśvakarma) Facing
Plate CXXXVII
CXXXIX- Fig. 1 , Śāstā , ſāstārikottai To Face
9
490
CXXXIX- Fig. 2, Do. Tirupparaiyāſu 490
CXL- Fig. 1 , Gajārūdha Sāstā, Valuvūr 99

( A.S.M. ) 491
99

CXL- Fig. 2, Sāstā, Tiruppălatturai (A.S.M. ). 491

CXLI - Fig. 1 , Kshetrapāla, Ajmere ( A.S.Bo. ) 498
99
CXLI - Fig. 2, Do. Halebidu 498
CXLII - Brahmā , Madras Museum 504

CXLIII—Fig. 1 , Brahmā, Tiruvorriyūr 505

99

CXLIII — Fig. 2 , Do. Madras Museum 505

99

CXLIV 506
Do. Aiho!e ( A.S.Bo.)

xxiii
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

PLATE To Face Page

No.
CXLV Do. Sopāra ( A.S.Bo. )
CXLVI Do. Aihole ( A.S.Bo.) Between 508-509
CXLVII —Fig. 1 , Do. Kumbhakāņam
CXLVII —Fig. 2, Do. Halebīļu
CXLVIII — Brahmā, Karachi Museum ( A.S.Bo.)... Back of 509
CXLIX Do. Tiruvādi ( A.S.M.) To Face 513
CL — Indra, Chidambaram ( A.S.M. ) 520
CLI —Fig. 1 , Indra , Do. 521
99
CLI —Fig. 2 , Do. Do. 521
CLII –Agni, Kaņdiyūr (Travancore ) 524
CLIII —Fig. 1 , Yama] 99

CLIII- Fig. 2, Agni Chidambaram (A.S.M . ) ... 525

CLIV - Fig. 1 , Kubēra, Dohad (A.S.Bo. ) 528
CLIV -Fig. 2, Nirſuti, Ahõbilam ( A.S.M. ) 528
73

CLV -Fig. 1 , Gangā

Do. ( A.S.Bo. ) ...
Between 530-531
CLV - Fig. 2 , Yamunā
CLVI - Gate of a temple, Kharod , Bilāspūr
District ( A.S.Bo. )
CLVII —Fig. 1 , Nāga and Nägini, Haļebiļu To Face 556
99

CLVII —Fig. 2, Nāgiņi, Madras Museum 556

CLVIII —Fig. 1 , Dvārapālaka of the temple of 99
Siva , Kāvēripakkam 561
CLVIII —Fig. 2 , Apsaras , Srinivāsanallūr 561
CLIX - Figure of Națarāja showing the
99
...

relative positions of the limbs 572

xxiv
LIST OF IMPORTANT WORKS CONSULTED
OTHER THAN THOSE MENTIONED
IN THE FIRST VOLUME.

Atharvasirasõpanishad.
Bharata -nāțya - śāstra.
Brahma -mimāmsă - śāstra.
Dakshiņāmūrtyupanishad.
Dharmasūtras of Āpastamba
Āpagtamba with Haradatta's
commentary .
Hālāsya -mābātmya .
Harivaisa .
Jirņõddhāra -dasakam .
Kõyil-purāņam ( Tamil).
Kūrma -purāņa.
Kuvalayānanda.
Malläri-māhātmya.
Mālati-madhava .
Manu -dharma-sāstra .
Mayamata .
Nātyavēda -vivriti.
Periyapurāņam ( Tamil).
Prabodhachandrõdayam .
Prasthānabhēda .
Pratyabhijñasūtras.
Sankara- vijaya (Anantānandagiri's).
Sarabhāpanishad .
Sarvadarśana -sangraha.
Śatarudriya .
śivajñánasiddhiyār (Tamil).
Siva -linga -pratishthā-vidhi
Śiva-tatva-ratnākara.
Sūts -samhita.
Tiruvaru !payan ( Tamil).
Tiruvācbakam ( Tamil).
Yasodharakāvyam .
XXV
 INTRODUCTION .

NE of the oldest as also the most widely spread

ONEcult in India is that of Śiva. It consisted
once of several sects, of which only a few have
survived to the present day. Some of them had
the sanction of the Vēdas while others were classed
as outside the Vēdas or as opposed to them ; again,
some of them had milder forms of worship , while
others practised horrible and shocking rites. The
ideas about life, action and liberation differed from
sect to sect. It will not be without interest to
examine in some detail the history, the main
tenets and the ceremonies of a few of the leading
sects of Śiva in the following paragraphs.
First, as regards the origin of the sects classed
as outside the pale of the Vēdas , the following
account taken from the Varāha- purāņa will be of
interest. In the forest of Daņďaka, situated in the
middle of Bharatavarsha, the rishi Gautama had
his āśrama (hermitage), round which , he had
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

abundant food-giving plants and trees. There once

raged a twelve years' famine during which a
number of rishis from various other āśramas flocked
to that of Gautama for food and shelter, and were
received with all kindness and treated with great
hospitality by Gautama. After the famine abated
and the country became again fertile, the rishis
desired to start out on a pilgrimage to the
several famous tīrthas ; one of the rishis named
Maricha, thinking that they should not leave the
āśrama without informing Gautama, but fearing
at the same time that he might , in his extreme
kindness and hospitality , refuse permission for the
pilgrimage, created from māyā an enfeebled, old
cow and let it graze near Gautama's äśrama.
Gautama went near the cow to water it ; as he
went near the cow, it fell down and died. The
ungrateful rishis attributed to Gautama, the sin of
killing a cow and refused to stay any longer in the
abode of such a sinful one . Gautama, who did
not know this trick of the Țishis, really believed that
he had committed the sin and asked them how he
could raise the cow from death. Advising him to
sprinkle on it water brought from the Ganges, they
departed on their projected pilgrimage. Gautama
repaired to the Himālaya and prayed to Śiva a
hundred years and got from his jațāmandala a
2
 INTRODUOTION .

small quantity of the water of the Gangā which he

sprinkled on the dead cow. The water of this
divine river revived the cow and itself began to
flow as the river Gödāvari. Gautama at last
perceived through his mind's eye that the death of
the cow and other incidents connected therewith
were a clear deceit practised on bim by the rishis
and cursed them to become Vēdabāhyas or those
outside the pale of the Vēdic religion. On their
entreaty to abate his anger against them , he was
pleased to assure them that though they were
outside the Vēdic cult, they would rise to heaven
through bhakti or devotional love of God. The
fallen rishis went to Kailāsa and prayed to Śiva
to grant them some śāstras which had a few Vēdic
rites at least. Thereupon, the rishis were decreed
to be born to the Raudras, the lovers of spirituous
liquors and flesh, who sprang up from the sweat
drops which flowed from Śiva while he was in the
aspect of Bhairava, and to these he gave the
Pāśupata Šāstra.
From the above account one fact becomes
clear, namely, that some at least of the followers
of the Pāśupata and other non -Vēdic sects were at
first followers of the Vēdic religion and gave it up
and joined the avaidika cults. That the Pāśupata
and a few other sects are indeed very ancient may
3
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

be inferred from ancient authorities. The Atharva

śiras Upanishad describes the Pāśupata rite thus :
This is the Pāśupata rite : ' Agni is ashes, Vāyu
is ashes, water is ashes, dry land is ashes, the sky
is ashes, all this is ashes, the mind , these eyes are
ashes. ' Having taken ashes while pronouncing
these preceding words, and rubbing himself, let a
man touch his limbs. This is the Pāśupata rite,
for the removal of the animal bonds. ” Again the
Bhita linga and the Guļimallam linga bear clear
sculptural evidence of the antiquity of the Śaiva
cults. From the summary of the philosophy of a
few of the important Śaiva sects given below it
would be clear that they have played a prominent
part in the Religious History of India .
Let us take first the Āgamānta or the Śuddha
History of the
Śaiva sect. In the Āganiānta Śāiva
A g a man ta works it is stated that the “aivas
Saivas.
flourished in a place called Mantra
kāļi situated on the banks of the Gödāvari river,
that there were four mathas, beginning with the
Āmarddaka matha, surrounding the temple of
Mantrakālāśvara, that when Rājēndrachõla went
to the Ganges on his victorious march in the north
he met there these Śaivas, whom he, on his way
back to his capital, induced to come and settle
down in his kingdom and that from that time
4
 INTRODUCTION.

the Śaivas immigrated into the Toņdaimaņdala

and the Chõļamaņdala. Since then an impetus
was given to the spread of Śaivaism and a very
large number of original works belonging to the
Āgamānta school of Śaivaism were written. The
Āmarddaka matha mentioned above is a famous one
and had its branches all over India. For instance,
mention is made of this in the Siddhāntasārāvaļi
and the Kriyākramadyūtini, as also in a number
of inscriptions.
The members of some of these mathas were
great authors and exerted considerable influence
over the sovereigns of various countries. The
Kriyākramadyotini of Aghoraśivāchārya, the Sid
dhāntasārāvaļi of Trilochanaśivāchārya, the Jir
ņoddhāra-daśakam of Nigamajñānadēva, son of
Vāmadēvaśivāchārya and many another work will
bear testimony to the above statement regarding
the literary activity of the Śaiva Brāhmaṇa settlers
in the Drāvida country. The first of these lived
in the Śaka year 1080, the second lived sometime
later, for he quotes the former, and the third in the
beginning of the fourteenth century A.D. The great
Rājarāja, the builder of the Bșihadiśvara temple at
Tanjore, is stated to have appointed a Sarvasiva
Paņơita-Śivāchārya as the priest of that temple
and to have ordered that thenceforth the sishyas
5
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and their sishyas alone, belonging to the Aryadēša,

the Madhyadēša and the Gaudadēśa, shall be
eligible for the office of chief priest.(1) Again, some
of these Śaivāchāryas became rajagurus or the
preceptors of kings, and appear to have wielded
such great influence and power that they have
sometimes set aside even the royal commandments
and acted on their own authority. For example,
Kulõttungachõladēva III appointed two Śaivāchār
yas for the service of the temple at Tirukkadavūr,
but Svāmidēvar, the king's guru , cancelled the
order and appointed two others, in recognition
of their hereditary rights.(2) All the Āgamas declare
that the Śaivāgamas flourished to the south of the
Vindhya ranges, which is corroborated by the state
ment made by Aghoraśivāchārya ; and it therefore
appears quite certain that Rājēndrachūļadēva im
planted in the south a large colony of Śaiva Brāh
maņas of Middle India.
These Saivas should be carefully distinguished
from the Vēdānta Śaivas, who base their philo
sophy on the Vēdas and the Upanishads. These
two schools are diametrically opposed to each other
(1) S.I.I. , Vol. II, Part II, p. 153.
(2) No. 40 of 1906 of the Madras Epigraphist's collection .
For an account of the origin and development of the ſaiva
mathas, see Kriyākramadyotini, siddhantasārāvaļi and other
works.

6
 INTRODUOTION .

on many points. From the statement, Yasya

niśvasitam -vēdāh, of the Advaitins the followers of
the Agamānta considered Vēdas as inferior to the
Āgamas ; for they assert that the former came out
of Śiva as unconsciously as His breath, whereas
the twenty -eight Āgamas were personally and
consciously dictated by Śiva. Besides, the Āga
māntins consider the Advaitins and the Mimām
sakas as paśus or unevolved souls and to be there
fore unfit for receiving ſaiva dīkshās or initia
tions. The Āgamāntins are in their turn reviled
by the Vaidikas as being heterodox ; Kumārila
bhatta classes them among atheists and we read
Amarasimha accordingly classing Dēvalas who are
generally the Pāśupatas, the Pāñcharātras and other
Tántrikas that are addicted to image worship,
among Śūdras.(1) At any rate, these Saivas did
not evidently hold a high place in the system of
castes ; the Sūta- samhitā also states that very
low classes of Brāhmaṇas alone underwent the
dīkshā or initiatory ceremony in the Pāśupata, the
Pāñcharātra and other tantras. It is therefore
clear that inferior Brāhmaṇas embraced some of
the non -Aryan cults and became Pāśupatas and
Pāñcharātras . At a later stage of their history,

(1) Amarakāśa, Kāņda II , Śūdravarga.

7
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

they probably adopted a few of the homas and the

mantras appropriate to them from the Grihya
sūtras and created for themselves some others in
imitation of the mantras of the Vēda. This ex
plains the eagerness with which these anārya
sampradāyas were somehow classed in the ārya
sampradāyas. But, their system of dīkshā, Anku
rārpaņa with which the ceremonies are begun , the
philosophy of Shadadhvās (1) and many others are
not found in the Vaidik religions and therefore
mark off Āgamānta as being different in essentials
from the Vaidik religion . The Āgamānta has
freely borrowed the philosophy of the Sānkhya and
the Yöga schools. Unlike the Vēdāntins the
Āgamāntins do not shut out women, Śūdras,
and the Pratilomas from participating in religious
rites and ceremonies. They freely allow women
to meditate upon the pañchākslara -mantra, and
grant dīkshā to Śūdras, who might, in their turn ,
give dīkshā to others among them. “ If the Śūdra
is a naishthika (one who passes into sannyāsa
without undergoing the intermediate stage of
grihastha) he is entitled to consecrate the svārtha
chala - lingas, offer dīkshā to Śūdras, might recite
( 1 ) For an explanation of this and of a summary of the
Śaiva philosophy see the beginning of the Chapter on Miscel
laneous Aspects of ſiva (Xth ).
8
 INTRODUCTION .

with proper svaras all mantras, and study Śiva

jñāna. If he is a grihastha, he is privileged to
utter the nityēshti mantras, and that too without
proper intonation or nāda.” Though the Avaidika
Śaivaism was essentially different in tenets at
the beginning, attempts have been made at later
times to identify Avaidikas with the Vaidikas.
Śrikānthā -Śivāchārya who wrote a Bhāshya
on the Brahma-sūtras in accordance with the
Agamānta Śaiva teachings exclaims, na vayam
vēda-śivāgamayārbhēdam paśyāmah vēdasyāpi śivā
gamatvāt, (we do not perceive any difference
between the Vēdas and the Śivāgamas, Vēdas are
also as authoritative as the śivāgamas) ; and at a
later stage, that is, about the time of Appayya
dikshita (16th century A. D.), the Vēdantins began
to study the Āgamānta philosophy and adopted
several of their customs ; at this day several of the
anthropomorphic aspects of Śiva, which might,
with propriety, be called peculiarly Āgamāntic, are
worshipped by the Vēdic Śaivas, and they also get
themselves initiated into the meditation on the
Pañchākshara mantra. But they do not receive
Tāntric dīkshā, nor do they interdine with those
Tāntric Brāhmaṇas who are at present only priests
in Śiva temples ; the latter are always con
sidered as low in the scale of Brāhmaṇas . The
9
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

multiplication of images, both Śaiva and Vaishṇava,

is due to the Tántrikas who have devoted a great
deal of attention to the description of images
in their Tantras. The Vaidikas do not appear
to have possessed so large a number of images
for worship at the earlier stages at any rate.
The one great peculiarity of all the avaidik
Śaivas is their dīkshā . In per
Saiva dikshas.
forming this ceremony they need
different shaped kuņdas or receptacles for fire and
mandalas or drawings, all of which are described
in their works in great detail. They also invoke
Śiva in kumbhas or vessels ( filled with water), and
perform different kinds of hõmas or fire offerings.
It is their faith that he who has not received the
Śaiva dīksha does not attain māksha or liberation.
They believe that Śiva personally presents Himself
before the disciple in the form of an āchāryā for
granting him Śiva -dīkshā. This dīkshā ceremony
varies with the recipient. He who has renounced
family life and is expectant of gaining moksha by
constantly adoring his guru is the fittest person
for dīkshā. For attaining this state of mind he
requires the divine grace of Śakti. The bestowal
of this grace by Śakti on the aspirant for dīkshā is
technically known as Śakti-pātam . The grace
of Śakti is of four kinds, instantaneous, rapid,
10
 INTRODUCTION.

slow and very slow, and the dikshas to be

given differ with the modes, noted above, in
which the grace of Śakti is received. To bim
who gets this grace very slowly, that kind of
dīkshā called the samayadīkshā
Samaya diksha.
should be given. In this, the guru
should invoke through mantras Śiva in his own
person and perform several ceremonies ; the sishya,
with flowers in hand kept in the añjali pose, is
taken out, blind-folded, so that he might not
see sinners, round the manďapa wherein is set
up the kumbha or vessel in which is invoked
Śiva, and after a certain number of rounds are
gone through , his eyes are opened to light upon
the kumbha, wbich he is asked to worship with
the flowers in his hands. Before he begins the
worship, the guru , considering his own right hand
as tējārūpa or the embodiment of enlightenment,
and also as the hand of Śiva himself, and uttering
the mūla -mantra , should place it on the head of his
šishya. By this act of placing the hand which is
the embodiment of enlightenment, first on the head,
then over the whole body of the disciple the pāśas,
bonds, the darkness of ignorance which enveloped
bim, are dispelled. After this ceremony the guru
directs the sishya to throw the flowers which he
holds in his hands on the kumbha. The disciple
11
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

shall receive his dīkshă-nāma or the name bestowed

on him on his initiation, according as the flowers
fall on the top or on any one of the four cardinal
directions round the kumbha, which correspond to
the position of the īśāna, Tatpurusha, etc., aspects
of Śiva ; the suffix, Śiva or Dēva, is to be added to
the names according as the disciple is a Brāhmaṇa
or a Kshatriya, and gaņa if he is a Vaiśya or a
Śūdra. Thus, if the flowers fall on the side of
İśāna, the disciple should be called Iśānaśiva if he
is a Brāhmaṇa, īśānadēva if a Kshatriya, and
Īśānagaņa if a Vaisya or a Śūdra. If the disciple is
a female, she should be called Īśāna or Iśāśiva
sakti, Išadēvasakti, Iſaganaśakti according as,
she is of the Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, or, Vaisya
or Śūdra caste. Those that have undergone
this dīksh , are known as Samayis and will attain
Rudrapada . To these are prescribed the perform
ance of duties contained in the charyāpāda of
the āgamas. The description given above of the
Samaya -dīkshā reads like a page from the ceremoni
als of the Freemasons of the present day ; the
claims of freemasonry to remote antiquity do not
after all appear to be a pretension. It is perhaps
an echo of a really ancient institution, like the
ancient Āgamānta Śaivaism, that it is after all an
Eastern institution engrafted upon Western soil.
12
 INTRODUCTION.

The second kind of dīksha is called the Visesha

dīksh , and is conferred upon those to whom the
grace of Śakti comes more rapidly than in the
previous case. In all its details, it is similar to the
dīkshā ceremony already described ; but the guru
in this case is supposed to join the soul of the
šishya from the Māya-garbhā to Śakti-garbha,
and is made to contemplate in his mind on the
external union of Vāgīśvari with Vāgiśvara. After
this the guru teaches his disciple the samayā
chāras or the creeds of his faith . They are :
abstinence from reviling Śiva, Śivaśāstras, śivāgni,
and the guru , from crossing even the shadow of
these and from eating oneself or presenting to others
for eating the food offered to Śiva : doing pūjā to
Śivāgni and to the guru to the end of one's life and
So on . He who has received the viſēshadīkshā
would attain after death the īśvara -pada; he is
known during his lifetime as putraka. These are
enjoined to observe the ceremonies and duties pre
scribed in the charyā and the kriyāpādas of the
āgamas. The conduct and duties of the life of the
Samayê are called the dāsamārga . From these
descriptions of the samayis and putrakas, it appears
to be clear that those who collect flowers and knit
them into garlands for the temple services, that is,
people of the class of Pandarams etc. , are to be
13
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

considered as Samayis or Tādars (Dāsas) , while

those that go by the distinct appellation of Pillais
or Pillaimārs, as putrakās.
The dikshā prescribed for those to whom the
grace of Śakti comes instantaneously or rapidly
is called Nirvāṇa dīkshā.
In this kind of dīkshā, the fiction is that the
bonds (pāśas) are cut off even when the sishya is
in his material body ; for this purpose, a few
strands of string are taken and suspended from
the tuft of his hair to the toe of the right foot ;
in these strings, the chaitanya (or energy ) of the
śishya is invoked and the guru conceives in his
mind as having undergone, even then, the several
births which the sishya has otherwise to take to
absolve himself from the various bonds known as
mala, māyā, karma and kalā, and then cuts the
strings into pieces. To check the further growth
of these pāśas or bonds, the guru throws the bits
of strings into the fire. After these ceremonies
are over, the soul of the sishya is believed to have
become equal to Śiva in purity. Another formality
is also gone through to establish this identity
of the soul with Śiva, namely, the guru yokes on
to the soul of the sishya, the six qualities which dis
tinguish Śiva, namely Sarvajñatva, (omniscience),
pūrna-kamatva (filled with love) anādi-jñana
14
 INTRODUCTION .

(beginningless knowledge), apāraśakti (unbounded

power) svādhinatva ( perfect freedom ) and undimi
nishing power. There are still a few other minor
ceremonies belonging to the dikshā which need not
be detailed here.
Those that have undergone the nirvāṇa -dīkshā
are divided into two classes, the sādhakas and the
ācharyas, and for being called by these names they
should once again undergo the ceremony of anoint
ment as sādhakas and ächāryas. The sādhakas
are supposed to have attained the eight siddhis or
powers, beginning with animā, so well-known
through the Yöga system ; the sādhakas are entitled
to observe the nityakarmas or daily observances such
as bath , pūjā, japa, dhyāna and Roma, and kāmya
karmas only ; whereas, the achāryas are entitled to
perform , in addition to these, naimittika ceremonies
such as performing the dīkshā ceremony on others ,
and pratishthā ceremony or consecrating images.
The above described nirvana -dīkshā is of two
classes, respectively known as lūkadharmiņi or
bhautiki and Śivadharmiņi or naishthiki. Those
that have undergone the latter or the Šivadharmiņi
dikslā should wear the tuft of hair on the top of
the head, covering the brahma- randhra, whereas
those that have undergone the former or the loka
dharmiņi dīkshā need not cut off the hair.
15
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The Śaivas may observe both the Vaidika and

the Śaiva duties, but if some of the former are
opposed to the teachings of the Śaiva tantras, they
should be abandoned. Those that have undergone
the bhautiki and naishthiki dīkshās may even
abandon the Vaidik sandhyā ceremony but never
the śaiva sandhyā .
The Agamas are always divided into four
parts, the Kriyāpāda, the Charyāpāda, the Yoga
pada and the Jñānapāda the study and observance
of the rules laid down in one, two, three or all
four of these are enjoined upon the Samayis, the
putrakas, the bhautikis and the naishthikis respec
tively. The paths pursued by these are also known
respectively by the names dāsamārga , putramārga,
sahamārga and the sanmārga ; that is, the persons
who have been initiated in the samayi and other
dīkshās conduct themselves towards the Lord as a
servant, a son , a friend or as the Lord himself.
The paths prescribed are of varying grades suitable
to souls at various stages of religious evolution.
These dīkshās were described in some detail, in
order to give the readers an idea of the religious
ceremonials which are common to all sects of the
Śaivas ; it is meant also to give scope for the com
parative study of the religious ceremonial institu
tions of India and of other countries, more especially
16
 INTRODUCTION .

with Freemasonry. As the philosophy of this

branch of Saivaism is dealt with elaborately by
various authors elsewhere, it need not be given
here.

The Pāśupatas are the next important class of

The Pasupatas.
Śaivas. According to Rāmānujā
chārya it included the Kāļāmukhas
the Kāpālas, and the Āgamānta Śaivas. There is
some justification for Rāmānuja including all the
four under one name, the Pāśupata religion ; for
all these four sectarians called the Jivātman, pasu
and the paramātman, Pati. The Agamānta Śaivas
also class these as agachchamayams or sects inclu
ded in Saivaism . As regards the antiquity and
history of the Pāśupata sect, little is known. In later
times the Pāśupata sect is known as the Lakuļisa
Pāśupata or the Pāśupata sect founded by Lakuļiś
vara, who is considered as an incarnation of Śiva
himself. An attempt has been made by Dr. Fleet to
fix the age of Lakuliśvara, the founder of the Pāśu
pata sect. It is a matter for surprise that even such
a circumspect scholar as Dr. Fleet bas, perhaps in
his desire to arrive at some conclusion, proceeded
upon baseless premises which have naturally led
him to incorrect results. Because the name
Lakuļiśvara- paņạita occurs in an inscription at
Mēlpāļi and in another at Baļigāmi, and because
17
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

tradition asserts that he propagated his faith in

Kāyārõhaņa in N. India, Dr. Fleet concludes that
Lakuļiśvara, the founder of the sect which goes
by his name, began his activities first in Mēlpāļi,
wherefrom he drifted on to Baligāmi and then
eventually settled down at Kāyārōhaņa in Northern
India, and that he lived in the first quarter of the
eleventh century A. D. The two individuals
bearing the name Lakuļīśvara Paņạita, mention
ed in the two inscriptions referred to above
were two distinct personages and were named
after the founder of their faith ; the conclusion
of Dr. Fleet is untenable for the following reasons.
Śankarāchārya, whose age is believed to be the
last quarter of the eighth century, reviews the
Pāśupata philosophy in his Śārīraka Bhāshya.
Says he, “ The Māhāśvaras ( Saivas) maintain
that the five categories, viz, effect (kārya) cause
(kāraņa ), union (yoga), ritual (vidhi) and the
end of pain (duhkhānta ), were taught by the
Lord Pasupati (Śiva) to the end of breaking the
bonds of the animals (pašu, i.e., the souls). Pasu
pati is, according to them, the Lord , the operative
cause." In his masterly treatise on the different
systems of philosophy that were in existence in
his time, Vidyāraṇya gives the same five cate
gories given above as those held by the Lakuļīša
18
 INTRODUCTION .

Pāśupatas ; the later author, Madhusūdana Saras

vati, also reiterates the same statement in his Pras
thānabhēda . * The Pāśupata sect as known by
the name Lakuļisa Pāśupata is older than Śan
kara at least, or perhaps even as old as the
Atharvaśirasopanishad. The authors of the famous
Dēvāram hymns have sung the praises of the
Śiva temples at Nāgapattaņam (Negapatam) and
Kumbhakāņam , which were known even in their
times by the name of Kāyārobaņa or Kārāņa, so
named evidently after the more famous place of that
name in Northern India. The age of these hymnists,
is settled to be the middle of the seventh century.
This fact pushes the limit of the age of Lakuļiśa
by one more century. Hence, Lakuļiśa the founder
of the faith, should not be confounded with his
namesakes of Mēlpāļi and Baligāmi , nor can his
date be taken as the first quarter of the eleventh
century. The Kāļāmukhas also appear to be a sub
division of the Pāśupatas, as we have seen above.
To substantiate this, we have not only the authority
of Rāmānuja, but also that of some others. The
Śaivāgamas sometimes divide Śaivism into Śaiva,
Pāśupata, Sõmasiddhānta and Lākula ; and in
other places divide Śaivas into Saiva, Pāśupata ,
* The Uttara -Kāmikāgama also states tbat Låkula bad
five categories and they are the same as given above.
19
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Kāpālika and Kāļāmukha. In the above groupings

we see that the first two sects are identical in both
cases ; we learn from the Prabodhachandrõdayam
that Sõmasiddhānta is the authoritative text-book
of the Kāpālikas and the remaining Lākuļa may
be inferred to be the same as Kāļāmukha. In
praising certain Kāļāmukha gurus, the Baligāmi
inscriptions use the phrase " a very Naku !īśvara in
the knowledge of the Siddhāntas”, which clearly
proves that the Kāļāmukhas were identical with
Lakulisa Pasupatas.*

*Regarding the antiquity of the Saiva teacher Lakulisa and

the faith that he was an avatāra of siva, the following may
be quoted :
' महादेवावताराणि कलौ श्रुणुत सुव्रताः ।
.......

महायामो मुनि: शूली डिण्डमुण्डीश्वरः स्वयम् ।

सहिष्णुः सोमशा च नकुलीश्वर एव च ॥ and
वैवस्वतेऽन्तरे शम्भोरवतारास्त्रिशूलिन: ।
अष्टविंशतिराख्याता ह्यन्ते कलियुगे प्रभोः ।
तीर्थे कायावतारे स्याद्देवेशो नकुलीश्वरः ।
Karmapurana, Chap. 53, Vv. 1.9 & 10.
दिव्यां मेरुगुहां पुण्यां त्वया सार्द्ध च विष्णुना ।
भविष्यामि तदा ब्रह्मलकुली नाम नामतः ॥ ४७ ॥
कायावतार इत्येवं सिद्धक्षेत्रं परं तदा ।
भविष्यति सुविख्यातं यावद्भमिर्धरिष्यति ॥ ४८ ॥
20
 INTRODUCTION .

The tenets of the Lakulisa Pāśupatas as we

gather from the Sarvadarśana - Sangraha, stated
very briefly, are as follows :
The end of pain, their fifth category, is of two
sorts the anātmaka māksha and the sātmaka
moksha. Of these, the former is defined as the
absolute freedom from pain. The possession of
Kțiyāśakti and Jñānasakti, which are the attributes
of Paramāśvara and which are described below , is
called sātmakamāksha. Perception of even the
smallest, the most distant matters, hearing of every
kind of sound, being well versed in all śāstras, the
possession of these and similar powers is called
Jõānasakti. The accomplishment of every object,
quickly assuming every form according to one's
own desire, is known as Křiyāśakti. These two
Śaktis constitute, as stated just now, the sātmaka
māksha .
In every other system a kārya or effect is
defined as that which follows a kāraṇa or cause ;
तत्रापि मम ते शिष्या भविष्यन्ति तपस्विनः ।
कुशिकश्चैव गर्गश्च मित्रः कौरुष्य एव च ॥ ४९ ॥
योगिनो ब्राह्मणा वेदपारगा ऊर्ध्वरेतसः ।
प्राप्य माहेश्वरं योगं गमिष्यन्ति शिवं पुरम् ॥ ५० ॥
Śivapurāņa, Tritiya-Satarudra - Sambītā, Chap. 5.
Also compare pages 190 and 191, Director General of
Archæology's Annual for the year 1906-07
21
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the Pāśupatas call all dependent objects as effect ;

in conformity with this their definition of kārya,
they bring Jīvātman or pašu , which they admit as
eternal, under the category of kārya because it is
dependent upon the paramātman or Pati. The
Being who is endowed with the powers of creation ,
destruction and protection, the Lord Paramāśvara,
is known to their philosophy as the kāraṇa. His
attributes are Jñānasakti and Kriyāśakti, which
are eternally with him, not as are acquired after a
stage by the perfected human souls.
The Pāśupatas believe also in divine dispensa
tion which need not be based upon the good or
evil karma of the soul.
The category called Yoga or union of the soul
with Pati, may be attained in two ways. In the
first, it is attained through japa, dhyāna, and other
karmas ; while in the second by exercising strict
control over the senses. By this Yoga the two
kinds of māksha mentioned above could be
obtained .
Vidhi or the rules of conduct of the Pāśu
patas is the most interesting part of their religion .
Bathing their bodies thrice a day in ashes,
lying down on ashes, making noise like ahā ahā,
singing loudly the praises of their god, dancing
either according to the science of dancing or in
22
 INTRODUCTION .

any manner, curling the tongue and roaring like

bulls,—this noice is called huqukkāra or noise like
hudu hudu, making prostrations and circumam-
bulation, repeating the names of Śiva - all these
constitute their vrata or daily observances . But
these strange acts are strictly forbidden to be
practised in places where there are other persons
present. Besides these, the Pāśupatas are advised
to behave actually like mad men . For instance,
pretending to be asleep when not actually sleeping,
begging for food, shaking the limbs as when
attacked by paralysis, walking like one with rheu
matic pain in his legs, or like a lame man, exhibit
ing signs of lust at the sight of women, doing other
acts befitting lunatics such as making meaningless
noise — these are enjoined upon the Pāśupatas. To
get rid of fastidiousness , they are enjoined to beg
for food, eat the remnants of the dishes of others
and do similar objectionable acts.

*It appears quite probable that this vidhi of the Pāśupatas

is responsible for the origin and existence of obscene sculptures
in Hindu temples. In the majority of cases, such sculpture
consists of the figure of a stark naked male with his membrum
virile erect, standing with his legs kept separated from each
other and with his hands held in the añjali pose over bis
head, and his head always covered with long jațās, banging
down on either side. In front of this figure is its counterpart,
23
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The Śaivāgamas arrange the Saiva sects in

The Kala the following order of superiority,
mukhas and
Somasiddhan namely, the Śaivas, the Pāśupatas,
tins.
the Somasiddhāntins and the
Lākulas. Again we learn that the Kauļas worship
the ādharachakra, the Kshapaņakas the actual
yöni and the trikāņas ( or triangular yantras), and
the Kāpälikas and Digambaras both the objects
worshipped by the first mentioned two sects. The
various sects of Saivas hold the view that as there
is no difference between one animal and another,
there is none whatsoever between man and man
and dīkshā might be given to all alike. The
a female one, whose clothing is represented as slipping down
the waist, thereby leaving the pudendum exposed. It is more
than certain that the matted haired naked man could represent
no other than a Saiva devotee belonging to one of the indecent
sects of the Saiva religion , putting to practice the rules of the
vidhi taught by his philosophy.
In almost all the later additions to more ancient temples
and in all the temples built after the 14th century A.D.. one
could meet with figures of men in all manner of capering
attitudes—with ill-kept, but amusing faces and with the body
twisted and bent in most astounding postures : one such is
reproduced on Pl. 69 in his Višvakarma by Dr. Ananda
kumārasvāmi. This sort of sculpture recognised by the name
of koņāngis bas also its origin in the vidhi of the Pāśupata
philosophy.

24
 INTRODUCTION .

Kāļāmukhas appear to be so called because they

marked their forehead with a black streak, and
they are said to be born of nara (human) and
rākshasa (demoniacal) parents.
The Kāpālikas appear to be also an ancient
but an extremist sect of śaivas.
The Kapalikas.
They have rites and ceremonies
which are more revolting than those of the Kāļā
mukhas. About the various Saiva sects Rāmānuja
says: — “ The Sūtras now declare that, for the
same reasons, the doctrine of Pasupati also
has to be disregarded. The adherents of this
view belong to the four classes—Kāpālas ,
Kāļāmukhas, Pāśupatas and Śaivas. All of them
hold fanciful theories of Reality which are in conflict
with the Vēda, and invent various means for : at
taining happiness in this life and the next . They
maintain the general material and the operative
cause to be distinct, and the latter cause to be
constituted by Pasupati . They further hold the
wearing of the six mudrā badges and the like to be
means to accomplish the highest end of man.
“ Thus the Kāpālas say, ' He who knows the
true nature of the six mudrās, who understands
the highest mudrā, meditating upon himself as in
the position called bhagāsana , reaches Nirvāņa.
The necklace, the golden ornament, the ear-ring,
25
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

the head-jewel, ashes, and the sacred thread are

called the six mudrās. He whose body is marked
with these is not born here again . Similarly,
the Kāļāmukhas teach that the means of ob
taining all desired results in this world as well
as the next are constituted by certain practices
such as using a skull as a drinking vessel, smear
ing oneself with ashes of the dead body, eating the
flesh of such a body, carrying a heavy stick, setting
up a liquor-jar and using it as a platform for
making offerings to the Gods, and the like. A
bracelet made of Rudrāksha - seeds on the arm ,
matted hair on the head, a skull, smearing oneself
with ashes etc. , '-all this is well known from the
sacred writings of the Saivas. They also hold that
by some special ceremonial performance men of
different castes may become Brāhmaṇas and reach
the highest āśrama : ' by merely entering on the
initiatory ceremony (dīkshā) a man becomes a
Brāhmaṇa at once ; by undertaking the Kāpāla
rite a man becomes at once an ascetic."
We learn a little more about the Kāpālikas
from stray mention made of them in a number of
books. For instance, Křishṇamiśra in his Pra
bodhachandrõdaya introduces a Kāpālika as a
character in that drama who describes himself in
the following words : “ My necklace and ornaments
26
 INTRODUCTION .

consist of human bones ; I live in the ashes of

the dead and eat my food in human skulls. I
look with my eyes made keen with the ointment of
yoga and I believe that though the different parts
of the world are different, yet the whole is not
different from God. O ! Digambara ! listen to our
rites : after fasting we drink liquor from the skulls
of Brāhmaṇas ; our sacrificial fires are kept up
with the brains and lungs of men which are mixed
up with their flesh, and the offerings by which we
appease our terrific God are human victims covered
with gushing blood from the horrible cut on their
throats. I contemplate on the lord of Bhavāni,
the mighty God who creates, preserves and destroys
the fourteen worlds whose glory is revealed in the
Vēdas as well as in his deeds. ” The “ airkara
vijaya of Anantānandagiri states that when Śaikara
went to Ujjayini, the foremost men of all the sects
living there came for a religious disputation with
him . Among them one sect of Kāpālikas had the
following characteristic feature and doctrines. They
wore sphatika (crystal beads) , the arddha -chandra
(an ornament shaped like the crescent moon) and
the jatā (or matted heir ). Their God is Bhairava,
the author of creation , protection and destruction ;
they believe that all other gods are subservient to
him. Bhairava has eight different aspects namely
27
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Asitānga, Ruru , Chaņda, Krõdha, Unmatta Bhai

rava, Kāpāla, Bhishma and Samhāra -Bhairava
corresponding to Vishņu, Brahmā, Sūrya, Rudra,
Indra, Chandra, Yama and the Supreme Being
respectively. This class of Kāpālikas was taken
by Śankarāchārya, states Anantānandagiri, into
the fold of Brahmanism . But another subject of
Kāpālikas headed by one Unmatta - Bhairava came
to wrangle with Sankara ; he had smeared his body
with the ashes of the dead and wore a garland of
skulls ; his forehead was marked with a streak of
black stuff. The whole of the hair of his head
was turned into jațās. He wore a kațisūtra and
a kaupīna consisting of tiger's skin and carried
in his left hand a skull and in the right a bell.
He was calling out the names of Śambhu, Bhai
rava and Kāliśa. He said that their moksha
consisted in joining Bhairava after death. Śankara
rejected this class of Kāpālas as incorrigible.
Living with one's wife happily in this world
as does Chandraśēkhara (Śiva) with his consort
Pārvati in heaven , is also considered by the Kāpāli
kas as mākshā . It is certain that this sect of
Śaivas were freely indulging in human sacrifices,
for there are literary evidences to this effect.
Bhavabhūti introduces in his drama Mālatī
Madhava a Kāpālika who, for having attained
28
 INTRODUOTION .

mantra -siddhi, attempted to sacrifice Mālatí to his

god. Vădirajasūri in his Yaśõdharakävya describes
the preparations for two human sacrifices for which
two pretty little children were decoyed and taken
to the altar but fortunately saved from the catas
trophe.
Křishṇamiśra says that the Digambaras and
the Kāpālikas quitted all other countries and gra
dually retired to the Māļava and Abhira countries,
which are inhabited by low class men ( pāmaras).
The Śaivagamas inform us that the Śaivas
worship Śiva in the aspect of Tāņdava -bhūshaņa ;
the Pāśupatas, Śiva smeared with ashes and
wearing jațāmakuța, the Mahāvratas, Śiva wear
ing a garland of bones ; the Kālāmukhas, Śiva
wearing sphatikā and putradīpa (?) beads ; the
Vāmāchāras, Śiva wearing the sacred thread and
carrying fire and the Bhairavas, Śiva carrying
damaru and wearing anklets ; and that all these
aspects of Śiva should have three eyes.
From all that has been said of the various
sects of Śaivas the following conclusion about
Śaivaism naturally suggests itself. The prototype
of all the ghöra forms of Śaivaism is the
personality of Śiva himself ; dancing and singing
in a wild manner on the burning ground and
smearing himself with the ashes of the dead and
29
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.
adorning himself with the skulls and bones of the
dead ; or going about naked in the streets of
householder fishis and tempting their womenfolk ,
living in bliss also with his own consort ; or per
forming severe austerities ; wearing his hair in
jātas ; drinking and eating from human skulls ;
killing , maiming and otherwise destroying animal
life --all these acts of Śiva were closely followed by
such sects as the Kāpālas, the Kāļāmukhas and
the Vāmāchāras. These sects which considered
living in close imitation of Śiva and who consider
ed living happily with women in this life mākshā
or bliss, are perhaps really old. Their teachings
afforded ease and pleasure, indulgence in flesh -food,
drinking liquor and promiscuous intercourse ; and
at a time when, as a result of the preaching of the
Buddha and Mahāvīra, the Vaidikas practically
gave up flesh and liquor, some of its members
with a taste for lower passions not finding their
surroundings congenial to their tastes might
have turned renegades and joined the ranks of the
Śaivas,as we hear from the Varāhapurana and the
Sūta-samhitā, and have undergone the dīkshā and
other rites peculiar to Śaivaism . This state of
moral depravity attended with conduct unfit for
any society could not be tolerated by others and in
the long run by the members of even the ſaiva
30
 INTRODUOTION .

sects themselves. Therefore, after the fresh glam

our passed away, these degraded Brāhmaṇas ap
parently set themselves to cleanse their faith of
its filth, evolve a system of philosophy for it and
a line of conduct for its adherents and claim a
purer status equal to or identical with that of the
Vaidikas. In this evolved Śaivaism , also known
as Áuddha Śaivaism, we do not meet with any one
of the evils complained of. Those that persisted
in it, the Kāpālas and the Kāļāmukhas , have gone
to the wall in the contest and are lost for ever .
The Vaidikas at first never paid so much
attention to the details of temple building, setting
up in them of innumerable images and performing
pompous ceremonials, but had one or two small
images in their own houses their ishța dēvatás and
kula dēvatās, and they were enjoined to meditate
in silence upon the Supreme Brahman as residing in
the image; they took to resorting to temples and
attending to elaborate ceremonials held in them at
a later stage when the avaidika cults were purged of
their objectionable practices. And when the non
Aryan Śiva was beyond contention welded on the
Āryan Rudra or Agni, even linga worship was
adopted by the Vaidikas as identical with the
worship of Rudra or Agni and at the present time
all Vaidika or Smārta Brāhmaṇas are worshipping
31
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the linga and are even seen dancing and making

huậukkāra noise while worshipping in temples, a
strange survival of the Pāśupata customs.
The orgies and revels in lascivious acts were
also the characteristic feature in all countries in
which phallic worship was practised ; in Greece,
in Alexandria, in fact the whole of the Mediterra
nean Coast the revelries differed in no way from
those in existence among the early Indian Śaiva
sects . The initiation and other ceremonies be
longing to these Priaptic cults, might possibly have
been refined by such intellectual and moral men as
Socrates, Pythogoras and others, and very likely the
reformed cults have descended to or been copied
by the modern Freemasons.
We have till now been discussing the earlier
forms of Saivaism ; but India has not been idle
since then. Newer sects of Śaivaism sprang from
time to time and gathered a large following. Two
such stand out prominently, namely the Virasaivas
of Southern India and the Pratyabhijñas of Kash
mere. The former was started by Basava, a Brābman
who occupied a high position in theCourt of the Kaļa
chūri, king Bijjaņa or Bijjala. Basava was born of
Brāhmaṇa parents but refused to undergo the
Upanayana ceremony, proclaiming that he was a
special worshipper of Siva and that he was born to
32
 INTRODUOTION .

destroy the caste system . Basava taught the

adoration of the linga as the chief feature of his
system ; his followers were taught the importance
of veneration to the guru ; the linga and the
Sangha. They were also taught that, as soon as
a Śaiva dies, he becomes one with Mahāśvara ;
child -marriage was discountenanced and post
puberty marriage was the general rule among
them ; widow re-marriage was also permitted. The
Lingāyatas or the followers of Basava carry about
their person a small linga either encased in a silver
casket and hung about the neck or tied up in a
silk cloth which is bound round the right arm or
on the neck. Under no circumstances should this
linga leave the person of the wearer ; it is like the
yajñāpavīta of the Brāhmaṇa never to be removed
during the life-time of the wearer. The Lingayatas
are supposed to have no caste distinction, but there
are among them Brāhmaṇas who are known by the
name of Ārādhyas ; nor is an Ayyanõru (their
priestly class) known to interdine with low caste
Jangamas (or congregation ). They have a number
of curious customs among them which it is not
possible to deal with here.
The Pratyabbijña school had its origin, as we
have already stated, in Kashmere. It appears that
the most important of their religious works are
33
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

five in number ; of these the Pratyabhijña -sūtras

is the oldest and is said to have been composed by
Utpalāchārya, the son ( or disciple) of Udayakara.
The basis of the work was the Śiva -drishți śästra
of Sõmānandanātha. The Pratyabhijña system is
believed to be an easy and new system of religious
philosophy. Though comparatively new, the
Pratyabhijña school has its foundation in older
works . The great Abhinavaguptāchārya has written
two commentaries on the sūtras, which are known
as the Laghu - Pratyabhijñavimarsani and the
Brihat- Pratyabhijña -vimarśani. From the inter
nal evidences available in the various works, it is
inferable that this school became prominent in the
10th century A.D.
The power of recognising an object originally
known to us but which had been lost sight of for
long is called Pratyabhijña. According to the
followers of this school , Paramātman or Para
mēśvara is that which exists always and is pervading
everywhere, is absolutely free and is the embodi
ment of energy and of blissful light. There is no
distinction between Paramāśvara and the Jivāt
man. But the latter is covered by the darkness of
māyā. If one realises, by the help of his guru, his
own omniscience, omnipotence etc. , he recognises
in him the Paramātman. This recognition by the
34
 INTRODUCTION .

Jivätman of the Paramātman as identical with

itself is illustrated by an example . A husband is
separated from his wife. The wife learns every
thing about her husband and vice versa by means
of news of each brought to the other. But when
the husband returns after a very long time and
stands before his wife , she is unable to recognise
him and till she is able to realise in him her
husband, she is not conscious of the presence of
her husband near her. Since the Pratyabhijña
philosophy does not involve severe practices like
prāņāyāma it is held by Abhinavaguptāchārya to
be an easy religion. All castes are equally admitted
into it. Its categories and their philosophy are
also easy enough though it is unnecessary to
detail them here .
Regarding the caste marks of the various
schools of Saivas, Anantānandagiri says as follows :
-The Saivas make marks of the linga on both the
shoulders ; the Raudras mark their forehead with
the triśūla ; the Ugras mark their shoulders with
the damaru ; the Bhattas mark their forehead with
the linga ; the Jangamas mark their chest with the
triśūla and wear on it the linga and the Pasupatas
mark the forehead, the two shoulders, the chest and
the navel with the linga.

35
Śiva .
 ŚIVA .

ONNEMythology
of the most interesting chapters in Hindu
is the history of Śiva, the god
of destruction among the Hindu Trinity.
In the Ķigvēda, the Vajasanēyi-samhitā of the
White Yajur -vēda and in the
Early referen- Atharvaņa -vēda, the word Śiva,
ces to Rudra.
meaning the auspicious, occurs as
an epithet of Rudra. It is only Rudra, (and
not Śiva) who is praised in all hymns ; he is re
presented in these hymns as a malevolent deity
causing death and disease among men and cattle
and is therefore specially prayed to by the hymnists
for allaying his wrath towards them , sparing them
their families and cattle, and attacking and
damaging their enemies and their belongings.
The physical description of Rudra is found in
a number of hymns in great detail. For instance,
in some places he is said to be tawny in colour
and in others of a very fair complexion, with a
beautiful chin, wearing golden ornaments, youthful
and having spirally braided hair on his head. He
39
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

carries in his hands a bow and arrows and is de

scribed , in some hymns, as wielding the thunder
bolt. He is, throughout the Vēdic period, identi
fied with Agni and is also said to have given birth ,
by his contact with Přishại (the earth ), the Maruts
(the winds). In the Atharvaņa -vēda it is stated,
that “ Bhava (Rudra) rules the sky, Bhava rules
the earth and Bhava hath filled the vast atmo
sphere ” ; in the same work we come across the
names Bhava, Sarva, Sahasra -bāhu, Mabādēva,
Pasupati, Rudra the slayer of Ardhaka (the
Andhaka of the Purāņic period), Ugra and īśāna
used as synonyms of Rudra ; these names are also
found in the Śatarudrīya along with Aghora, Girīša,
Nilagrīva, Kapardin, Sabhāpati, Gaņapati, Sēnāni,
Bhima, Sitikaộtha, Sambhu and Śankara. It might
be remarked here that all the names given above
are applied at the present time to Śiva-Rudra, who
is a later addition to the Hindu triad. In the
Śatapatha- Brāhmaṇa we learn “Agni is a god.
These are his names : Śarva, as the eastern people
call him , Bhava, as the Bābikas call him, Paśū
ņāmpati, Rudra and Agni. The names other than
Agni are ungentle (aśānta) , Agni is his gentlest
designation (śāntatma).”
From the descriptions of Rudra given above
it is patent that Agni, who is the same as Rudra,
40
 siya.

had his abode in the sky as the sun , in the atmo

sphere as the lightning and on the earth as fire ; in
other words, the sky, the atmosphere and the earth
give birth to Agni in his triple aspect of the sun ,
the lightning, and fire ; hence he receives the name
Tryambaka or Three -mothered . By the heat of
the sun received by the earth winds are produced,
a physical fact well -known even to school-boys.
It is this natural phenomenon , the production of
winds on the surface of the earth by sun's heat,
that is poetically expressed in the Vēdic hymns as
the sun begetting on the earth the Maruts. The
winds cause the clouds to accumulate in the at
mosphere and lightning and storm follow next ;
all these phenomena are traceable to Agni or
Rudra. The stormy winds, the dark masses of
clouds with flashing lightning in their midst are
all sufficiently terrifying in their effect, and Rudra
or Agni who is the cause of all these fearful
phenomena is naturally treated as a terrific and
malevolent deity always requiring propitiation.
The sufferings caused to man and beast by storms,
thunder and rain should naturally have induced
the Vedic bards to attempt to appease the wrath
of this fearful deity and to protect themselves and
their possessions by praises and offerings.
offerings.
41
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The identity of Agni and Rudra also appears

from the Mahābhārata . In nar
References to
Rudra in the
the rating the birth of Skanda, it
Mahabharata .
is stated in the Vana -parvan ,
that Svāha, the wife of Agni, assumed on six
consecutive days the forms of the wives of six out
of the seven rishis and enjoyed the company of
her husband, who had previously abandoned her
and retired to the forest, because he could not
succeed in securing for himself the company of the
wives of the rishis with whom he had fallen in love.
The seed of Agni gathered on the six days by
Svāha was deposited in a pit and covered with
kusa grass. On the sixth day the seed assumed
the form of Kumāra (that is, Skanda ). Again ,
later on, it is also said that Rudra, who was dally
ing with his consort Umā for a long time, was
prayed to by the gods to assume his other func
tions ; he let drop his seed on the earth . Agni was
asked to take it in and develope it , but its burning
effect was so great that he could not bear it ; he
dropped it in the river Gangā and Skanda was
born therefrom . From these two statements, the
only conclusion possible is that Rudra, who was
the same as Agni was the father of Skanda .
From occupying the minor position of Agni in
the Vēdic period , Rudra emerges into one of the
42
 SIVA.

supreme deities in the Purāņic period ; and he

is often found to claim superior
Rudra in the
Puranic period .
ity over Vishņu and Brahmā. In
the Purāṇic period also Rudra re
tains his attributes as the destroyer and the
terrific ; he is Gescribed as assuming the forms
of the gods Vishņu and Brahmā, of men, of
bhūtas and other beings, of beasts and of birds ;
he is the soul of the universe ; and pervades
through it ; he dwells in the heart of all
creatures and knows all their desires ; he car
ries a discus, a trident, a club, an axe and a
sword ; he wears a girdle of serpents, ear -ornaments
composed of serpents and a Yajnopavīta of ser
pents ; he laughs, sings and dances in ecstacy, and
plays on a number of musical instruments ; he
leaps, gapes and weeps and makes others weep ;
speaks like a mad man or a drunkard , as also in
sweet voice........... He dallies with the daughters
and wives of the rishis; he has crect hair, looks 99
obscene in his nakedness and has an excited look ."
Rudra has braided hair and matted locks, fre
quents cemeteries and performs awful rites ; he is
now a mild yogi and is also very terrible. He is
said to possess in every age the nature of Nārā
yaņa, that is, his tāmasic nature. ” Such descrip
tions form the basis of the several purāṇic legends
43
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

regarding Śiva, as also of the various images of this

deity. For instance, Śiva is represented as
dancing in an ecstacy ; he is then known by
the name of Naţarāja ; as a naked figure engaged
in begging for cooked rice, when he is called the
Bhikshātana -mūrthi; and so forth . We are there
fore concerned immediately with the various
aspects of Śiva described in the Purāṇas.
The birth of Rudra is given in the Satapatha
Birth of Rudrabrāhmaṇa as follows : “ Prajāpati
in the Brahma- (the lord of beings), who is identi
nas .
fied with the Sun and also the
year, (the beings of whom he is lord being the
seasons), desired to have a son ; he consorted, for
that purpose, with Ushas and a son (Kumāra ) was
born. As soon as he was born the boy wept. The
father asked why he wept. He replied he had got
no name to take away the evil from him . Prajā
pati gave him the name Rudra. Inasmuch as he
gave him the name , Agni became his form , for
Rudra is Agni ; he was Rudra because he wept
(arādīt, from rud , to weep). The boy said ' I am
greater than one who does not exist, give me another
name '. Prajāpati replied “ thou art Śarva '. Thus
he obtained from Prajāpati the names Rudra,
Śarva, Pasupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava, Mahādēva,
and īśāna - eight names which are associated
44
 SIVA.
respectively with the tattvas of agni, (the fire), jala
(the water), the plants, vāyu (the winds), vidyut
(the lightning), parjanya (the rain), chandramas
(the moon) and āditya (the sun ). These are the
eights forms of Agni and Kumāra is the ninth .
This is the threefoldness (trivritta) of Agni. Since
there are eight forms of Agni and the Gāyatri
metre has eight syllables, men say ' Agni pertains
to Gāyatri '. This boy Kumāra entered into the
forms. Men do not see Agni as a boy : it is these
forms that they see : for he entered into these
forms." The same story is found in the Sankhā
yana and the Kaushitaki-Brāhmaṇas. This story
forms the foundation for all the later accounts
given in the Purāņas of the birth of Rudra, as
also of the Ashța-mūrtīśvaras of the Śaivāgamas.
The account of the birth of Rudra as found in

In the Puranas .
the Vishnu -purāņa which is almost
identical with that given in the
Mārkanđeya -purāņa runs thus : At the beginning
of the kalpa (@on) Brahmā was meditating upon
begetting a son similar to himself. At once a boy
of blue and red colour was seen sitting on his lap
and weeping loudly. Brahmā asked him why he
was weeping. The boy answered ' Give me a
name '. Brahma conferred upon him the name
Rudra. But the boy wept again and again for
45
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

seven times more and obtained seven more names,

Bhava, Śarva, īśāna, Pasupati, Bhima, Ugra and
Mahādēva .
Another version of the birth of Rudra is also
given in the Vishņu -purāņa. Sanandana and others
who were first created by Brahmā for the purpose
of creating the various beings became absorbed in
meditation, attained all kinds of knowledge and
became free from love and hatred. They neglect
ed the business for which they were brought into
existence by Brahmā. Seeing the indifference of
his sons towards the creation of the worlds, Brahmā
grew very angry and from the frowned forehead of
this deity was born a son as resplendent as the
The body of this newly born being was half
male and half female and it was terrific and large
in size. Brahmā, commanding him to divide,
disappeared. This being, known as Rudra, divided
himself into two parts, of which one was male and
the other female. The male portion further divid
ed itself into eleven bodies of which some were
pacific and some terrific in nature ; in a similar
way, the female portion divided itself in many
forms some of black and others of white colour.
Here is the origin of the Ēkādaśa Rudras and
the multiform Śaktis of the later period of Hindu
Mythology
46
 SIVA.
A third account of the birth of Rudra is as
follows : When Madhu and Kaitabha, the two
demons, attempted to kill Brahmā when he was
created by Visbņu in the lotus that issued from
his navel, Brahmā prayed to Vishņu that he might
be saved from the demons , Pleased with the
prayers of Brahmā, Vishņu grew fiercely angry
with the Rākshasas ; from the frowned brows of
Vishņu sprang forth a being named Śambhu, wield
ing a trident and possessing three eyes. Thus we
see, as in the case of many other deities, there are
various accounts of the birth of Rudra,
Before proceeding with the systematic descrip
tion of the images of Śiva, it will be well to look
into the import of the various names given to this
Explanation of
god . When Śiva was besought by
the different the gods to destroy the demons who
names of Siva .
were the dwellers of three castles,
the Tripurāsuras, he sought and obtained one half
Mahadeva .
of their strength from all the gods ;
he was thenceforth known among
the gods as Mahādēva or Mahēšvara, because he
became the greatest among them. Since he con
sumes flesh , blood and marrow
Rudra , Dhur
jati, Siva. (as Agni), is fiery and glorious, he
is called Rudra. He is termed

Dhūrjați from his smoky colour, and since he makes

47
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

men prosper in all their actions, he bears the

appellation Śiva (the auspicious). Śiva is known as
Nilakaạtha and Sitikantha. The following are the
stories connected with these names : When the
ocean of milk was churned for obtaining ambrosia
for the gods, the first thing that came up from it
was the all-destroying poison ; the gods afraid of
Nilakantha .
this dreadful poison withdrew from
the churning ; Śiva in his kindness
to the gods, took up the poison and swallowed it ;
but Pārvati who was near her consort would not
permit the poison to get into Śiva's stomach
lest it should kill him ; she pressed Śiva’s throat
and the poison remained there. From that
time the blue poison became visible through the
fair skin of Śiva's throat and lent it a blue
lustre, which accounts for his being known as Nīla
kaņķha.* Again it is said in the Mahābhārata that
when Śiva destroyed the sacrifice of Daksha, he

* In the Aitarēya -brāhmaṇa, Rudra is said to have

drunk water (visha, which also means poison) . Of the two
meanings of the word visha , the latter saems to have given
birth to the purānic legend of the later period. The statement
made in the Brābmaņa is a poetic rendering of the physical
phenomenon of Rudra, that is, the Sun or the fire drying up
water.
48
 ŚIVA.
thrust his flaming trident again and again at
Daksha and the assembled gods,
Sitikantha.
and thus burnt everything with it.
The trident having done its duty flew and fell near
the āśrama (hermitage) of the rishis Nara and
Nārāyaṇa at Badari with terrific force. The glow
of the weapon was so great that the hair on the
head of Nārāyaṇa turned green like the munja
grass. Nārāyana thereupon repelled the trident,
which returned to its owner howling. Śankara, in
anger, ran up to Nārāyaṇā, when the latter, fearing
injury at the hands of Śiva, seized him by his
throat. Hence the name Sitikaạtha (mamapāny
ankitas-chapi śrākaņțas tvam bhavishyasi ).
Śiva has three eyes ; the third eye came into
existence under the following
Trinetra .
circumstances. Śiva was sporting
with his consort Pārvati on the slopes of the
Himālayas, when she playfully closed with her
hands the two eyes of Śiva. The whole universe
was at once submerged in cosmic darkness and all
activity was suspended ; sacrifices stopped and gods
became quiescent. Mahādēva dispelled the darkness,
by the fire bursting out of his forehead, in which a
third eye, as luminous, as the sun, was formed .
In a number of places in thepurāṇic literature
we see a sort of fierce denunciation of Śiva and the
49
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

Śaiva cult ; this is perhaps on account of some of the

Conflict between
revolting rites connected with the
the Vedic andand worship of Śiva. A graphic descrip
the Saiva cults.
tion of these rites as has already
been mentioned, is given by Bhavabhūti in his
Malati-Madhava.
At the time of the Mahābhārata , animals
seem to have been offered systematically as
sacrifices in the temple of Śiva, for, we hear Kșishņa
admonishing Jarāsandha for his cruelty to other
kings : says he, “ what pleasure can those princes
have in existence, when they have been consecrated
for slaughter and kept as victims in the temple of
Pasupati.... Thou , king hast set apart for sacrifice
to Mahādēva Kshatriya princes ........In so far as
you have resolved to offer these kings to Rudra,
the guilt committed by you by slaughtering them
will also attach to us ........and we have never seen
such a thing as offering human beings in sacrifice
and thou seekest to sacrifice to Śankara human
victims.” Daksha
Daksha in his rage, denounces Śiva as
in his
the “Proud abolisher of rites and demolisher of
barriers, such as by teaching the word of the Vēda
to the Śūdras...,” as “ roaming about in cemeteries
attended by the host of bhūtas (goblins), like a mad
man , naked and with dishevelled hair . He is seen
laughing, weeping, covered with ashes gathered from
50
 ŚVA.
the funeral pyres and wearing a garland of human
skulls and ornaments of human bones: he pretends to
be the auspicious (Śiva) while in reality he is aśiva ;
he is insane and is liked by the insane ; and he is the
lord of the Pramathagaņas, beings whose nature is
essentially darkness..........Let this Bhava, the
lowest of the gods, never receive at the worship of
the gods like Indra, Upēndra and others, any por
tion of the oblations with them .” It might be
noted here that the conscious neglect of Daksha
to offer a portion of the sacrifice to śiva in his
great yajña was certainly due to his hatred for
Śiva and his cult. Mabādēva himself admits that
from the beginning he was not given any oblations in
sacrifices : addressing Umā, he says “ the old prac
tice of the gods has all along been that no portion
should be offered to me in any sacrifice. By this
custom , which is established by the earliest arrange
ment, the gods legitimately (dharmatah) decline to
give me a share in the sacrifices.” From these state
ments we are led to infer that the Vēdic Indian
looked upon Śiva as a low class deity and was not
offering him any oblations along with Indra and
other gods . By the entreaties of his wife Pārvati,
Śiva establishes for the first time in the yāga of
Daksha, his right to receive oblations ; this " lowest
of the gods ” gets up to the level of the Vēdic gods
51
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

at a later period and is reconciled with the Vēdic

Hindu. That the ways of the adorers of Śiva were
indeed revolting is seen in the imprecation of Bhțigu
found in the Śrī Bhāgavata. He says “ Let those
performers of the rites of the Śaiva cult be heretics
and opponents of the true Vedas. Having lost their
purity and misled in their understanding, wearing
matted hair, ashes and bones, let them undergo the
Śaiva initiation, in which liquor is the deity. Since
you ,the followers of the Śiva cult, revile the Veda
and the Brāhmaṇas, who are the only safeguards
keeping intact the straying humanity, you have
become heretics. For, the Vēda is the auspicious
( Śiva) and the eternal path of the people, which has
been followed by the ancients and of which Janārd
dana is the authority .” We obtain a glimpse of the
real state of affairs at that time from the quotation
from the Śrī Bhagavata given above. People, in
cluding some Brāhmaṇas, left the fold of the Vēdic
religion and joined the cult of Śiva, reviled the
Vēdic religion, took to spirituous liquors and be
came celibate mendicants, daubing their bodies with
the ashes of the cemeteries and adorning themselves
with bones. They threw off the study of the Vedas
and violated their sanctity by teaching them to
Śūdras and others. The conditions of the Vēdic
Brāhmaṇas of that period is mirrored in the counter
52
 ŚIVA.
imprecation pronounced by Nandīśvara, a devout
follower of the Śiva cult. He tells us that the
revilers of Śiva are sunk, out of the love of carnal
pleasures, in domestic life, in which bad morals
are not infrequent ; they practise a number of
ceremonies without understanding their real import
and are degraded by the rules of the Vedas. They
smell strongly of liquor. Nandiśvara heaps up on
the heads of the followers of the Vēdic religion the
curse that these be ever sunk, deluded by the words
of the Vēdas, in the mire of ceremonial ignorance.
The complaint of the Śaiva against the Vaidika is
that the latter pays greater regard to the life of a
house-bolder and that he performs a number of
ceremonies without understanding their meaning,
It is in fact a rebellion against the ignorance of
Vēdic rites and a denunciation of family life.
With the admission of Śiva into the fold of
the higher gods, there seems to have come over
the followers of both the Vēdic and ſaiva cults a
strong desire for a sort of reconciliation. Thus,
we see Arjuna praising Śiva, in the Vana -parvan
of the Mahābhārata, as follows : “ Adoration to
Śiva in the form of Vishņu, to Vishņu in the form
of Śiva........to Hari-Rudra." Again, in the Śànti
parvan, we see it stated by Kệishṇa that, when
the god of gods, Mahēśvara, is worshipped, the god
53
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Nārāyaṇa, the Lord, will also be worshipped, that

he who knows and loves Rudra knows and loves
Nārāyaṇā and that Rudra and Nārāyaņā are but
one in principle, divided into two and operating in
the world in manifested forms. The same spirit
of conciliation, by which Hari and Hara are
viewed as one, is also found in the Harivamsa
wherein we hear Mārkaņdēya saying to Brahmā :
" When you show me this auspicious vision ,
you
I perceive that there is no difference between
Śiva who exists in the form of Vishņu and
Vishņu in the form of Śiva........He who appears
as Vishịu is Rudra............Bestowers of boons,
creators of the worlds, self-existent , they are the
( composite being) half male and half female
(Ardhanārīśvara )....And just as fire entering into
fire becomes nothing other than fire, so Rudra en
tering into Vishņu should possess the nature of
Vishņu........ Vishņu, the highest manifestation of
Rudra, and Śiva, the highest manifestation of
Vishņu, are only one god, though divided into two
and move continually in the world. Vishņu does
not exist without Sankara nor Śiva without Kēšava;
hence, these two, Rudra and Upēndra ( Vishņu )
have formerly attained oneness.” This recon
ciliation of Śiva with Vishņu seems to be based
upon the re-discovery of the identity of Rudra, Agni
54
 ŚIVA.
with Aditya, another modification of Agni, as
found residing in the sky. The Vēdic Agni becomes
Rudra or Śiva and the Vēdic Aditya becomes
Vishņu, in the Purāņic period.
The hatred of the followers of the Vēdic cult
towards the Śaivas seems to have been also attri
butable to the worship by the latter of the phallic
emblem. The very touch of the Saiva was con
sidered by the Vaidika as imparting pollution ,
because the former set up, from the earliest known
times, material representations of the phallus in
their temples and offered worship to them. That
the phallic worship is foreign to the Vēdic religion
becomes quite clear from the references we meet
with in the Rig -Vēda. In one place it is stated
“ The glorious Indra defies the hostile kings ; let not
those whose god is the śiśna approach our sacred
ceremony ” and in another we read “ Proceeding
to the conflict, and desiring to acquire them,
he has gone to, and in hostile array besieged,
inaccessible places, at the time when , irresistible,
slaying those whose god is the śiśna, he by his
craft conquered the riches of the city with a
hundred gates. The worship of the Phallus

* " But, śāyaṇa, following Yáska, interprets the word

śiśnadeva of these two passages as referring to those who
55
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

which the non -Aryans of India shared with other

nations who inhabited on the borders of the
Mediterranean sea, has survived in India to
this day. The Dhruvabēras in all Śiva temples is
the Linga surmounted upon the Yoni or the
piņņikā (pedestal). It is only in very rare instances
we meet with the anthropomorphic representations
of Śiva set up as the principal deity in Śiva
temples. This non -Aryan phallic emblem seems
to have been identified at a later period with
Skambha of the Vēdas, wherein Skambha is con
ceived as co -extensive with the universe and
comprehends in him the various parts of the
material universe, as also the abstract qualities,
such as, tapas, faith, truth and divisions of time.
He is distinct from Prajāpati, who founds
the universe upon him . “ The thirty-three gods
are comprehended in him and arose out of
non -entity, which forms his highest member, as
well as entity is embraced within him ” . The gods
who form part of him do homage to him. In the
praise of Skambha we meet with the following
passages, namely, “ Where Skambha, generating,
sport with the siśna , i.e., unchaste men. Durgāchārya also
gives the same meaning : he says that the name is applied to
those who are always dallying carnally with prostitutes, for
saking Vēdio observances."
56
 SIVA.

brought Purāņapurusha into existence” and “Skam

bha in the beginning shed forth that gold (hiranya,
out of which Hiraṇyagarbha arose) in the midst of
the world” and lastly “ He who knows the golden
reed standing in the waters is the mysterious
Prajāpati. ” From the first two of the three pass
ages quoted above, we see that one of the functions
of Skambha is to beget Hiranyagarbha, or Pu
rāņapurusha , the god of reproduction . He pours
forth his golden seed in begetting Prajāpati. The
original of the third passage runs thus : Yo vētasam
hiranyayam tishthantam salilē vēda sa vai guhyah
Prajāpatih. In the õig -vēda and the Śatapatha
Brāhmaṇa, the word vaitasa has the sense of
membrum virile. Hence the word vētasa in the
present passage also might be understood to refer
to Linga and the non -Aryan worshippers of the
phalius might have based the identity of the
Linga with the Skambha of the texts of the
Atharvaņa vēda quoted above. It is this same
Skambha that has given birth to the purāņic story
of Śiva's appearance as a blazing pillar between
Brahmā and Vishņu when they were quarrelling
about the superiority of the one over the other.
At a later time a sort of philosophical clothing
is given to the primitive Linga ; by a section
of scholars the Linga and its pedestal are
57
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

viewed, with some justification, as the repre

sentation of the arañis, the two pieces of
wood which were rubbed together by the Vēdic
Indian in making fire. At that period the upper
stick was considered as male and the lower as
female, by the co-operation of which fire was gene
rated. If this explanation is to be taken, the object
generated is the fire, which the Vēdic Indian
identified with Rudra, same as Śiva of the later
mythology and the objects that gave birth to Rudra
cannot represent the hermaphroditic form of Rudra.
Hence, it is undoubted that the Linga and the
Yoni represent the Great Generative Principles
of the Universe, Purusha and Prakțiti. That
in its earlier stages Linga worship was purely
phallic can be established by means of a number
of Sanskrit texts from various works of autho
rity.
The earliest references to the phallic worship
are, as we have seen above, to be found in the Ķig
References to vēda, where the phallus is called
Linga worship .
śiśnadēva. When we come to the
later or the purāņic period the references are fuller
and more explicit. In the Markaņdēya -Purāņa there
occurs the following story : Mārkaņdēya says that
Rudra and Vishņu are the creators of the Universe
and they form the Ardhanariśvara aspect of the
58
 śIVA.

former deity. Here the allusion is to the Haryardha

formof Śiva,in which the female generativeprinciple
is identified with Vishịu. That the male and the
female principles are inseparable and are ever
found together in cosmic evolution is the real
import of the Ardhanārīśvara or Haryardba forms
of Śiva ; the same idea is also conveyed in a brief
way by the symbols the linga and the yoni. In the
Bhagavata -Purāņa (second skanda) Mahādēva is
described by Brahmā as, “ the Parabrahman, the
lord of Śakti and Śiva, who are the womb and
seed respectively of the universe , who, like a
spider, forms it in his sport, through the agency of
Śakti and Śiva ,(who are one with himself), pre
serves and re-absorbs it.” The Linga-purāņa also
states that Pradhāna (nature) is called the Linga
and Paramēśvara is called the Lingin (the
sustainer of the Linga) and that the pedestal
of the Linga is Mahādēví (Umā) and the Linga is
the visible Mabēśvara. A more express allusion
to the generative power of the Linga and the yoni,
the emblems of the Śaiva cult, is found in the
Vishnu- purāna , wherein we are told that Brahma
asked Rudra, born of his anger, to divide himself
thereupon Rudra divided himself into two, a male
and a female portion . The epithet mahāśēpha in
Urddha -kēšā mahāśāphó nagnő vikrita lochanah
59
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

occurring in the Mahābhārata is also worth noting

in this connection. A further quotation from the
saine work is also to the point : And since ,
standing aloft, he consumes the lives of men, and
since he is fixed, and since his Linga is perpetually
fixed , he is called Sthāņu . . . and when his Linga
remains continually in a state of chastity, and people
reverence it , this is agreeable to the great God Mabā
dēva. The worshipper of the Linga who shall adore
the image (vigraha) or the Livga of Mahādēva,
enjoys continually great prosperity. It is the Linga,
raised up, which the rishis, gods, gandharvas and
apsarases worship ;” and “ He whose seed is raised
up, whose Linga is raised up, who sleeps aloft, who
abides in the sky...... The Lord of the Linga, the
lord of the suras (gods )...... the lord of the seed, the
producer of the seed .” Sankarāchārya in his
Saundaryalahari (verse 1) also says “ When Siva
is united with Śakti, he is able to create, otherwise
he is unable even to move ." The Kuvalayānanda
of Appayya Dikshita begins with “ We praise the
ancient pair, the parents of the universe ; each is
the end attained by the penance of the other.” In
a work called Anandānubhava it is stated that
Śakti is of the form of the pleasure derivable from
Guhya (the female organ) and that Śiva is the
Linga ; from the union of these two is the cause of
60
 SIVA.

the joy that is found in the universe.* Again, in

an inscription found in the Mysore State, the
following salutation to Śiva and his Dēvi is
given.t " The only god, victorious is Śiva, the

* गुह्यानन्दात्मिका शक्तिः लिङ्गरूपः शिवः परः ।

तयोमिथुनकौशल्यं जगदानन्दकारणम् ॥
+ एको देवः स जयति शिव: केवलज्ञानमूर्तिः
देवी सा च त्रिभुवनमिदं यद्विभूतेः प्रपञ्चः ।
यत्कूटस्थं मिथुनमविनाभावसम्बन्धयोगात्
मिश्रीभूतं तदखिलजगजन्मवीजं नमामि ॥
No. 242, Shikaripur Taluk, Shimoga District, Mysore.
Other references to the phall!c nature of the liiga are :
1. वचनाद्वो महाभागाः प्रणम्योमां तथा भवत् ।
सा भगाख्या जगद्धात्री लिङ्गमूर्तेनिवेदिका ॥
लिङ्गस्तु भगवान्द्वाभ्यां जगत्सृष्टिर्द्विजोत्तमाः ।
लिङ्गमूर्ति: शिवो ज्योतिस्तमसञ्चोपरि स्थित : ॥
लिङ्गवेदिसमायोगादर्धनारीश्वरोऽभवत् ॥
Lingapurana, ch . 100 , Vv. 6 & 7 .
2. जाने त्वं ईशमीशं विश्वस्य जगतो योनिविजयोः ।
शतः शिवस्य च परं यत्तद्ब्रह्म निरन्तरम् ॥
त्वमेव भगवन्नेचच्छिवशक्तयोः सरूपयोः ।
विश्वं सृजसि पास्यत्सि क्रीडन्नूर्णपटो यथा ॥
Bhagavataurana.
3. योनिलिङ्गप्रकारेण जगत्सृष्टयर्थकारणम् ।
तथासंयोगभावेन कर्मरूपमुदाहृतम् ॥
Vatulaindahagam .
61
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

form of all wisdom , and also Dēvi ; whose posses

sion are the three worlds, unchangeable in the
universe, ever united, through whose union the
essence of all things is mingled, the seed from
which the world is born-do I reverence.” In the
Śiva-Linga -Pratishthā -vidhi, the author Aghorā
Śivāchārya gives a mantra which runs thus :
Umāyai bhaga -rūpinyai linga -rūpadharāya cha
Sankarāya namastubhyam ........; and which means
I salute Umā who is in the form of bhaga and
Śankara who is in the form of Linga. We learn from
the Siddhāntasārāvaļi that the bringing about the
union of the pītha which is the symbol of Śakti and
the linga, that of Śiva, in accordance with the rules
laid down in Śaiva śāstras is called pratishthā .* We
4. In marking the lines (sūtras) on the surface of the
stone linga, it is stated that the part marked out thus should
resemble the nut of the (human) linga :
..लिङ्गमूर्द्धव मूर्द्धा"
Similarly in describing the form of the pitha for the
Linga, it is required to be made in the shape of the bhaga (the
human pudendum ) :
" पीठेलक्ष्म भगाकृतिस्तु पुरतस्तू /ग्रकं पिण्डिका रन्ध्रस्यापि गुणांश
भागयुगळे मूले भ्रमद्वंद्वयुक्.
Siddhantasārávali.
उमायै भगरूपिण्यै लिङ्गरूपधराय च ॥
Kāmikāgama.
* पीठं लिङ्गमुमाशिवस्तयोर्योग: प्रतिष्ठोदिता विष्युक्तः.......
62
 SIVA.

can quote several such texts, but those already

given are more than ample to show the phallic
nature of linga worship. So much about the evi
dences gathered from literature . Let us now turn
our attention to sculptural evidences.
The earliest known Lingas, so far as we know
at present, are two ; one comes from Bhita and is,
now preserved in the Lucknow Museum. It has
been described in a brief account contributed by
Mr. R. D. Banerji to the Annual of the Director
General of Archæology for 1909–1910. About
this linga of Bhitā Mr. Banerji writes, “ The top
of it is shaped as the bust of a male holding a vase
in his left hand, while the right is raised in the
abhaya mudră posture. Below this bust, where
the waist of the figure should have been, are four
human heads, one at each corner. From the mode
of dressing the hair and the large rings worn in
the lobes of the ears , it appears that these are the
busts of females. They are more or less defaced ,
but still retain sufficient detail to admit of identifi
cation. The upper part of the head of the male is
broken, only the portion below the nose being
extant. The male figure wears a cloth which is
thrown over the left shoulder, the folds being shown
by a double line running over the breast. The vase
held in the left hand resembles to some extent, the
63
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY ,

ointment vessel found in the figures of Bodhisatvas

of the Gāndhāra school . The left ear of the male
figure bears the circular pendants, which may be
earrings. In front, immediately below the heads
of two females, the phallus is marked by deeply
drawn lines. To the proper left of this is the
inscription to which I have already referred. The
lower part of the stone has been shaped as a tenon
to be fitted in a mortice.
“ The inscription is in a good state of preser
vation, and with the exception of the last three
letters, can be deciphered very easily .” The tran
slation of the inscription is given by Mr. Banerji
as follows: “ The Linga of the sons of Khajahuti,
was dedicated by Nāgasiri, the son of Vāsēthi.
May the deity be pleased ." *
From the description given by Mr. Banerji it is
evident that it is a Mukhalinga having five faces
corresponding to the ſśāna, Tatpurusha, Aghora,
Vārnadēva and Sadyājāta aspects of Śiva. In the
description of Mukhalingas given elsewhere in this
book, it will be seen that the face representing Īśāna
should be on the top, while the other four should
face the east, south , west and north respectively.
* The text of this inscription reads as follows : Khajahuti
putanam l[im]go patighäpito Väsēļhi-putena Nāgasirină piya
ytà [m ] dſelvatā .

64
 SIVA.
The four faces on the four corners which
Mr. Banerji believes may be of females are
really those of male figures. (See Pl. I.)
The palæography of the inscription found
engraved at the bottom of this Linga is its most
important feature, for, it enables us to determine
the approximate age of this most interesting anti
quarian object. With the help of the characters,
Mr. R. D. Banerji has correctly guessed the age of
the Linga to be the first century B.C.
The second most ancient Linga is the one
discovered by me at Guļimallam some years ago
and which has not been described in detail hitherto.
It is one of the most perfect pieces of sculpture
of its class and is of great value in connection with
the history and nature of the linga worship .
Guļimallam is a village situated at a distance of
six miles to the north -east of Rēņiguạta, a railway
junction station on the Madras and Southern Maha
ratta Railway. In this place, there is an ancient
temple with several inscriptions in it ; the god of
that temple, the Linga under consideration , is
known from ancient times by the name of Paraśu
rāmēśvara and the linga is still in pūjā. Being a
badly managed temple, scarcely any oil is spent
upon bathing the images, a fact which accounts for
the linga being in the same condition as when it
65
 PLATE I.

Three
different
views
of
the
SBhiţa
tone
.;Lingam
 5
5
PLATE 11 .

4
A

B
3
SECTION
AB.
2
1
Front
View.
Side.:
View
Gaờimalla
Liaga
Stone. Back
View.
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.
was carved ; there is no oily dirt on it and the high
polish is in no way lost ; but there are a few chips
here and there, and it is not known if they have
existed from the beginning or came into existence
at a later period. It is very probably the latter.
The linga is made of a reddish igneous rock, very
brittle and compact in its composition which takes
very high polish and which is found in the Tirupati
hills which pass near the temple of Parasuramēģ
vara. The Linga is set directly on the floor
of the central shrine and the pinļikā or the
pedestal is cut out in the form of a quadrangular
ridge on the ground ; it is exactly five feet in
height and bears upon its front portion a beautiful
figure of Śiva. This figure of Śiva has two
arms, in the right one of which a ram is held by
its hind legs and with its head hanging down
wards ( see fig. 4, Pl. V ) ; in the left one is held a
water-pot ( fig. 3, Pl. V), and a battle -axe ( parašu )
rests upon the left shoulder ( fig. 2, Pl . V). On the
head of the figure of Śiva is a covering, resembling
a turban , of plaited , -- not matted,-hair (see
Pl. III and fig. 9, Pl . IV ). The face is distinctly
Mongoloid in its features, with a somewhat snub
nose, high cheek-bones, narrow forehead and
oblique eyes. This last item agrees well with
Virūpāksha (he with oblique eyes), one of the
66
 PLATE II

Bust of the image of Śiva on the Guậimallam Linga.

 PLATE IV.
Details of ornaments in the Guļimallam Sculpture.

Fig. 1 .

Fig. 2. Fig. 5.

Fig. 3.

13 Fig. 6.

Fig. 4.

HI
II
Il

Fig. 7.

CHE
 SIVA.

names of Śiva. There are kundalas in the ears

( fig. 1 , Pl. IV), the lobes of which are distended
so as to hang down as far as the shoulders ;
on each of the upper -arıs is a highly finished
ornamental band ( arigadā) and on the forearms
five bracelets of different patterns (see figs. 247,
Pl. IV) . Round the neck is to be seen a neck
lace of rare workmanship ( fig. 8, Pl. IV) ; it
is noteworthy that there is no yajñāpavīta, the
Brāhmanical sacred thread, which is insisted upon
in all Agamas. The image wears a cloth on the
loins, which, from its sculpture, appears to be of a
very fine texture, for the thighs and the organ are
visible through it very distinctly. The creases and
sınaller folds of the cloth running across the thighs
are very well executed , and the larger and heavier
folds flow down between the two legs.
The figure of ſiva stands astride upon the
shoulders of a Rākshasa — the Apasmāra-purusha
who is sitting on the ground on his haunches and
supporting himself with his hands which are
planted on the ground near the feet. He too has
a sort of jațāmakuța on his head and a hāra of
beads round his neck. He is swarthy and burly in
the build of his body, possesses a pair of pointed
animal ears and is, withal , jolly and happy, as is
evidenced from the broad grin on his face.
67
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The Linga itself is composed of two parts, the

nut and the shaft of the membrum virile, each
of them shaped exactly like the original model,
in a state of erection. On Pl . II are given the
front, the side and the back views of the Linga, a
reference to which will enable the reader to form
an excellent idea of the exactitude with which the
sculptor has modelled this Linga in imitation of
the human phallus. The longitudinal facets on
the erect organ (ūrddhava -rētas) are also represent
ed in this Linga .
There is a very close resemblance of the figure
of Śiva on this Linga to that of a yaksha in the
Śāñchi Stūpa, figured on page 36 of Grunwedel's
“ Buddhist Art in India ” (translated by Gibson
and Burgess) ; the face, the ear and the ear -orna
ment, the arms and the ornaments thereon, the
necklace the details of the workmanship of these
jewels and the peculiar arrangement of the drapery,
particularly the big folds that descend between the
legs, -- all these are exactly alike both in the image
of Śiva on the Linga at Guļimallam and in the
picture of the Yaksha referred to above. The date
of the sculpture represented in the latter picture
has been fixed to be the second century B.C. *
* " 143 Before Christ (cir.) . Probable date of Sanobi
gateways." Grunwedel, p. 5.

68
 Sego
PLATE V.

).1(F.ig .
F).2( ig ).3(F.ig ).4(Fig
.
 ŠIVA.

This naturally leads us to the inference that the

image of Śiva might also belong to the first century
at least of the Christian era , if not to a still earlier
period. Again, from the exact likeness of the Guļi
mallam Linga to the human phallus, it is certain
that Linga worship was not of a mere symbol
( linga ), nor of a simple pillar (sthāņu ), but is
beyond doubt phallic in its nature. * That this is
the real origin of Linga worship even at the pre
sent day is easily seen from the rules laid down in
the Āgamas for making a Linga, as also from the
innumerable sculptures of Linga, found throughout
the length and breadth of India. (For an exhaus
tive treatment of Linga, see the Chapter on
Lingas ).
Because it is established to be phallic in its
nature, some may be inclined to consider Linga
worship obscene and immoral. There is nothing in
it to be ashamed of ; the two great Generative
Principles of the Universe, Śiva and Śakti, or
Purusha and Prakṣiti, the father and mother of all
creations, the energy and matter of the physical
scientist, is symbolised briefly in the form of the
* For a third ancient linga which is also sculptured like
the human phallus, see fig. 1, Pl. V. It is set up in the
central shrine of the Siva Temple at Chennittalai, a village in
Central Travancore.
69
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY ,

linga and the yöni. For the past two thousand

years at least, the Hindus, males and females, have
been offering worship to this symbol of the Great
Architect of the Universe, without in the least
adverting to or feeling conscious of the so-called
obscenity of this pure symbol of the fatherhood and
motherhood of the supreme deity ; to them it is a
symbol and nothing more ; there is nothing obscene
in connection with its worship ; the simplest and
the purest materials, such as water from a well
reserved for ceremonial purposes, flowers, incense
and freshly cooked rice and cakes, are used in
the worship of the Linga. If there be any the
slightest lack of cleanliness and purity on the part
of the officiating priest, it would be passed over un
noticed in a Vishņu temple ; but never in a Śiva
temple, where absolute purity and cleanliness are
rigorously demanded from the pūjāri. Thus, what
ever might have been the original setting and the
import of the symbolism , at the present time they
are forgotten and lost ; and the worship of the
Linga and the yoni, is absolutely * and thoroughly

* The attention of the reader may here be drawo to a

little book entitled " Primitive Symbolism as illustrated in
Phallic Worship " by Hodder M. Westrop, published by
Messrs. Geo . Redyay in London . In this, the author bas
collected information about the existence, in the past and
70
 SIVA.

free from even the remotest associations of any

kind of immorality or indecency.
The great antiquity of Śiva worship is estab
lished by a number of references in ancient inscrip
tions ; some of these references are given on page 8
of the General Introduction in Volume I of this
publication.
Having considered at some length the history
and nature of Śiva worship, I now proceed to a
systematic description of the various images of
Siva in the subsequent chapters.

present, of phallic worsbip in several countries — Greece, Egypt,

Rome, Assyria, Ancient Amercia, &c. Linga worship or wor
ship of Priapus, or fascinum or Pripe- gala continued to exist,
according to Boudio , till the 12th century A.D. in Germany,
Slavonia and France. In France a document entitled Sacerdo
tal Judgments on Crimes, of the 8th century A.D. is said to
contain the following : " If any one performs enchantments
before the fascinum , let him do penance on bread and water
during three lents."

71
LINGAS .
 LINGAS.

STIVA is worshipped in a number of anthro

VApomorphic forms, as also in the symbol of
Linga. The more common representation is the
latter. As has been said already, the chief image in
the central shrine of a Śiva temple, is, in a large
majority of instances, the Linga. Very rarely do we
meet with anthropomorphic images of Śiva in the
central shrines, and where they are seen, as in
some temples of the Pallava period in South India,
they occupy a position subordinate to the Linga.
Lingas are broadly divided into two classes,
namely, the chala -lingas and the achala -lingas,
that is, the moveable and the immoveable Lingas.
To the latter class belong the large and heavy stone
Lingas which are permanently set up in the central
shrines of Śiva temples. A description of the
different varieties of the chala -lingas, had better
be given first before proceeding to deal with the
important class of achala -lingas.
75
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

The chala -lingas are divided into mạiņmaya

(those made of earth ), lohaja (of
The Chala or
Jangama Lingas: metals), ratnaja ((of of precious
stones), dāruja (of wood) , śailaja
(of stone) and kshaạika lingas, ( those made for the
The Mrinmaya
occasion and disposed of immedi
Lingas. ately their use is over ). The
mrinmaya lingas may be of baked
or unbaked clay. For making an unbaked clay
linga it is stated in the Kāmikāgama that white
clay, gathered from pure places, such as the tops
of hills and banks of rivers, should be mixed with
milk, curds, ghee, as also the flours of wheat and
barley, the barks of milky trees, powdered sandal
paste, mercury , etc., and the whole mass is then
well mixed up and kneaded and kept for a fortnight
or, at the most, a month. The linga is then shaped
according to the instructions given in the Agamas
for that purpose. The baked clay linga is used for
ābhichārika purposes ; that is, for incantations such
as those made to bring about the destruction of an
enemy.
The lõhaja lingas may be made of the follow
The Lohaja
ing eight metals, namely, gold,
Lingas Lingas.
Ratnaja and the silver, copper, bell-metal, iron, lead,
brass and tin. Similarly, the ratna
ja -lingas may be carved in pearls, coral, cat's-eye
76
 LINGAS.

(vaidūrya) quartz crystal, topaz (pushyarāga ),

emerald and bluestone ; that is, the ratnas or
precious stones employed in making lingas are
seven in number. The Dāruja lingas are made of
The Daruja
the timber of the sami, madhūka,
Lingas . karņikāra, mandūka, tinduka,
arjuna, pippala, and udumbara trees ; besides
these, the timber of all such trees as have
barks which exude a milky latex when cut, is also
mentioned as good for making lingas ; one such
tree is the jack and it is very largely employed in
the Malabar Coast for carving very fine specimens
of images. The Kāmikāgama adds many more
trees, such as the khadira, the chandana , the sala ,
the bilva , the badara and the dēvādaru , the timber
of which is also fit for making
The Sailaja lingas. The stone lingas included
Lingas.
in the class of chala -lingas are
perhaps those small ones which are worn on the
person by the people of the sect of Śaivas known
as the Jangamas, Lingavantas or Lingāyats, or
Vira Śaivas. The kshanika -lingas are those that
The Kshanika are made then and there for pūjā
Lingas,
and are, after the pūjā is over,
cast away. They may be made of saikatam
(sand ), uncooked rice, cooked rice, river-side clay,
cow -dung, butter, rudrāksha seeds, sandal paste,
77
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

kūrcha grass, flowers, jaggery, and flour. It is said

Effect of wor that worshippi
ng a linga made of
shippingvarious
kinds of Lingas.
gold grants wealth (śrípradam ) * ;
one of uncooked rice, vibhava ; a
linga made of cooked rice, grants the worshipper
plenty of food ; a linga made of clay gathered from
river banks, grants landed estates; of cow -dung,
removes all disease ; of butter, gives one a jovial
temper ; of Rudrāksha seeds, grants knowledge ;
one of sandal paste, is prescribed for those who
desire saubhāgya, while that of kūrcha grass for
seekers after soul-liberation ; a linga composed of
flowers grants long life; one made of jaggery con
fers all desired ends and that made of flour strength .

* In the Uttara -kānda of the Rāmāyaṇa it is stated that

wherever Rāvana went, be carried with him a golden linga for
bis worship : placing that linga in the midst of a pedestal of
sand, Rāvana made pujā to it with incense and flowers of fine
smell (yatra yatra cha yātisma Rāvaņā rākshasēśvara
jambúnadamayam lingam sthāpya Rāvanah archayāmāsa
gandhaiścāmrita gandhibhih ). The commentator remarks
" that the golden linga was intended for constant worship. He
worshipped it from the desire of sovereignty. For it is pre
scribed in the Tantras that a golden linga should be worshipped
when any one desires sovereignty. ( Tal -lingam jāmbunada
mayam nitya -pujā lingam aiśvarya kāmanāya hi tal-linga
pūjā Rāvaṇasya aiśvarya kāmasya sauvarna-linga-pūjāyastan
tréshuktah .)

78
 LINGAS.

It is further stated that the lingas made of

metals, precious stones etc., should have only
the pūjā -bhāga or the portion which is projecting
above the pedestal in achala -lingas, together with
the piņņikā or the pedestal ; in other words, these
lingas need not be made with the Brahmabhāga
and the Vishnu -bhāga and then set up in a separate
piņņikā ; the pindikā and that portion of the linga
which is to be visible and which is known by the
name of the Rudra -bhāga are to be either carved
out of a single block of precious stone or cast in
metals. No rules need be observed, as in the case
of achala -lingas in shaping the chala -lingas and
they need not bear on them the lines that are
required to be marked on the achala -lingas.
The achala or sthāvara -lingas are, according
The Achală or to the Suprabhēdāgama, classified
Sthavara Lingas. under nine heads, namely, the
Svāyambhuva, the Pūrva (or Purāņa ), the Daivata,
the Gāņapatya, the Asura, the Sura, the Ārsha, the
Rākshasa, the Mānusha, and the Bāņa lingas.* Of
*The Mānasāra bas another classification according to which
the achala - lingas are of six kinds, namely, ſaivalinga, Pāśupata
Linga, Kāļāmukha -Linga, Vāma - Linga, Bhairava - Linga and
a variety wbich is notmentioned ; but it gives no description of
any of these lingas. लिङ्गमानविधिं सम्यग्लक्षणं वक्ष्येऽधुना । शैवं
पाशुपतं चैव कालामुखमुदाहृतम् ॥ वामं च भैरवं चैव लिङ्गमानंतु षड्विधम् ।
79
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

these, the Svāyambhuva, are said to belong to the

Their classifica- uttamõttama (most superior)variety
tion .
of lingas ; those belonging to the
Daivata and the Gāņapatya classes, are of the
Uttamamadhyama (middling superior) variety ;
whereas the Asura, the Sura and the Arsha lingas
belong to the uttamādhama ( lowest among the
superior) variety. The Mānushalingas belong to the
madhyamādhama (middling among the inferior)
variety.
The Makutāgama recognises only four classes
of sthira -lingas, namely, the Daivika, the Ārshaka ,
the Gāņapa, and the Mānusha lingas, whereas the
most authoritative of all the Śaiva Agamas, the
Kāmikāgama states that the sthāvara -lingas are
divided into six classes, the Svāyambhuva, the
Daivika, the Arshaka, the Gāņapatya, the Mānusha
and the Bāņa lingas. Though there is apparent
diversity among the statements of the various
Āgamas in the classification of the sthāvara lingas,
practically there is no difference at all in them ;
some of them include the minor varieties under the
major heads and swell the list, while others are
somewhat more rigorous in keeping apart the major
and the minor divisions among the sthāvara lingas.
The Svāyambhuva Linga is described in the
Kāmikāgama as one which rose up and came in
80
 LINGAS.

into existence by itself and had existed from time

immemorial. As such , even if
The Svayam
bhuva Linga . these are slightly damaged by
causes such as fire, wild elephants,
inundation or encroachment of rivers, enemies of
religion like the Tulushkas, madmen or men
possessed by devils, they need no re-setting up
( jirņāddhāra). If anything at all is necessary , it
* While commenting on the word ripavah, Nigamajñāna
dēva, son of Vāmadēvasivāchārya says, ripavah satruvastulush
kādaya : Nigamajñānadēva was a contemporary and protege of
a king called Sambhuvaraya. There are three or four Sambhu
varāyas, (that is, members of a dynasty of chiefs who styled
themselves Sambhuvarāyas), of whom the Sambhuvarāya,
the patron of Nigamajňänadēva seems to be Rajanārāyaṇa
Sambhuvarāyar, whose initial date is A.D. 1322-23. In one
of the inscriptions discovered by me at Tiruvāmāttúr and
which is dated 1335-6 A.D., it is said that the Turukkar
invaded some time proviously and caused ruin to the country
and that the pūjā in the siva temple at Tiruvāmăttür was
suspended for want of funds and that Rājanārāyaṇa Sambhu
varāyar granted some lands and money to revive the pūjas.
This Rājanārāyaṇa constructed a gopura in the Aruņācha
lēśvara templo at Tiruvaņņāmalai ; sitting in this gõpura,
Nigamajñānadeva wrote the original and commentary of the
Jirņõddhāra daśaka. Hence, the invasion and havoc caused to
the temples by the Mussalmans under Malik Kafur, the
general of Alla- ud-din Khilji, were fresh in the mind of the
author who, therefore, includes in the term ripavah, the
Tulushkas .
81
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

is but a few ceremonials that might be done to

purify the linga from pollution. If a portion of the
Svāyambhuva Linga is broken, the broken part is
required, if possible, to be bound with the main part
with bands of gold or copper; if however, the damage
is such as to prevent the pieces being bound together
the broken part may be thrown away. If, however,
a Svāyambhuva Linga is, by some cause or other,
completely removed from its setting and thrown
out, the event would cause the king his destruc
tion as also of his kingdom , perhaps because he
and his officers, responsible for the safety of such
objects of hoary antiquity, were negligent in their
duty. In fact, a Svāyambhuva Linga is considered
so sacred that it is above all the rules laid down in
the Agamas for the other classes of Lingas. If
such indeed be the superiority of the Svāyambhuva
Lingas over others, it is no wonder that every
village claims the Svāyambhuva nature for the
Linga set up in its temple. Sixty-eight places,
which are situated in various parts of India, are
said to possess Svāyambhuva Lingas and a list
of these places, is given in the commentary on his
Jirņāddhāra -daśakam by Nigamajñānadēva of
Vyāghrapura, son ofVāmadēvasivāchārya *
* The sixty -eight places wherein Svāyambhuva Lingas
are said to be found are :
82
 LINGAS .

The Daivika Lingas are recognised , according

The Daivika to the Makuțāgama, by their
Linga . characteristic shapes. They may
No. Place. Name of the deity.

1 Vārāṇasi Mabādéve.

Prayāga Mabēśvara.
3 Naimisa ... Dēvadēvēša.
4 Gaya Prapitāmaba.
5 Kurukshētra Stbāņu.
5-a Prabbāsa Śaśibhūshaņa.
...

6 Pusbkara Ajõgandha.
7 Vimaleśvara Visva.
8 Attahāsa Mahānāda .
9 Mabēndra Mabávrata.
10 Ujjayini Mahākāla.
11 Mabākõte Mabotkata.
12 Śankukarna Mabātējas.
13 Gökarna Mabābala .
14 Rudrakoţi Mahāyāgi.
15 Mahālingsthala īśvara.
16 Harshaka Harsbaka.
17 Visvamadhya Mābēšvara.
18 Kādāra Īsåpa.
19 Himālaya Rudrarudra .
20 Svarṇāksba Sahasrāksha.
21 Visvēsa
...

Vțishabbadbvaja.

83
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

be of the shape of a flame or resemble a pair of

No. Place. Name of the deity .

22 Bhadravata Bhadra.
23 Bhairava Bhairava.

...
24 Kanakbala Rudra.
25 Bhadrakarna Sadāśiva .
26 Dēvadāruvana Dandi.
27 Kurujāngala Chaņdēśa.
28 Trigandhi Urdhvarētas.
29 Jāngala Kaparddi.
30 Ēkagrāma (?) Kțittivāsas.
31 Mțitakośvara Sūkshma.
32 Kālañjara Nilakantha .
33 Vimaleśvara Śrīkaņķha.
34 Siddhesvara Dhyani .
35 Mțitakāśvara ... Gāyatri.
36 Kāśmira Vijaya.
37 Makutēśvara ... Jayanta .
38 Kritēśvara Bbasmakāya.
39 Kailāsācbala Kirāta .
40 Vrisbasthāua Yamalinga.
41 Karavira ... Kțitalinga .
42 Trigandhi ( ?) Tryambaka.
43 Virajā Trilochana.
44 Dipta Māhösvara
45 Nepāla Pasupati .

84
 LINGAS.

hands held in the añjali pose ; they may have rough

No. Place. Name of the deity.

46 Kārõhaņa Lakuļi.
47 Ambika Umāpati.
48 Gangāsāgara Amara.
49 Harischandra Hara.
50 Mabēśvara Omkāra.
51 Kuruchandra ſankara.
52 Vāmēśvara Jaţila.
53 Makuţāśvara Sausruti.
54 Saptagodāvara Bbima.
55 Nagarāśvara Svayambhū.
56 Jalēśvara Trisüli.
Kailasa
57 Tripurāntaka .
58 Karņikāra Gajadhyaksha.
59 Kailāga (?) Gañadhipa.
60 Hēmakūta Virūpāksha.
61 Gandhamadana Bhurbhuva.
62 Himasthāna Gangādhara.
Anala .
...

63 Bāqabāmukha Dānaväri (?)

64 Vindhyaparvata Varāba .
65 Kotitirtha Ugra .
66 Ishţikāpura (in Lanka ?). Varishta.
67 Pātāļa Hātakąśvara.
68 Lingāśvara Varada .
69 Gajapriya Jalalinga.

85
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

exterior with elevations and depressions, deep

hollows and scars resembling tanka (chisel) and
śūla (trident) . The Daivika Lingas do not possess
the brahma or the pārsvasūtras.
The Gāņapa -lingas are those that are believed
to have been set by Gaņas. They are of the shape
The Ganapa of the fruits of cucumber, citron ,
Lingas and the
Arsha Lingas. wood -apple or palm. The Arsha
Lingas are those set up and worshipped by Rishis ;
they are spheroidal in shape, with the top portion
less broad than the lower portion ; in other words,
they are like an unhusked cocoanut fruit. Both
the Gāņapa lingas and the Arsha lingas, like the
Daivika lingas, are without the brahma-sūtras. The
Kiraṇāgama informs us that the Svāyambhuva , the
Ārsha and the Daivika lingas have no shape ( rūpa )
and no measurements (māna) and are recognised
only by their respective shapes.
The largest number of the achala or the
The Manusha Sthāvara lingas, are of the class of
Lingas.
Mānusha lingas. As the name
indicates, this class of lingas consists of those set
up by human hands. They are sculptured in accord
ance with the rules definitely laid down in the
Agamas and consist of ten classes. The measure
ment of the Mānusha Lingas depend upon any one
of the following, namely, the height of door-way of
86
 LINGAS.

the central shrine, the length of one side of the

central shrine (which is generally cubical in shape)
or the natural unit, the hasta or the cubit. The
Mānusha lingas are made up of three parts, namely,
the lowest which is square in section and is known
as the Brahma -bhāga, the middle of octagonal
section, known as the Vishộubhāga and the top
most, of generally circular section, known as the
Rudrabhāga ; the lengths of these parts vary with
the different classes of lingas. On the Rudrabhāga
of all Mānusha lingas are carved certain lines
called brahma sūtras, and the tops of the lingas
technically known as sirõvaritana are fashioned in
a number of forms; the rules for tracing the
brahma - sūtras and for making the sirovarttanas
will be described in a subsequent portion of this
chapter.
The lingas whose measurenients depend upon
the length of the side of the central
Lengths of the
Sarvadesika Lin- shrine are called the Sārvadēśika
ga .
lingas ; different proportionswhich
are fractions such as three- fifths, five -ninths, or
half, of the length or breadth of the central shrine
are prescribed for the lengths of the lingas, which
are further classed under uttama, madhyama and
adhama or the superior, the middling and the
inferior varieties.
87
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The second class of the Mānusha lingas is

Of Sarvasama called the Sarvasama linga. It is
Linga .
also called Sarvatõbhadra in the
Mayamata and the Kamikāgama.

In the Sarvasama * class of lingas the brahma

bhāga, the Vishộubhāga and the
of Varddha- Rudrabhāga are equal in length ;
mana Linga.
whereas in the class known as the
Varddhamāna linga, which is also known, accord
ing to the Siddhāntasārāvaļi, as the Surēdhya
linga, the proportion of the Brahmabhāga, the
Vishộubhāga and the Rudrabhāga are as 4, 5, 6 or
5 , 6, 7, or 6, 7 , 8, or 7, 8, 9. Of these the
proportion 4, 5, 6 is prescribed for Brāhmaṇas and
the other three for the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas
and the Śūdras respectively. The
of Saivadhika lengths of the Brahmabhāga etc.,
Lingas.
in the Saivādhika lingas are ac
cording to the Kāmikāgama, the Kāraṇāgama and
the Mayamata are 7 , 7 , 8 or 5, 5, 6 or 4, 4, 5
or 3, 3, 4, respectively ; and are meant for the four
castes respectively beginning with the Brāhmaṇas.

* Literally ' all-equal ' .

+ Literally ' of ascending order of lengths.'
Literally ' with the Saiva part of larger leogth .'
88
 LINGAS.

Of Svastika This class appears to be the same

Lingas.
as the Anādhya linga of the Sid
dhāntasārāvaļi. The proportion of the lengths of
the Brahmabhāga and other parts in the Svastika
linga, is given in the Kāmikāgama and the Maya
mata as 2, 3, 4 respectively. In the class known
Of Trairasika as the Trairāśika or Traibhāgika
Lingas.
lingas, the lengths of the various
parts are given as follows : dividing the whole length
of the linga into nine equal parts, the periphery of
the Brahmabhāga should be equal to eight of these
parts, that of the Vishộubhāga seven and that of
the Rudrabhāga six. It should be noted here that
the diameter of the linga is not given and we have to
deduce it from the periphery; supposing thatthetotal
length of the liviga is nine feet, the length of each
division is one foot. If, as we have already said, the
periphery of the square section of the brahmabhāga
is eight times one division , the length of a side of the
square will be two feet. The same is the length of
the diameter of the octagon and the circle inscribed
in this square. Mathematically the proportions of
the periphery of the square, and the octagon and the
circle inscribed in it are approximately 8, 6.624*
* 8r, 16 tan 225º and 2lir, respectively where ; = tbe
radius of tbe circular Rudrabbāga, wbicb we bave assumed
to be = 1.

89
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and 6.3 times one division. (See fig. 1 , Pl. VII.)

Thus there is a slight discrepancy between the
proportions laid down in the Agamas and those
obtained mathematically. All the works, such as
the Kāmikāgama, the Kāraṇāgama, the Supra
bhēdāgama and the Mayamata are uniform in giving
of the Adhya the same proportions to the three
Linga .
parts of the Trairāśika -linga. There
is yet one more class of lingas, the Ādhya-linga of
the Siddhāntasārāvaļi : the lengths of the Brahma
bhāga, the Vishộubhāga and the Śivabhāga of this
variety are given as 81, 8 and 7} respectively. So
far about the lengths of the various classes of
lingas. I shall now proceed to the general rule
regarding the width of lingas.

The Siddhāntasārāvaļi lays down the follow

Widths of ing rule for fixing the widths of the
Lingas.
Ādhya, the Anādhya, the Surēdhya
and the Sarvasama lingas : divide the total length
of the linga into sixteen equal parts ; the width of
the Ādhya linga should be six of these parts ; that of
the Anādhya linga, five; that of the Surēdhya linga ,
four ; and lastly of the Sarvasama linga, five ; the
width of the three parts having the square section,
the octagonal section and the circular section
of the linga is obviously the same throughout.
90
 LINGAS.

The Mayamata gives the widths of the various

lingas in greater detail.
The central shrines of Hindu temples are
roughly divided according to their ground plans
and superstructure into three classes, namely, the
Nāgara, the Drāvida, and the Vēsara classes.
The width of the linga to be set up in the
central shrine of the Nāgara variety
of the Nagara is given in the Mayamata as
Lingas.
follows : divide the total length of
the linga, (which itself depends upon the length of
one side of the central shrine), * into sixteen equal
parts : the widths of the linga that is to be set up
in it might be 5, 4 or 3 of these parts. The one
with a width of five parts is known as the Jayada

* The central shrines of all Śiva temples are square in

plan. The length of the adhamadhama or the most inferior
linga that might be set up in the Någara type of central sbring
is .5 of the length of one side of the central shrine and that
of the Uttamóttama or the most superior linga is .6. Between
these two extreme limits are seven varieties of lingas, the
adhama-madhyama, adhamõttama ; madhyamadhama, madh
yama -madhyama, madhyamőttama ; uttamādhama and uttama
madhyama ; these have lengths obtained by adding a seventh
part of the difference in length between the uttamóttama and
the adhamadhama varieties, which in the case of the Nāgara
temples is .1.
91
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

or the victory -bestowing variety ; that with a width

of four parte is of the Pāushtika or the strength
bestowing variety and that of a width of three
parts, the Sārvakāmika or the all -desires -bestowing
variety.
In the case of the lingas to be set up in the
Of Dravida Drāviņa form of central shrines,
Lingas.
the following rule gives their
widths: divide the total length of the linga * into
twenty -one equalparts :the linga whose width is six
of these parts is called the Jayada linga ; that
whose width is five parts is Paushţika and that
whose width is four parts is Sārvakāmika.
The Jayada, Paushţika and Sarvakāmika
Of Vasara lingas set up in the Vēsara class of
Lingas.
central shrines have the following
proportions : if the total length of the lingat is
* The length of the Uttamóttama class of the linga set up
in the Drāvida temple is 13/21, part of the length of one side
of the central shrine ; that of the adhamādhama is 10/21 and
the difference is 3/21 or 1/7. Dividing this difference into
seven equal parts and adding one, two, etc., of these latter
smaller parts to the length of the adhamādhama linga we
obtain the seven varieties of lingas of intermediate lengthg.
The lengtb of the Uttamóttama linga of the Võsara type
of the garbha -griha is 16/25 of the side of the central shrine; that
of the adhamādhama, 13/25 and the difference in their lengths
is 3/25 ; this difference is divided into seven equal parts ; by the
92
 LINGAS.

divided into twenty - five equal parts, the width of

the Jayada linga is eight parts ; that of the
Paushţika, seven parts ; and of the Sārvakāmika ,
six parts.
A few of the lingas described above are drawn
to scale and are reproduced on Pl. VI ; it might be
noticed that they have different types of tops, some
resembling a half -moon ; some, the top of an
umbrella and others, shaped like the egg. The
process of rounding of these tops is technically
known as the making of the sirõvarttana . Minute
rules are laid down for producing the various tops,
about which it is necessary to give here a brief
account.
The tops of lingas are of several kinds, the most
The tops of important of which are five, accord
Lingas .
ing to the Mayamata, and four
according to the Siddhāntasārāvaļi. They are
named respectively chhaträkāra , tripushākāra,
kukkuțāņdākāra, arddha -chandräkāra and bud
buda -sadrisa meaning the umbrella -shaped, the cu
cumber-shaped, the egg -shaped, the half-moon
shaped and the bubble -like respectively. The
last named variety has been omitted by the
Siddhantasārāvaļi, probably because its author is
addition of one, two, etc., of these smaller parts to the adhamă .
dhama variety we get seven lingas of intermediate lengths.
93
 in

JUUD
10

9
PLATE VI .

I-B
8 27

1"

4
23
LADHYA
-. INGA -LINGA
-L..ANĀDHYA
SURĒDHYA SARV
L.- ASAMA
.
AB
SECTION
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

inclined to include it in the arddha - chandrākāra

class. These different forms represent different
conic sections and the rules relating to their
formation are of greater interest to the mathemati
cian than to the iconographer; they are of great
use to the sculptor. These rules would help an
investigation into the various curves known to the
Hindus and furnish some materials for the study of
the History of Hindu mathematics. As these
rules are extremely minute and are not quite easy
to understand they have been omitted here ; but the
original texts have been inserted in the appendix
for the benefit of those who can make any use of
them .

There is yet one more detail in the making of

Brahma -sutras . a linga, without which the linga
does not become complete and fit
for worship ; it is the tracing of certain lines known
as the brahma- sūtras on the linga. Two vertical
lines are engraved on the surface of the Rudrabhāga
(or the pājābhāga, as it is often referred to in the
Agamas). The length of these lines* should be, ac
cording to the Siddhāntasārāvaļi, determined by the

* These lines are called by the name of lakshanoddhārana

in Mayamata ; manirēkhā, pārsva -sútra, sto., are also other
names of those.

94
 PLATE VII .

camente
regulacan MWWMWMMOJA
TANO

sAsbţõstara
2.ata
.-Fig
Linga Trairāśika
Fig
1.
.Linga Mukbalinga
3.
.Fig
 LINGAS.

following rule : divide the length of the pūjābhāga

of the linga into three equal parts : divide further
the two lower parts into eight equal divisions : now
the distance between the two parallel vertical lines
should be one of these smaller divisions ; the thick
ness and depths of the lines, should be one -ninth
of this division : two lines are to be traced, one on
either side, which should begin from near the tops
of the vertical lines, descend sloping down and
removed farther and farther from the central
double parallel lines until they reach a distance
which is two divisions from the lowest portion of
the pūjābhāga ; then the two sloping side-lines,
(pārsva sūtras), should be traced in a horizontal
plane so as to meet each other at the back. (See
fig. 1, Pl. VI, PI . VII and fig. 1, Pl. X ). The two
central vertical parallel lines should be joined at
their tops by a curved line whose curvature should
resemble that of the top or (siras) of the linga.
Among the Mānusha -lingas are included five
more varieties, namely, the Ash
TheAshtottara
sata Linga. țõttara -sata -linga, the Sahasra
linga, the Dhāra -linga, the Sai
vēshtyalinga and the Mukha linga. Of these, the
first, the ashtottara-sata - linga or the 108 minia
ture lingas are required to be carved on the pājā
bhāga of the Surēdbya linga. They are produced
95
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

by cutting four equidistant horizontal deep lines

on the surface of the pūjābhāga ; at right angles to
these and parallel to the axis of the linga are to be
carved twenty -seven deep lines. The portions of
the surface of the main linga formed by the inter
section of the vertical and horizontal lines are
small oblongular blocks, which are later on shaped
into the form of the pūjābhāga of the ordinary
lingas by rounding the sides and the top. Thus
are formed a hundred and eight lingas ( practically
half -lingas) attached on the back to the main linga
(See fig. 2, Pl. VII, and fig. 1, Pl. VIII).
The Sahasra -linga is obtained in exactly the
same manner as the ashtottara
The Sahasra śata -linga. The carving of the
Linga ,
thousand and one lingas should be
done on the surface of the pūjābhāga of an Adhya
linga. In the case of the Sahasra -linga the hori
zontal lines are eleven and the vertical lines ninety
nine (See fig. 2, Pl . VIII).
The Dhārā -lingas are lingas, the pūjābhāga
of which has round it vertical
The Dhara fluted facets ranging from five to
Linga.
sixty - four in number. The Supra
bhēdāgama prescribes 5, 7, 9, 12, 16, 20, 24 and 28
facets for Dhārā lingas, while the Kāraṇāgama
mentions only 16 facets. But the Mayamata lays
96
 PLATE VIIL
Tiruvorriyūr
1.-.:
Stone:
Linga
sata
Ashtottara
Fig Sahasra
2.:-,
Fig.
Linga
Stone
Tiruvcrriyūr
 PLATE IX .

.1.tone
SFig
:Mukhalinga oMukbalinga
.Stone
.:2Fig
,Kistrict
DCharchoma
.:Motale
arwar M arwar
District
.,:Jodhpur
Chakodi
 LINGAS.

down the rule that the number of facets in the

Brahmabhāga, the Vishnubhāga and the Rudra
bhāga should be either 4, 8 and 16 ; 8, 16 and 32 ;
or 16, 32 and 64 respectively. The text of the
Kāmikāgama is corrupt and hence what rule it
lays down on this point is unintelligible. The
Dhārālingas should be made out of the Sarvasama
lingas.
The Mukhalinga is one of the varieties of
The Mukhalinga.
Mānusha-lingas and is distinguish
ed from all other lingas in that it
bears one or more human faces sculptured on it.
Regarding the making of a Mukhalinga all the
Agamas and Tantras have detailed descriptions.
The substance of these is that a Mukhalinga should
be made on the pūjābhāga of the Sarvasama-linga
and that it might have one, two, three, four or five
faces corresponding to the five aspects, Vāmadēva,
Tatpurusha, Aghora, Sadyojāta and īsāna, of Śiva.
If the central shrine has only one door-way in its
front or the east side, there should be carved only
one face and that on the front side of the linga
facing the door-way (See fig. 1 , Pl. IX ) ; if it has
two door -ways one in front and the other at the
back of the central shrine, that is, on the eastern and
western sides, there should be two faces carved on
the front and back of the linga ; there should be three
97
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

faces on the linga, if there are three door -ways, that

is, on all sides except the west (See fig. 2, Pl. IX) ; if,
lastly, there are four doorways, there should be four
faces or five ; in the former case, the faces are turn
ed in the four directions of the quarters ; in the
latter case, in addition to the four faces, there is to
be one on the top of the linga and facing the east.
The īsāna aspect of Śiva is represented by the face
on the top of the linga ; the Tatpurusha, by that
facing the east, the Aghora, by that facing the
south ; the Sadyõjāta, by that facing the west and
the Vāmadēva, by that facing the north . In the
case of the four faces carved on the four sides of
the Mukhalinga they sbould be attached to bodies
which ought to be represented only as far as the
chest (stana-sūtra) (See fig. 3, Pl. VII, Pl. XI and
Fig. 2, Pl . X). Each of these figures should have
only one pair of arms and be fashioned in all other
respects in conformity with the rules laid down for
the making of images.
From the descriptions of the Mānusha lingas
given above, it is easily seen that the symbol repre
sents a phallic emblem , of which the part project
ing above the pītha is the representation of the
memtrum virile and the brahmasūtra makes of
the nut from the shaft and the rounded top com
pletes its likeness to the human phallus. The
98
 PLATE X.

R. til

Fig. 1 . Fig. 2. Mukbalinga : Marble : Nasik .

1
Fig. 3. Dbārā-linga : Stone : uiruvorriyur.
PLATE XI .

Mukhalinga : Stone. Joti, (Cuddapah District.)

 LINGAS.

Brahmabhāga and the Vishnubhāga are only de

signed to fix the linga firmly in the pedestal. Of
the component parts of the pūtha, that slab of stone
with a square hole, in which the square portion of
the linga fits in and which forms the lower
meinber of the pitha, prevents its rotation . The
second slab with an octagonal hole in it and which
is the second or upper member of the pătha restricts
the vertical motion of the linga.
Lingas are almost always set up in pedestals
known as the pindikās or pīthas.
Pithas.
These may be square, oblongular,
octogonal, elongated octagon, hexagon, elongated
Forms of the hexagon, duodecagon, elongated
plans of pithas
duodecagon, 16 sided, regular or
elongated, circular, elliptical, triangular and semi
circular, in plan. - In a square pătha, which is the
(1) . The Mānasära lays down the rule that the form of
the pitha that should be used in the Nāgara, Drāvida and Vēsara
forms of vimānas (central shrines ) is the nāgara , drāvida and
vēsara respectively and it defines that the nāgara pitha is square;
thedrāvida pitha, octagonal and the vēsarapitha ciroular in plan .
कुर्यात्तु नागरे लिङ्गपीठं नागरमेव च ।
द्राविडे द्राविडं प्रोक्तं वेसरे वेसरं तथा ॥
धारालिङ्गं तु सर्वेषां धारापीठं प्रकल्पयेत् ।
* * * * *

नागरं चतुरनं स्यादष्टानं द्राविडं तथा ।

वृत्तं च वेसरं प्रोक्तमेतत्पीठाकृतिस्तथा ॥
99
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Length of the one commonly met with , the length

side of
pithas .
of one side of it may be twice
the length of the pūjābhāga , or
equal to the total length of the linga ; in other
words two-thirds of or equal to the total length of
the linga. The pītha, the length of whose side is
equal to the total length of the linga is said to
belong to the Uttamõttama class and that whose
side is equal to two -thirds the total length of the
linga, adhamādhama. Dividing the total length
of the linga into twenty -four equal parts, the
following classification of the pithas is obtained.
Adhamadhama pitha's side 16 parts.
Adhamamadhyama 19 17
Adhamõttama 18
Madhyamādhama 99 19
Madhyamamadhyama ,, 20
Madhyamõttama 21
Uttamadhama 19 22
Uttamamadhyama 23
Uttamöttama 24

Or, dividing the total length of the linga into

32 parts, the nine above-mentioned varieties are
obtained by taking the same number of parts as in
the above case ; then the Uttamóttama variety of
pātha has a side whose length is, three -fourths of
the total length of the linga and the adhamadhama
variety, one-half of the total length of the linga.
100
 .
16

141 14
12

A
WOW 12 MUMMLUNILMUIM
12
10 MAINITO 11 ‫ل‬ 10
10 10

9
9 ‫الاحتلاله‬ 8
EMMUMNOU
8 8

6
4

2ม

.1

-BHA
.P ĪTHDRA
A VAJRA
P
.- ADMA ŚR HA ARA
P-. ITIK .- ADMA
PPITHA
.

.
DE
AT
ELEVATION

с
CD
.AT
ELEVATION
END

SECTION
.AB
PLATE XII

'B
 LINGAS.

The length of a side of the pītha may also be

equal to three times the diameter of the linga or
equal to the periphery of the pājābhāga or equal
to the periphery of the Vishnubhāga.
The height of the pitha may come up as far
as the upper end of the Vishņu
The height of bhāga of the linga ; or it might
the pitha
cover up the pūjābhāga to a height
equal to a quarter or even half the height of the
Vishnubhāga. These pīthas are made of one, two
or three slabs of stones placed one over another
and they are shaped with various kinds of orna
mental mouldings which are arranged in tiers one
over another. They are named according to the
number and form of the different
Kinds of pithas. kinds of mouldings as Bhadrapi
tha, Mahāmbuja -P., Śrīkara- P ., Vikara-P., Mahā
vajra - P ., Saumyaka -P ., Śrīkāmya-P., Chandra- P.,
and Vajra - P . The various items of the mould
ings are known as upāna, jagati, kumuda, padma,
kampa, kantha, pattikā, nimna and ghệitavāri.
Drawings made to scale of a few of the pīthas are
given on Pl. XII. The upper surface of the pitha
from which the pūjābhāga of the
Nala or the
water - courga . linga juts out is so shaped as to
allow a free flow of water towards

the water spout, which is generally found attached

101
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

to the side of the pītha on the left of the linga, as the

worshipper faces it. (See the plan and section
of a pītha reproduced on Pl . XII) . The length
of this water spout or water -course which is known
in Sanskrit as the nāļa, as also its width at its
origin , is required to be one -third or one -fourth
of the length of the side of the pītha, and its breadth
at the free end, three-fourths of its breadth at the
origin. The side view of the nāļa should be like the
lip of an elephant. ( See the end elevation at C.D.,
Pl. XII ).
The linga should be made out of pum -silā or
the male stone, while the pindikā or pītha of strī
śilā or female stone. A very elaborate dissertation
on the male , the female or the neuter nature of
stones, timber, and other objects, is given in all
āgamas, but it is perhaps unnecessary to detail
their descriptions here.

102
LINGODBHAVAMURTI , CHAN
DRASEKHARAMURTI , PASU
PATAMURTI AND RAUDRA
PASUPATAMURTI.
 LINGODBHAVAMŪRTI AND CHANDRA
ŚEKHARAMŪRTI.

HAAVING described the various forms of lingas,

let me now proceed to a description of the
Lingõdbhavamūrti. This is one of the common
icons in Southern India, which according to the
Agamas is required to be placed in the niche in the
western wall of the garbha - gļiha or the central
shrine. Śiva is said to have appeared in the form
of a blazing pillar of immeasurable size to quell the
pride of Brahmā and Vishậu. The story, which is
almost identically given in the Linga - purāņa, the
Kūrma-purāņa, the Vāyu -purāņa and the Śiva
purāna , runs as follows :-Vishņu at the end of a
kalpa was slumbering on the deep abyss of waters ;
a great illumination occurred then near Vishņu and
from it emerged Brahmā. Brahmā saw before him
another person Vishņu ; Brahmā approached Vishņu
and introduced himself to Vishņu as the creator
of the whole universe and demanded of Vishņu
who he was; to which Vishņu replied that he was
105
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

also the architect of the universe. Brahmā could

not brook the statement of Vishņu and a quarrel
ensued between them both. At this juncture there
appeared a linga resembling the great cosmic fire,
with hundreds of tongues of flames blazing out of it.
Instead of quarrelling with each other Brahmā and
Vishņu set about to find out the top and bottom res
pectively of this huge mass of fire, for which pur
pose the former assumed the form of a swan ( hamsa )
and flew up in the air ; while the latter took the
form of a boar and burrowed down into the earth.
The attempt of these two gods to discover the
reality and measure of this fiery pillar proved futile .
They then came to realise that there certainly was
something far greater than themselves ; whose top
or bottom they could not find out : thus humiliated
they approached this pillar of fire and began to
praise it. Pleased with their prayers Śiva mani
fested himself to them in the body of this fiery linga
with a thousand arms and legs, with the sun , the
moon and the fire as his three eyes, bearing the bow
called the pināka, clad in the hide of an elephant,
carrying the triśūla, wearing the yajñopavīta made
of snakes and with a voice resembling the rum
bling of the clouds or the noise of the drum,
addressed Brahmā and Vishịu thus : — “ You both
are born from me, Brahmā having come from my
106
 LINGODBHAVAMŪRTI.

right loin and Vishņu from the left loin ; all three
of us are really one, but are now separated into
three aspects, namely, Brahmā, Vishņu and Mahēš
vara. Brahmā will in the future be born of Vishņu
and at the beginning of a kalpa, I myself will be
born from the angry brow of Vishņu. ” Thus dec
laring, Mahāśvara disappeared. From this time the
linga came to be worshipped by all men.
While searching for the top of the pillar of fire,
Brahmā came by a petal of the këtaki flower and
asked it wherefrom it was descending ; to this the
petal answered that it was falling from the head of
Mahāśvara, for what length of time it could not
remember. Taking hold of this petal, Brahmā
descended and lied to Vishậu that he had discovered
the head of Mahēśvara and from it had brought
this petal of the kētaki flower. For uttering this
piece of falsehood Brahmā was cursed not to receive
any worship from men on earth . Hence, it is
stated , Brahmā is never enshrined in a separate
temple and offered worship.
In the Amśumadbhēdāgama is found the follow
ing description of the Lingõdbhavamūrti: The
figure of Śiva in the aspect of Chandrasēkharamūrti
should be carved on the front of a linga. It is
stated in the Kāraṇāgama that one- fifth part of
the linga should be left out on the top and at the
107
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

bottom respectively without any sculpture. The

legs below the knees of the figure of Chandra
śēkhara carved on the linga should be invisible,
that is, should be left unsculptured. On the right
of the linga and near its top Brahmā should be
represented in the shape of a swan (hamsa ) while
Vishņu should be carved in the form of a boar
on the left at the foot of the linga. The figures
of Brahmā and Vishậu should be sculptured on
the right and left respectively of the linga and
also facing it, with two hands held on the chest in
the añjali pose. The colour of the figure of Śiva
should be red, that of Vishịu black and that of
Brahmā golden yellow. Over and above this de
scription, a few additional details are found in the
Kāmikāgama. The size of the swan, it is stated,
should be the same as that of the face of Śiva, while
that of the boar, twice that of the face of Śiva. The
figure of the boar should be worked out as digging
into the earth. The figures of Vishņu and Brahmā
should be expressive of submission and be sculptured
beautifully ; or they may be altogether omitted from
the panel; in this latter case, the swan and the
boar should necessarily be there. The ſilparatna
adds that Śiva should carry the śūla in one of his
hands ; whereas, the Kāraṇāgama requires that of
the four hands, one should be in the abhaya pose,
108
 LINGODBHAVAMŪRTI .
another in the varada pose, a third should carry
the parašu and the fourth a krishņa -mriga (a black
buck) and that the digit of the moon (chandra
kalā) should adorn the crown of Śiva. Such is the
description of the Lingodbhavamūrti, which is
illustrated with three pictures. The first photograph
(Pl. XIII) is that of the Lingõdbhavamūrti found
in the Kailāsānāthasvāmin temple at Conjeevaram
and is over twelve hundred years old. This piece of
sculpture is very much at variance with the textual
descriptions. The figure of Śiva -Chandrasēkhara
has eight arms of which some are seen carrying the
parašu , the śūla, an akshamālā and some other
objects, while one is held in the abhaya pose and
another is resting upon the hip (katyavalambita ).
Then again the one- fifth part of the linga on the
top is not left unsculptured, nor is the part of the
linga lower than the knees of the figure of Śiva,
equal to a fifth of the total length of the linga.
But the sculpture agrees with the Sanskrit texts
in that the legs of Śiva below the knees are left
out unsculptured ; the digit of the moon is shown
on the crown of Śiva ; the boar- avatāra of Vishņu,
with four hands out of which two are shown as
digging the earth and the other two as carrying the
sankha and the chakra, and not an ordinary boar,
as stated in the Agamas, is carved out at the bottom

109
PLATE XINI

Lingõabhavamūrti : Stone :
Kailāsanātbasvāmin Tem le : Conjeevaram .
mittco
PLATE XIV .

SLingõjbhavam
1:Fig
. .tone ūrti Lingod
S2.: .tone bhavamúrti
Fig
.: llora
ECave
Daśāvatāra MAmbar
.- āgāļam
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

space of the panel ; Brahmā is seen flying in the air

in his own form instead of as a swan ; one of his legs,
as also that of the other deities on the left of the
linga, is horizontal, while the figures of Brahmā and
Vishņu each having four arms are sculptured on the
right and left of the linga ; they have each one arm
lifted up in the pose of praising, while the other
rests upon the hip, and the remaining ones carry
their characteristic weapons. The top of the niche
has got a highly artistically carved makara -tõraņa.
The second photograph , Fig. 2., Pl. XIV, re
presents the Lingõdbhavamūrti in the temple of
Śiva at Ambar Māgāļam . In this, the linga has a
wreath of flowers thrown over its top ; the figure of
Śiva is shown with four arms, one of which is held
in the abhaya pose, the other in the katyavalambita
pose (resting upon the hip), and the remaining two
carry the parašu and the black buck. The legs
of the figure of Śiva below the knees and up to the
ankles are not sculptured in accordance with the
rules laid down in Agamas; the feet alone are kept
hidden in the linga. On the right ofthelinga and on
its top is to be seen the swan whose beak is promi
nently visible ; below and on the left of the linga is
to be seen the boar, half man and half beast,
burrowing the earth . This piece of sculpture belongs
to the mediaeval Choļa period, that is, to the
11th or 12th century A.D.
110
 LINGODBHAVAMŪRTI.
The third picture, (Fig. 1 , XIV ) , is a pen and
ink sketch of the Lingõdbhavamūrti from the Daśā
vatāra Cave at Ellora. The whole panel is a remark
able piece of artistic work ; it consists of the blazing
pillar of fire at the centre, with the figure of Śiva
emerging from the middle of it, having one hand in
the abhaya pose, another resting on the hip, while
the others are carrying perhaps the paraśu and
mriga ( deer). Since Śiva is said in some purāṇas to
have presented himself before Brahmā and Vishņu as
a flaming pillar (the Skambha of the Atharvaņa
vēda ), the artist has shaped the linga like a pillar
with a capital. Flames are bursting out in tongues
on both sides of the pillar. Brahmā with four faces
is seen flying in the air, and Vishņu as Varāba is
digging the earth with his hands and snout. On
the right and left are seen Brahmã and Vishịu
respectively standing in a reverential attitude, with
two hands clasped in the añjali pose and the other
two carrying the characteristic objects such as the
śankha, the chakra, the kamandalu, etc. , of these
two deities. The details in this sculpture are
executed in the most exquisite manner . It might
be observed that in all these cases, the figure of Śiva
is enclosed in a lenticular aperture on the surface of
the linga .

111
 CHANDRAŚĒKHARAMŪRTI.
HE name Chandrasēkharamūrti implies an
THEimage which has Chandra (the moon ) as its
head -ornament. How Śiva came to possess snakes
on his body, the black buck and the parasu in his
General charac
hands, the Apasmāra - purusha or
teristics of the the demon under his feet, to wear
images of Siva.
the skins of the lion and the tiger
on his loins and the skull and the moon tucked
up in his crown is described in the Suprabhēdāgama
thus :-When Śiva was passing by the slopes of the
mountain Mēru without any garments, the wives of
the Rishis fell in love with him and lost their
chastity. The Rishis, wild with rage, performed
incantations to kill Śiva, the seducer of their wives ;
from their ceremonial ground there came snakes, a
krishna -mriga, an Apasmāra -purusha, a parašu, a
bull, a tiger, a lion and several other things. For
destroying Śiva all these were discharged by the
Rishis against him. The latter took into his bands
113
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

for his sports the black-deer, the snakes and the

parašu ; the Apasmāra -purusha was trampled under
his feet and is always serving him as a foot-stool ;
the lion and the tiger were killed by Śiva and their
skins worn by him as his garments, while the skull
and the digit of the moon were placed on his
jațāmakuța as ornaments. The Suprabhēdāgama
adds further that all figures of Śiva should have the
following characteristics, namely, three eyes, four
arms, the crescent moon, the dhurdhura flowers,
(dātura), snakes on the crown (jațāmakuța), the
tiger-skin garment, the hāra , the kēyūra, yajño
pavita and kundalas adorning his person. Special
figures of Śiva may have other objects about them
than those mentioned just now.

In addition to these, other characteristic fea

tures of the images of Śiva are given in a manus
cript added at the end of the ſilparatna whose
name is not known. It is stated therein that the
colour of the figure of Śiva, if it is painted on a
wall, should be white or of the red colour of the sun
or golden yellow. The image should possess high
shoulders, long arms and eyes like the petals of the
lotus ; there should be three waist zones or kați
sūtras. The appearance of the figure of Śiva should
be that of a youth of sixteen years of age, with a
114
 CHANDRASEKHARAMŪRTI.

blue throat, handsome countenance, and wearing

kundalas in theears ; the neck should be somewhat
stout. The figure may have four, eight, ten , sixteen
or eighteen arms. The image is said to be a śānta
mūrti or pacific in nature, when it has four arms :
in this case, of the four arms two should carry the
triśūla, and the damaru, while the remaining two
should be kept in the varada and the abhaya poses.
If the image has eight arms—it is not mentioned
in the text in what aspect Śiva should have eight
arms) -it should carry all the objects which are in
the hands of the image of Siva with ten arms, except
the khadga and the khēțaka. The image of Śiva,
when he is in the act of killing the Gajāsura , should
have ten arms; when it has ten arms, the right
hands should carry an akshamālā, a sword, the
śaktyāyudha, the danda and the śūla ; whereas the
left hands should carry the khatvānga , a snake, a
skull, the khēțaka and the deer. Śiva in the act
of destroying the three -castle ( Tripura -dahana)
should possess sixteen arms. In this instance, the
following six objects should be carried in addition
to those mentioned in connection with the image
of Śiva with ten arms; namely, the bâņa, the
chakra and the gadā in the right hands and the bow ,
a bell and the sankha in the left hands. In the
aspect of Bhairava, Śiva has eighteen arms; the
115
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

additional hands hold the damaru and the

Sankha ( ?)*

महादेवं प्रवक्ष्यामि यथा लेख्यस्स भित्तिषु ।

शुक्लोऽर्करश्मिसङ्काशस्तप्तस्वर्णनिभोऽपि वा ॥
उन्नतांसो महावाहुः कमलायतलोचनः ।
द्वीपिचर्मपरीधानवृत्तर्णघो (?) रुमण्डलः ॥
केयूरहारसंपन्नः कटिसूत्रत्रयान्वितः ।
नवेन्दुकलिता( का ?)क्रान्तनवजूटविराजितः ॥
भ्राजितः फालनेत्रेण नागाभरणभूषितः ।
द्यष्टवत्सरदेशीयो नीलकण्ठो मनोहरः ॥
कुण्डली पीनगण्डस्स्यादष्टभिर्बाहुभिर्युतः ।
दशभिर्बाहुभिर्वाथ भुजैष्षोडशभिः क्वचित् ॥
अष्टादशभुजं क्वापि चतुर्बाहुरथापि वा ।
ते शस्त्राणि प्रवक्ष्यामि भुजेषु च यथाक्रमम् ॥
अक्षमालामार्स शक्ति दण्डं शूलं च दक्षिणे ।
खट्वाङ्गं भुजगं चैव कपालं खेटकं तथा ॥
परुणं ( हरिणं ?) च तथा हस्ते वामभागे निवेशयेत् ।
गजासुरवधेनाढ्ये बाहुभिर्दशभिर्युतः ॥
पुरत्रयस्य दहने भुजैष्षोडशभिर्युतः ।
बाणं चक्रं गदां चैव दक्षिणेऽभ्यधिकं भवेत् ॥
धनुश्चैव तथा घण्टा शङ्ख वामेऽधिकं भवेत् ।
दशपूर्वा भुजाः प्रोक्का षोडशैवं निरूपिताः ॥
स्व (१) श्च भैरवाकारे बाहवोऽष्टादश स्मृताः ।
डमरुं च तथा शङ्खमधिकं तु प्रकल्पयेत् ॥
त्रिशूलं डमरुं चैव वरदं चाक्षमालिकाम् ।
चतुर्बाहोर्महेशस्य शान्तमूर्तेस्समालिखेत् ॥
116
 CHANDRASEKHARAMŪRTI.
The Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama states that the figures
of ſiva in the Bhiksbātana, the Kankāļa, the
Haryarddha, the Arddhanārīśvara, the Sukhāsana,
the Kāmāntaka and the Dakshiņāmūrti aspects
should not have near them the figure of the Dēvi;
while in all other aspects the Dēvi should be found
near Śiva. The height of the figure of the Dāvi,
in company with that of her consort Śiva, should
be up to the ear of ſiva, if the figure of the Dāvi
is of the uttama class; up to his mouth, if of the
madhyama class, and up to his uplifted hand, if of
the adhama class.
The colour, according to the Kāraṇāgama, of
the Nșittamũrti, of the Kaikāļamūrti and of the
Dakshiņāmūrti is to be white ; while that of all
other aspects of Śiva, coral red.
The image of Chandraśēkharamūrti is divided
into three classes, namely, the KĒvalamūrti, the
Umāsahitamūrti and the Ālinganamurti. All these
three classes are usually found in the temples of
Southern India and their descriptions are contained
in all Āgamas. For instance, the Amśumadbhēdā
gama says that the Kēvalamūrti
Kevala -murti.
should have one of his right hands
अन्यस्य दशहस्तस्य भवेयुर्हेतयः क्रमात्
अष्टबाहोर्महेशस्य न स्यातां खड्गखेटकौ ॥
(शिल्परत्नसंयोजिते कस्मिंश्चिद् प्रन्ये )
117
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

held in the abhaya pose, one of his left hands in the

varada pose, the other right hand should carry the
tanka and the remaining left hand a black buck ;
Śiva should be standing erect, without any bends in
his body, that is, in the attitude known as sama
bhanga . He should be shown as wearing on his head
a jațāmakuta ornamented with a crescent moon ;
also, he should have three eyes, a beautiful face, and
be adorned with all ornaments ; he should be clad
in yellow garments ( pītāmbara ), the ends of which
should descend as far below as the knees, while the
bigger folds should pass between the two legs. If
the hand held in the varada pose happens to be
completely stretched out as in fig 5, Pl. V. of
Vol. I, it should be kept so as to make the wrist
reach the height of the hip, while the tips of the
fingers should reach the mēąhramūla -sūtra. If the
hand has its fingers slightly bent, as in fig. 4,
on the same plate, the back of the hand should be
raised as far as the nābhi-sūtra. The samabhanga
attitude is expressive of the rājasa -guņa of the
image. The deer and the tanka should be held in
the hands kept in the kartari -hasta pose ; and the
deer may be facing the figure of Śiva or be away
from it. The crescent of the moon may be attached
to the right or the left of the jațāmakuța. The
colour of the figure of Śiva should be red .
118
 CHANDRAŚÉKARAMŪRTI .
To the above description, the Uttara -kāmikā
gama adds, that the right front hand may be held
in the simhakarņa, kațakahasta or the katyavalam
bitahasta pose. The two back hands which are
held in the kartari -hasta pose should not go higher
than the hikkā -sūtra, that is, above the shoulders
and the tops of the țarka and the mriga, higher
than the karņa-sūtra or the ear. While the deer
might face the figure of Śiva or be away from
it, the head of the tanka should always be turned
away from it. In the left ear of the image of Śiva
Chandraśēkhara there should be either the ear
ornament named the ratna -kundala, the śarkha
patra or the padma-patra ; whereas in the right
ear there may be either the ornament named the
makara-kundala, the simha -kundala, or the patra
kundala. The curls of hair should hang at the
back as far down as the ear, while the jațās or
the braids or plaits of hair should hang on the
right and left of the image as far as the shoulders.
The figure of Chandraśēkhara should be orna
mented with several pearl necklaces (muktāhāra)
and jewelled necklaces (ratnahāras), with well
designed medallions (padakas) attached to them ;
and there should also be yajñopavīta and the
chhanna vīra and udarabandhana. Besides, there
should be kêyūras and other bracelets (katakas) on
119
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the arms ; and the fingers should be adorned with

rings and the waist with a zone, and the ankles
with anklets. The figure of Chandrasēkhara should
be standing upon a padma -pitha.
The second variety of Chandraśākharamūrti
is, as we have mentioned above, known as the
Umāsahitamūrti. If the image
Uma- s a hita -
murti. of Chandraśēkhara has that of the
Dēvi by his side, either on the
same pedestal (pitha ) or a different one, it is said
to be Umā-sahitamūrti, or Chandrasēkhara with
Umā.
The third variety of Chandrasēkharamūrti is
known as the Alingana-mūrti. In this aspect,
Chandraśēkhara is to be represent
Alinganamurti.
ed as embracing the Dēvi with one
of his left arms : this arm might rest upon the left
side of the Dēvi just below her breast, or it may be
placed upon the left arm of the Dēví, outside
the pārsva -sūtra ; the Dēvi should keep in her
right hand a red lotus flower. Or, the right hand
of the Dēvi may embrace Śiva, in which case the
hand of the Dēvi should rest on the right side
of Śiva a little above the waist zone ; and the left
hand of the Dēvi should carry a flower. Or, the
two figures of Śiva and Umā may be embracing
each other, the one with the left and the other with
120
 CHANDRASEKARAMŪRTI.
the right hand. Thus there are three modes in
which the figure of Ālingana Chandrasēkhara may
be sculptured .
In all the above instances Chandrasēkhara
mūrti whether in company with his consort or not,
should have around him the prabhā -mandala. It
must also be noted that this image of Siva should
always be a standing one.
The Śrītatva -nidhi adds that the colour of
Śiva in this instance should be that of coral, while
the colour of Dāvi, black. The Dēví is bere said
to possess three eyes and is required to be standing
with three bends in her body ( tribhanga ); her right
leg should be planted firmly on the pedestal and the
left leg, slightly bent. She should carry in her
right hand the nīlotpala flower.
In illustration of the descriptions given above
ten photographs are given . The first, fig. 1 , Pl. XV
Tiruppālatturai in the Tanjore district. The artist
who produced this image of the Kēvala Chandra
sēkharamūrti has followed in every detail the
descriptions of the Agamas ; the image is standing
perfectly erect on a padma - pătha ; its varada -hasta
and the abhaya -hasta as also those carrying the
parašu and mriga are placed in the exact posi
tions required by the Agamas. In fact, the
soulptor is seen to exhibit in this piece of work such
121
 PLATE XV.

Fig
.1.handrasekharamūrti
:-CKēvala Fig
Umāsabita
C.2-: .handraśēkbaramūrti
TBronze
( iruppalattur
:.)Dtanjore ai garam
SABronze
.-: ettür
 PLATE XVI,

21 .

Kévala - Chandra sökbaramurti.

Wood : Õņukkur ( Travancore State).
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

scrupulous care to be true to the descriptions of

Agamas that he has subordinated his artistic
instinct, if he had it in any degree, and the result
is not quite pleasant. The long jatā -makuta and
the unhappy looking countenance of Śiva together
with its ill-shaped legs, stamp the work as being
really of an inferior kind. The second photograph,
Pl. XVI, is that of a figure of Kēvala Chandra
śēkharamūrti carved in wood. It is found in the
Bhagavati temple at āņakkūr in North Travan
core. The figure is about four feet in height. It
holds the paraśu and the mriga in the back right
and left hands respectively, while the front right
and left hands are in the varada and the abhaya
poses respectively. The ornaments and the drapery
of the image are carved out very elaborately. This
image is one of the best specimens of wood -carving
of the medieval period found in Travancore. The
third photograph, Pl . XVII, is of the Umāsahita
Chandraśēkharamūrti belonging to the Śiva temple
at Tiruvorriyūr near Madras. The rules of the
Agamas are very carefully carried out but not so as
to mar the beauty of the image ; the execution of
the work is excellent. The head of the parašu , it
will be observed, is turned away from the figure of
Śiva and the deer has its face turned towards Śiva.
The height of Umā comes up to the shoulders of
122
 PLATE XVII

Umāsahita - Chandrasēkharamurti ,
Bronze : Tiruyorriyūr.
 PLATE XVIII .

sCUmā
.1.ahita
-Fig
handrasekharamurti Fig
C-Alingana
.2.handraśēkbaramurti
Bronze
M:. adeour Stone
.M: āyavaram
 CHANDRASEKARAMŪRTI.
Śiva and the Dēvi is therefore of the adhama class.
Both the Dāva and the Dāvi are standing upon
padmāsanas as required by the Sanskrit texts. The
fourth is a photograph of the Umā -sahita -mūrti to
be found in the Śiva temple at Agaram Śēttūr (See
fig. 2., Pl. XV). In this case, the figures of Śiva and
Umā are standing each on a separate pedestal and
are each surrounded by a prabhāmaņdala of elabo
rate workmanship. The Dēvi has three bends in
her body and keeps in her right hand a nīlõtpala
flower. The figure of Śiva is almost similar to the
one first described ; the left hand, instead of being
held in the varada pose, is held in the simhakarņa
pose. The artistic merit of this group of images
is also far from excellent. Fig. 1, Pl. XVIII is
the photograph of the Umā-sahita-mūrti of the
temple at Madeour. This is a fine piece of
sculpture correctly conceived and very neatly
executed. In this group Śiva and Umā stand
on two padmapīthas which are fixed on a bhadra
pātha and are both surrounded by a single prabha
mandala.
The next photograph , fig. 2, Pl. XVIII, repre
sents the Ālingana-Chandraśēkhara to be found in the
Mayūranāthasvāmin temple at Māyavaram . Śiva,
in this piece of sculpture, carries in his two back
hands the parašu and the mriga, while he keeps the
123
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

front right hand in the abhaya pose. The front left

hand is carried behind the Dēvi and is resting on her
body below her breast. The Dēvi carries in her right
hand a flower. The figures of Śiva and Umā are both
shown with three bends in their bodies (tribhanga ).
This excellent piece of sculpture belongs to the
Chōļa, period (of approximately 10th or 11th Cent.
A.D. ) In the image of Pattīśvaram reproduced
as fig. 1, Pl . XIX , which resembles closely the
Kēvalamūrti of Tiruppālatturai ( fig. 1, Pl. XV), and
which appears to be the handiwork of the same
sculptor, has its left arm taken near the waist of the
Dēvi ; whereas in the sculptures of Marudāntanallur
and Kõvilūr, figs. 2 and 3 respectively of Pl. XIX ,
the left hand of Śiva rests upon the left shoulder
of the Dēvi - that is, about the pārsva -sūtra of the
figure of Dāvi. The original of the photograph of
the Ālingana Chandraśēkharamūrti reproduced on
Pl. XX, belongs to the Chālukya -Hoysala school and
comes from Angūr in the Bellary District and is an
extremely beautiful piece of art. The image of Siva
carries an akshamalā, a triśūla and a damaru in
three of its hands and the fourth is thrown over
the shoulder of the Dēvi ; the figure of Dāvi has its
right arm placed on the right shoulder of Śiva and
carries in its left hand a lotus flower. On the right
and the left, near the feet of Śiva and Umā
124
 a m e r

fo

.1
Fig .2Fig .3
Fig
CĀlinga nabókharamurti
-. handra -Chandrasekharamurti
.Ālingana .- han
CAli dra
nga nasekharamúrti
PLATE XIX .

:Pațţiśvaram
.Bronze MBronze
.: arudāotapallūr Bronze
.:Kõvilúr
 PLATE XX.
.

II

Alingana-Chandraśēkbara-murti .
Stone : Angūr : Bellary District.
HH
 CHANDRASEKARAMŪRTI.
respectively are seated their two sons, Ganapati on
the floor and Subrahmanya on his peacock . The
highest praise is due to the artist for the excellent
pose in which he has sculptured the two images, the
well- proportioned features of the male and female
figures, and the splendid effect they produce on the
observer.
Closely allied to the Chandraśēkharamūrti are
the Pāśupatamūrti and a slightly different aspect of
Pasupatamurti
it, the Raudrapāśupatamūrti. The
andRaudrapasu- Pāśupatamūrti should also be
patamurti.
standing erect ( samabhanga) as in
the case of the Chandraśēkharamữrti, should have
three eyes, four arms and hair standing on the head
upright on all sides, and a large well-proportioned
body. One of the right hands should be held in the
abhaya pose, while the other, should carry a śūla.
One of the left hands should be kept in the varada
pose and the remaining hand should carry anaksha
mālā . The figure must be decorated with all orna
ments ; and it must have a good look with a gentle
smile playing upon its lips. The Améumadbhēda
gama states that the image of Pāśupata -mūrti maybe
either standing or sitting, whereas the ſilparatna,
wants it to be a standing figure and substitutes the
kapāla in the place of akshamală in the above
description. According to the Ansumadbhēdāgama,
125
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

the Pāśupatamūrti is to be used for the daily

services (nityotsavas in temples).
If, in the above description of the Pāśupata
mūrti, the following alterations are made, it becomes
the Raudrapāśupatamūrti : The colour of the body
as also the eyes of the Raudrapāśupatamūrti is to
be fiery red, the image of this aspect of Śiva should
have sharp tusks, curling eye -brows, yajñopavīta
made of snakes, flaming head and red garments ; in
one of its hands there should be triśūla held head
downwards, and another hand should carry a kapāla.
Or, in the front hands must be held the triśūla in
a horizontal position and the other two hands
should hold the tanka and the sword . Meditating
upon this aspect of Śiva even once, destroys all
enemies, but this aspect should not be worshipped in
actual images, but in certain symbols such as a
pītha.

126
SUKHASANAMURTI, UMASAHI
TAMURTI, SOMASKANDA
MURTI AND UMAMAHES
VARAMURTI.
SUKHĀSANAMŪRTI, UMĀSAHITAMŪRTI,
SÕMĀSKANDAMŪRTI AND
UMĀMAHĒŚVARAMŪRTI.

T 'HEas four varieties of the images of Śiva known

the Sukhāsanamūrti, the Umāsahitamūrti,
the Sõmāskandamūrti and Umāmahāśvaramūrti are
usually met with in all Śiva temples which lay claim
to some importance in Southern India. Of these,
the Sukhāsanamūrti is described as
Sukhasana follows in the Silparatna, which is
murti,
practically the same as the descrip
tion given in all other authorities. The image of
Sukhasanamūrti is a seated figure with four arms,
three eyes, a very handsome appearance suggestive
of the rajāguna and of coral red complexion. The
image should be seated erectly upon a bhadra -pitha
with its left leg bent and resting upon the seat and
the right one hanging below it . It must be clad in
the skin of the tiger and also in silk garments ; in
its back right hand is to be the parašu, and in its
back left hand the mrīga ; the front right hand
should be held in the abhaya pose, while the front
129
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

left hand may be either in the varada or the

simhakarņa pose. In the right ear there should be
either a makara -kundala or a simha -kundala and
in the left ear, a patra -kundala ; or there may be
vritta-kuņďalās in both the ears. The head is
adorned with a jatāmakuța , the fore-arms with
kankaņas or bracelets shaped like serpents (sarpa
kankaņas) and the chest with yajñāpavīta ; besides
these, the image should be decorated with all other
ornaments. It is imperative that neither Dēvi nor
Skanda should be near the Sukhāsanamūrti. The
Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama differs from the above descrip
tion in one sinall detail, namely, it states that the
right leg of the image should be bent and be resting
upon the seat and the left one hanging.
When seated alone as described in the previous
paragraph, the image of Śiva is known as the
Sukhāsanamūrti. If the figure of the Dēvi is also
seated on the same seat by the side of the image
of Śiva and faces the latter, the group is known as
Uma-sabita- the Umāsahitamūrti . The posi
murti. tion of the Dēvi is to the left of
Śiva. She should have only two arms; in her right
hand she should keep a lotus flower, while she may
hold her left hand either in the simhakarņa pose or
keep it straight resting on the seat. Her head is
to be adorned with a karanda -makuța. The left
130
 SUKHĀSANAMŪRTI.

leg of the Dēvi should be hanging down the seat,

while the right one is to be bent and kept resting on
the seat. The ſilparatna states that the right hand
of the Dāví should keep an utpala flowerand the left
hand held in the varada pose, or the left hand
might rest on the pitha a little to the left of
the left thigh of the Dāvi, and that the colour of
the Dēvi should be grass-green. The Dāvi is re
quired to be adorned with all ornaments, hāras and
makuta and be clad in red silk garments. The
Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama adds that the figure of the
seated Dēvi should be as high as the shoulder of
that of Śiva. The aspect of Śiva and Umā seated
on the same seat and under the same prabha
mandala as described above is known as the Umā
sahitamūrti.
In the case of the Sõmāskandamūrti, the same
relative positions are maintained by the figures of
Śiva and Ūmā, but between these, there is the
additional figure of the child Skanda. The figure
of Skanda may be standing, sitting on the seat or
on the lap of Umādēvī, or dancing ; it should have
a single face with a pair of eyes and two arms ; and
be adorned with a karanda -makuța on the head,
nakra - kundalas in the ears, and chhannavīra on the
body. The child Skanda should have a waist zone
and bracelets. The figure of Skanda if it is standing
131
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

simply, may carry in its right hand a lotus

flower and keep the left hand hanging ; or the two
hands may keep lotus flowers in them ; or as the
Śilparatna would have it, the left hand should be
held in either the varada, or the simha -karņa pose
and the right hand carrying a book. There should
be no clothing on the person of the child Skanda.
If the figure of Skanda is represented as dancing,
it should carry in its left hand a fruit and the right
one should be kept in the sūchi pose ; or the left
hand might be kept stretched out and be without
the fruit .
The height of the figure of Skanda, says the
Uttara -Kāmikāgama, may vary from one-tenth to
four-tenths of the height of that of Śiva ; and
according to the Kāraṇāgama one -eighth to a
quarter of the height of Śiva. The ſilparatna
states that it should be as high as the bent hand
or the breasts of the Dāvi.
The Kārāṇāgama adds that the gods Brahmā
and Vishņu together with their respective consorts
should be standing on either side of the Sõmā
skandamūrti.
The Vishnudharmõttara and the Rūpaman
Umamahes đana give the description of the
varamurti, Umāmahāśvaramūrti. The former
authority states that in this aspect, the image of
132
 SUKHĀSANAMURTI.

Śiva and Umā should be seated on a seat,

embracing each other. Śiva should have the jațā
makuta on his head with the crescent moon stuck
in it ; he should have two arms, in the right one of
which there should be a nālātpala flower and the
left one should be placed in embrace on the left
shoulder of Umā. Umādēvi should have a hand
some bust and hip ; she should have herright hand
thrown in embrace on the right shoulder of Śiva
and should keep in her left hand a mirror. The
figures of Śiva and Umā should be sculptured very
beautifully.
The Rūpamaņdana informs us that Śiva
should have four arms and that in one of the right
hands there should be the triśūla and in the other
a mātulunga fruit (a kind ofcitron ) ;one of the left
arms should be thrown on the shoulder of Umā and
there should be a snake in the other left hand.
The colour of Śiva should be red like the coral.
The Dēvi should be as in the description of the
Vishnudharmõttara given above. There should be
in this group the Vrishabha or the bull of ſiva,
Gaņēša, Kumāra and a lean emaciated figure of the
rishi Bhringi dancing, all arranged in an artistic
composition.
Figs. 1 and 2, Pl. XXI, are to illustrate the
aspects known as the Umā-sahita -mūrti, as also
133
 :

PLATE XXI .

Sukhāsanamū
sUmā .abita
1.-Fig rti Sukbāsanamu
.abita
2.-sUmā
Fig rti
M
.Stone
: adeour ſēttur
A:. garam
Bronz e
 PLATE XXII .

Fig. 1. Sõināskandamurti. Bronze : Madeour.

Fig . 2. Somāskandamúrti .
Bronze : Treasure Trove found in Nellore.
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

the Sukhāsanamurti. If the Dēví were absent in

both the instances, the image of Śiva would have
passed for the Sukhāsanamūrti; as they are, they are
Umāsahita-murtis. In both the instances the
back right hand keeps the paraśu and the back left
hand, the mriga ; whereas the front right hand is in
the abhaya pose and the front left hand in the
simhakarņa pose. In the one case, the left hand
of the Dēvi is kept resting on the seat, whereas in
the other it is held in the simhakarņa pose. The
stone image is older than the bronze one. Figs. 1
and 2, Pl. XXII are two splendid pieces of sculp
ture; the first belongs to the ſiva temple at
Madeour and the second was recently discovered
as a treasure trove in Nellore. Both of them are
very good specimens of the Sõmāskanda -mūrti.
The textual descriptions are carried out with
scrupulous accuracy and the workmanship is
superb. In the first piece, the left hand of the
Dāvi rests on the pītha and in the second piece, it
is held in the varada pose. In both, the child
Skanda is in the dancing attitude, with both his
hands held in the simhakarna pose. Attention may
be drawn to the makara -kundala in the right
ear and the patra or vritta -kundala in the
left ear of siva in both the pieces of sculpture.
Illustrations beginning from Pl. XXIII to XXIX
134
 PLATE XXIII ,

Omamabośvaramurti: Stone :
Bāgaļi : Bellary District,
PLATE XXIV.

Umamahēs varamurti : Stone : Aibole.

 SUKHĀSANAMŪRTI.

represent Umāmahāśvaramūrti. Pl. XXIII is

the reproduction of the image at Bāgaļi in the Bel
lary District. In this, Umā is seated upon the
left lap of Śiva and has her right hand taken round
in embrace and resting upon the right side of the
chest of Śiva, and carries in her left hand a mātu
lunga fruit. The front right hand of Śiva is held
in the abhaya pose and the front left hand is
placed on the left shoulder of Umā. In the back
right and left hands are the triśūla and the damaru
respectively. The Dēvi wears on her head the
hair done up in a fine side -knot. On the prabhā
vaļi are sculptured minutely the figures of the ash
ţa -dik -pālas or the guardians of the eight quarters.
It should be noted that in this case the figures
of Gaņēša, Kumāra, the rishi Bhțingi and the
bull are not sculptured . Pl. XXIV is the
photograph of a piece of sculpture to be found in
Aihole. Here, Śiva is carrying in two hands
snakes, and in one hand the triśūla ; the remaining
hand embraces Umā and rests on her shoulder.
Umā keeps her right hand on the left thigh of Śiva ;
her other arm is broken . On the left side of the
seat on which Śiva and Umā are seated, is the
figure of the child Kumāra who seems to be holding
in his left hand three lotus flowers by their stalks
and keeping some fruit in the right one. Below
135
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY ,

the seat are two Apasmāra - Purushas and the

rishi Bhțingi. The figure of Gaņēśa which ought
to be on the right of Bhringi appears to be lost.
Pl. XXV is one of the very best pieces of ivory
carving executed in the School of Arts at Trivan
dram . The delicacy of the workmanship, the beauty
of the conception and execution, the grandeur of
the effect it produces are beyond praise. Śiva
is here represented as seated on a bhadrāsana under
a tree and carries the paraśu and the mrigo in his
back hands; he holds his front right hand in the
abhaya pose and embracing the Dāvi with his left
arm , keeps that hand in the varada pose. Umā is
embracing Śiva with her right hand and keeps in
her left one a lotus flower. There is a profusion
of snake ornaments - on the crown, in the ear
lobes, on the arms, and round the chest, of Śiva.
On the right and left are the two children of Umā,
the elder, Gaņapati, having an underwear and
the younger, Kumāra, standing naked. Gaņēša
has four arms in which he keeps the ankuśa, the
pāśa, the danta and the modaka and behind him
is his vehicle, the mouse . Kumāra has two arms ;
in the left of which he holds the sakti and with his
right arm he embraces the neck of his favourite
vehicle, the peacock. In front of the seat of Śiva ir
the seated figure of Nandi, the bull vehicle of ſiva
136
 PLATE XXV .

५५

Umamahēśvaramurti : Ivory : Trivandram School of Arts.

 PLATE XXVI .

Fig
SUmām
.1.tone
:bēśvaramūrti :Umāmabēśvaramūrti
SFig
.2.tone
,Dharwar
.Haveri
District ,Ajmere
Museum
.Ajmere
 SUKHĀSANAMŪRTI.

Fig. 1, Pl. XXVI, represents Umāmahāśvara as

found in the temple at Haveri. In this also
Umā is seated on the left lap of Śiva and embraces
him with her right hand, which rests upon the
right side of his body ; she appears to have held a
flower in her left hand, wbich is unfortunately broken.
Śiva carries in three out of the four of his hands the
śūla, the Qamaru and an akshamālā and the
remaining hand is thrown in embrace over the left
shoulder of Umā. Around Śiva and Umā is a nicely
carved prabhāvali with a creeper ornament; in each.
of the circular loops of the creeper is carved a dik
pāla . At the right extremity of the bhadrāsana on
which are seated Śiva and Umā is a tiny figure of
a seated Ganēśa with four arms, carrying as usual
the ankuśa, the pāśa, the danta and a mòdaka. In
front of him sits Nandi, the bull of Śiva. Corres
ponding to these, are to be seen on the left side of
the seat the figures of Kumāra with six heads seated
upon his peacock vehicle, and an alligator, the
vehicle of Umā-Pārvatí . The whole work is

executed very skilfully and tastefully.

Fig. 2, Pl. XXVI is another group almost
similar to the one described above. Śiva is, in this
sculpture, seen carrying a lotus, the śūla, and a
snake in three of his hands and the remaining
one is embracing Umã about her chest. Both Uma
137
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and Siva are wearing sankha -patra kundalas, that

is, sections of conch-shells. Round the head of
Śiva is a very well executed prabhā -mandala while
the hair of the head of Umā is fashioned into an
artistic knot behind . The Dēvį keeps her right hand
resting on the left foot of her lord and appears to have
carried a flower in her left hand which is broken .
On the top right hand corner of the panel is seated
Brahmā in the yogāsana attitude and carrying in
his hands the articles peculiar to him. The middle
face of this deity has a peaked beard. Correspond
ingly on the left is the figure of Vishņu who, in
three of his hands carries the gadā the chakra and
the sankha and keeps the remaining hand in the pose
of praise. Both Brahmā and Vishņu are seated each
on a full blown lotus. There is a distinctly notice
able smile on the faces of Brahmā and Vishņu.
Below are the figures of Gaņēśa and two others, who
are unidentifiable, on the right ; the rishi Bhțingi,
in a dancing attitude, in the middle ; and Kumāra
on the left. Both Gaņāśa and Kumāra are repre
sented as children and are nude. There is also the
bull behind Bhțingi. The grouping of the members
in the composition of this piece of sculpture and its
execution are indeed very good. Pls. XXVII-XXIX
are the characteristic pieces of sculpture of the cave
temples of the Bombay Presidency. A certain amount
138
 SUKHASANAMURTI.

of family likeness could be noticed in these three

pieces of elaborately carved panels. The Dāva and
the Dāvi, the central figures are shaped rather larger
than the others, seated in the middle ; and around
them a number of other deities attending upon
them . In the lower section is the big bull of ſiva
tended or rather overtended, by the most humour
ously carved impish ganas. The artists of these
master -pieces have spared no pains to cover the
panels with a profusion both of vigorous figure
sculpture and minute ornamental designs. Nothing
short of the highest praise is due to the long gone
artists who executed these immortal pieces of art.
In Pl. XXVII Śiva has four arms, the left one of
which is holding the right arm of Umā andanother
is seen resting upon the seat. What the two right
hands carried cannot be guessed, as they are broken ;
evidently, the one resting upon the right thigh was
left empty and the other perhaps carried a snake as in
fig. 2, Pl. XXVI. Between the figures of Śiva and
Umā stands Kumāra, who keeps both his hands
crossed on the chest. Gaņāśa is standing on the right
of Siva. There are two lady attendants, one carrying
& chamara and another a water -vessel (?) On either
side ofthe panel are standing two divine figures, who
cannot be identified as Vishạu and Brahmā, because
both of them havejațā -makutas on their head and
199
PLATE XXVII .

11

Umāmabāśvaramurti. Stone panel : Ellora .

ta
PLATE XXVIII ,

.: llora
Epanel
tone
SUmāmahāśvaramūrti
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

because neither of them has four faces. They are

in all probability two dvārapālakas. Pl . XXVIII is
almost similar to the previous plate. Herein there
are sculptured a number of Dēvas, shown as hover
ing in the air carrying different kinds of offerings
in their hands. It is worthy of notice that to the
left of Umā is seen standing a dwarfish woman
servant. This dwarfish woman is a characteristic
feature of the sculptures at Ellora. In the lower
section of the panel is the bull in the centre. The
dwarfish gaņas are taking care of it ; one peculiarity
worth noticing is that these gaņas are supporting
the legs of the bull - an idea apparently borrowed
from the Buddhist sculptures wherein the hoofs of
the horse of Buddha are borne by dēvas lest they,
treading on the earth , might produce noise and
awaken the guards and stop Buddha from renounc
ing the world. The sculptors of all these panels are
curiously agreed in representing one of the gañas as
biting the tail of the bull , another as catching hold
of its horns, others tumbling about and playing
with each other. In Pl . XXIX one is seen in the
extreme left and behind the figure of a lady, widen
ing his eyes with both his hands, thereby to frighten
all others, while another in the extreme right over
the figure of another lady is exposing his back in
an obscene manner . Of the lady attendants in this
140
PLATE XXIX .

Umāmabēśvaramurti. Stone panel : Ellora,

 SUKHĀSANAMŪRTI.

panel one is fanning Siva and another is taking hold

of the hair of Umā and dressing it ap. Śiva is
herein holding in one of his left hands the upper
part of the garment of his consort and keeps one of
his right hands in the sūchi pose and the other ap
pears to be carrying a book . He is evidently giving
out to Umā one of the purānas, which are supposed
to have been addressed by Śiva to Pārvati.

141
SAMHARAMURTIS .
 SAMHĀRAMŪRTIS.
IVA is represented in sculptures either as a
S terrific, destructive deity oras a pacific,boon
conferrer. In the former aspect he is known by
several names, each one being indicative of the de
struction of a particular malevolent and troublesome
demoniacal being ; for example, he is known as
the Gajahāmūrti, having killed an elephant-formed
asura ; Kālārimūrti, as having killed Kāla, the God
of Death ; Kāmāntakamūrti, because, he burnt
down the God of Love who came to meddle with
his austerities ; and so on. In the latter or the
pacific aspect, Siva is represented as seated with his
consort , -be it noted that the company of the Dāvi
is always to keep Śiva in a pacific turn of mind- ,
bestowing boons and blessings on his deserving
votaries. The various boon-bestowing aspects of
Śiva are called the anugrahamārtis : for example,
Śiva is called Chaņņēsānugrahamūrti, because he
conferred on Chaņņāśvara the boon of being the
145
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

steward of the household of Śiva ; Vishạvanugraha

mūrti, because he restored an eye to Vishņu, who
had plucked the same for offering it to Śiva, and
for which act Śiva also presented Vishņu with the
chakra or the discus ; and so forth. Śiva is a great
master in the arts of dancing and music, besides
being the greatest Yogi and philosopher. Being
well-versed in the art of dancing, he is often repre
sented as dancing any one of the hundred and
eight modes of dances detailed in the Natyaśāstras ;
as a master of music also he is portrayed as sitting
or standing and playing upon the vīņa, the most
perfect of stringed Indian musical instruments.
In this capacity he is known as the Viņādhara
Dakshiņāmūrti. As a yogi and philosopher, he is
known as Vyākhyāna -Dakshiņāmūrti, etc. Besides
the aspects above described there are many others
of smaller or greater importance. To sum up,
the images of Śiva are of five classes, namely,
the Samhāramūrtis (or destructive aspects), the
Anugrahamūrtis (or boon -conferring aspects), the
Nșitta -mūrtis ( or dancing aspects), the Dakshiņā
mūrtis ( or the yogic, musical and philosophio
aspects), and other minor aspects. Let me now
deal with each one of these aspects under a separate
chapter, noticing the various forms comprised in
each of these different aspects .
146
 SAMHÄRAMŪRTIS.
The circumstances under which Śiva is said
to have destroyed Kāma, the god of love, are
described as follows in the Linga
1. Kamantaka
murti. purāna. After Dākshāyaṇi, other
wise also known as Sati, the first
wife of Śiva committed suicide by plunging into
the fire, because her father slighted her Lord
Śiva by not offering oblations to him , Śiva sat
upon the Himālaya and began to practice severe
penance. The daughter of Himavān, Pārvati, who
was none other than Sati, who was reborn to
Himavān, began to attend upon Śiva, the great
yogi. In the meantime the asura Tāraka began to
do havoc to the gods ; they knew that the only
person who could destroy this demon would be a
son born to Siva. Since Siva had to be diverted
from his austerities and be induced to beget a son
for the purpose of destroying Tāraka, Kāma, the
god of love was deputed to create lascivious
thoughts in the mind of ſiva. Kāma approached
Śiva and attacked him with his flowery arrows.
Incensed at the disturbance caused by Kāma in
his mind, Śiva opened his frontal eye and emitted
flames of fire and reduced Kāma to ashes ; but all
the same, he fell in love with Parvati, married her
and begot Kumāra or Subrahmanya and through
the latter got Tārakāsura killed, thereby satisfying
147
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the wishes of the gods. At the entreaties of Rati,

the wife of Kāma, Śiva promised her that Kāma
would be reborn as Pradhyumna. In the Tamil
count : y it is believed that this act of destruction
of Kāma by Śiva took place in a village called
Tirukkurukkai in the Tanjore district.
Descriptions of th3 Kāmāntakamūrti are given
in the Uttara -Kamikāgama, the Suprabhēdāgama
and the Pārva -Kāraṇāgama. Śiva should be
represented in this aspect exactly similar to the
figure of Yoga -Dakshiņāmūrti, before which the
figure of Manmatha or Kāma should be sculptured
as having fallen down at the mere glance of Śiva.
The height of the figure of Manmatha may range
from one to seven -tenths of that of Śiva ; he should
be shown as decorated with golden ornaments ; his
complexion should also be golden yellow . He is
required to be represented as carrying in his hands
the five different flowery arrows and the bow made
of sugar-cane and being in the company of his dear
consort Rati. There should also be with him his
companions, Dāvabhāga (?) and Vasanta (or the
spring season ). The names of the five arrows of
Manmatha are given as the Lambinē, Tāpinā,
Drāvinī, Māriņā and Vedin7. * The arrows should
* The Karanāgama calls these, Tāpani, Dāhani, Visva
mökine, Viśvamardini and Madini.
148
 SAMHÄRAMŪRTIS .

be held by Manmatha in the right hand and the bow

in his left. The figures of the companions of
Manmatha may or may not be represented ; so also,
instead of five arrows, he may be shown as carrying
only one. To this description the Pūrvakāraņā
gama adds that the figure of Śiva should have three
eyes and four arms ; his head should be covered
with a jață -makuța ; he should have a terrific look
and carry a snake and an akshamālā in two out
of his four hands : the remaining right arm should
be shown as held in the pose of patākā -hasta
(or the hand held banner-wise)* and the re
maining left hand in the pose known as the
sūchi- hasta. In all other respects, it should be
similar to Yoga Dakshiņāmūrti. This authority
prescribes that the height, of Manmatha should
be one-half of that of Śiva ; and that he may be
represented as being on a pātha or pedestal or
in a chariot ( ratha ). The banner of Manmatha
should bear on the chariot the device of a fish . The
names of the companions of Manmatha are given
in the Kāraṇāgama as Mada, Rāga, Vasanta and
Šisiraritu (the cold season ).
The story of the destruction of an elephant

* Or, should carry & bannor.

149
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

asura by Śiva and his wearing the skin of the

elephant as his garment is found in
2. Gajasura
samharamurti. the Kūrmapurāņa while describing
the linga named Křittivāsāśvara in
Kāśi ( Benares). Sūta is said to have mentioned that
Śiva came out of this linga, when an asura, who
assumed the shape of an elephant, came near it to
disturb the meditations of several Brāhmaṇas who
had gathered round it, and killed the elephant and
made its skin his upper garment. But the Varāha
purāņagives quite a different account which is alrea
dy given elsewhere.* Another version of the story is
that found in the Suprabhēdāgamawhich isalsonotic
ed in one of the earlier chapters of this volume. So,
the accounts found in different authorities, as usual,
differ from each other, but the fact that Śiva killed
an elephant and had the elephant-skin as his
clothing is common to all. A village in the Tanjore
district called Vaļuvūr is associated , in the Tamil
country, with this destructive act of Śiva and this
is perhaps the only place which has a beautiful
metal image of Gajahāmūrti.
Descriptions of the image of Gajabāmūrti
or Gajāsurasambāramūrti are found in the

* Hindu Ioonography, Volume I. p. 379.

+ Do. Volume II, p. 114.

150
 BAŃHÄRAMŪRTIS.

Ambumadbhôdāgama, the Silparatna and other

Šaivāgamas. In the former it is said that the image
of Siva in this aspect may possess four or eight arms ;
if there are only four arms, one of the right hands
should hold the pāša, and the other the skin of the
elephant, while the two left hands should hold the
tusk of the elephant and the skin respectively. I ,
on the other hand, there are eight arms, three out of
the four right hands should carry the trißūla,
the damaru and the pāśa and the fourth hand
should be holding the skin of the elephant; one of
the left hands should be held in the vismaya
pose , another catching hold of the skin of the
elephant and the remaining two carrying a kapala
and the tusk of the elephant respectively . The
left leg of Śiva should be planted firmly on the
head of the elephant ; while the right one should
be bent and lifted up above the thigh of the other
leg. The tail of the elephant should be visible
over the makuța of Śiva and the artist might
arrange on either side the position of the four legs
of the elephant in any artistic manner which sug
gests itself to him. The skin of the elephant should
be so arranged as to look like a prabhāmandala to
the image of Śiva. The image of Śiva should be
adorned with all ornaments and have the garments
made of silk and tiger’s skin ; the colour of Śiva in
151
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

this instance is deep red. This is one of the

descriptions given in the Ambumadbhēdāgama ; the
other one runs as follows :-In the right hands of
Śiva there should be the triśūla, a sword, the tusk
of the elephant and in the last the skin of the
elephant ; while in the left hands, a kapāla, the
shield, a ghanţa and the skin of the elephant. The
left leg of Śiva must be kept firmly on the head of
the elephant and the right one bent and held as in
the utkuţikāsana posture.
On the left side of the Gajāsurasambāramūrti
there should be standing the Dēvi with Skanda in
her hands, trembling with fear at the Aerocity of
her lord.
To illustrate the descriptions of the Aajāsura
samhāramūrti five photographic reproductions are
given . Of these , the first piece of sculpture, Pl . XXX ,
is to be seen in the mahānāsika or the ornamented
facade of the Amțitēśvara temple at Amțitapura in
the Mysore Province. In this, Śiva has sixteen arms,
a large number of hands being broken ; from . what
remains it is seen that they must have held the
pāśa, danta, triśūla, akshamālā and kapāla ; two of
the hands are seen holding the skin of the elephant.
Surrounding the figure of Śiva is the skin of the
elephant in the form of a prabhāmandala. On
the top of this skin, and beginning from the right
152
 PLATE XXX .

ūrti
ambāra
.:-stone
SmGajāsura
).(Mysore
Amritapura
 SANHÄRAMŪRTIS.

and ending on the left are the figures of the ashţadik

pālas or the guardians of the eight quarters. On the
right of Śiva is the four-faced Brahmā playing on
the viņā with two hands and carrying in the other
the kamandalu and the sruk and sruva. To the left
of Brahmā is a four armed person, who cannot be
identified (because the objects in the hands are not
clearly visible in the photograph) sounding the drum
calledjantha. To the left of Śiva is standing Vishņu
with six hands : two are playing upon the flute, while
the remaining four carry the śankha, chakra, padma
and gadā ; there is also another four -armed figure
standing to the left of Vishņu, which is also not
identifiable. All these four figures are so carved as to
suggest the notion of dancing. Within the fold of the
skin of the elephant are the Dēvi and Gaņēša to the
right of Śiva, and Nandi, the bull and Bhringi, to
the left. At the foot of Śiva lies the head of the
elephant killed by him. The head of Śiva is orna
mented by a mandala ofjațās and the jaţāmakuta he
wears, is adorned with a garland of skulls : a similar
garland is also worn on the neck. A large number
of very nicely executed ornaments are on the per
son of the image of Śiva. This is a unique piece
of patiently and elaborately carved sculpture.
The second illustration , Pl. XXXI, is taken
from the Śiva temple at Vaļuvūr,the reputed place of
153
 PLATE XXXI .

Gajāsura-sambūra-murti. Bronze : Valuvur.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the destruction of Gajāsura. Thebronze,ofwhich the

illustration is a photograph, is a remarkable piece of
artistic work, both for its size and the excellence of
its execution . The very well -carved face has a pair
of round eyes, a pair of side tusks, both indicative
of the terrific nature of the deity ; surrounding the
head is a jațāmandala in which are seen on the left
the crescent of the moon and on the right a snake.
In the jațāmakuța are the skull, durddhura flowers
and other ornaments. The image of Śiva has eight
arms ; one of the right hands holds the elephant
skin , another two carry a very artistically shaped
triśūla, and a khadga respectively, while what is held
in the fourth is not clear in the photograph. Each
of the left hands carry the kapāla, khēțaka and
tanka (?). Below the right foot of Siva is the head
of the elephant, while its tail is visible on the top.
One leg of the elephant is shown as hanging in
front above the left hands of Śiva. On either side of
Śiva stands a gana each with four arms and playing
upon the drum and other musical instruments.
The third illustration fig. 1, Pl. XXXII,
comes from Dārāśuram in the Tanjore district. Śiva
in this sculpture is represented with eight arms.
In the right hands of Śiva are seen the damaru ,
khadga, triśūla and the elephant's skin ; in three out
of the four left hands are the kapāla, pāśa and the
154
 SANHĀRAMŪRTIS.
elephant's skin, while the fourth is held in the
sūchīhasta pose. As in the previous instances there
is the jațāmandala on the head of Śiva, in which
is tied up a skull ; and the whole person of Śiva is
adorned with a large number of well carved orna
ments such as the kundalas, hāras, udarabandha,
kēyūras and kațakas. As in the image of Vaļuvūr,
the right leg is planted on the head of the elephant
and the left held up bent is an uikuţikāsana in
direct opposition to the descriptions given in the
Agamas. This deviation from the Agamas appears
to be a peculiarity of this aspect of Śiva belonging to
the sculptures of the Chola period and country , as
might be seen also in the figure of Tiruchchengā
ttaiguļi (see fig. 2, Pl. XXXII) . In the Dārāsuram
sculpture, the artist has kept the two legs and the
tail of the elephant vertically over the head of Siva.
Towards the left of Śiva stands the Dēví with the
ohild Subrahmaṇya seated on her loins ; both of them
are looking with awe at Śiva. The Tiruchchengāt
tanguļi image of Gajāsurasamhāramūrti is almost
exactly similar to the Dārāsuram image; in his right
hands Śiva holds the damaru , the pāśa, the śūla and
the elephant's skin ; one of the left hands is held in the
vismaya pose, another seems to carry a deer ( ?), the
third having a kapala in it is held in the sūchi pose,
while the fourth is holding the skin of the elephant.
155
 PLATE XXXII .

amhāra
mGajasura
1.urti
.-sFig Gajāsura
Fig
.3-ms.amhāra
urti
Stone
D
.: ārāśuram TStone
:. iruchchengāţtanguļi
 PLATE XXXIII .

Gajāsura - sanhāra -murti. Stone : Halebid.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The fifth photograph, Pl. XXXIII, is that of

an image to be found in the Hoysalēśvara temple
at Haļēbīļu. Like the first illustration, this
one also has sixteen arms, which carry a very
large number of objects such as the khadga,
ankuša, vajra, damaru , bāņa, gadā, khatvānga,
tanka ghanțā, sarpa , dhanus and kapāla ; the
two hands are seen holding the elephant's skin.
As in the sculpture of Amțitapura the right
leg of Śiva is made to rest upon the head of the
elephant and the left is bent and held slightly
lifted. up. The skin of the elephant is kept like a
prabhā -mandala. On the right of Śiva are four
famishing goblins (ạākiñīs) praising Śiva ; and on
the left of Śiva are a few male and female musicians
sounding drums and other musical instruments .
Like the first illustration this belongs to the Hoysala
style of sculpture of the 13th Century A.D.
Śiva once got angry with Kāla, the god of death
and kicked him on his chest. The
8. Kalarimurti.
circumstances under which this aot
was performed by Śiva are given in the puraņas
thus : -The Rishi Mșikaņdu was long without a son .
He prayed to God that he may be blessed with sons.
God appeared to him and asked him if he would like
to have a large number of useless sons or only one
remarkably intelligent but with his life limited to
156
 SANHĀRAMŪRTIS.

sixteen years. The rishi chose the latter alternative

and in due time his wife Manasyini bore him a son
who was called Mārkaņdēya. The child grew up to
be a very intelligent boy : even as his intelligence
and behaviour grew to be more and more remark
able, the hearts of the parents began to be weighted
with sorrow, for at the sixteenth year of his
age he was fated to die. The news of the short
duration of his life, reached Mārkaņdēya's ears.
He resolved to offer pūjās to the gods at all import
ant places of pilgrimage, and, in the course of his
perigrinations, reached, the tradition says , Tiruk

kaņavūr and was intently absorbed in worshipping

the linga enshrined in its temple. Just then the
call from the lord of death, Yama, came. His
emissaries approached Mārkaņņēya to bind his
soul and carry it to their master ; not finding it
possible for them to do so, they reported the fact
to Yama, who proceeded in person to conduct
operations against the life of Mārkaņdēya which was
not destined to continue longer than sixteen years.
He all but succeeded in binding the Brāhmaṇa lad,
but Śiva burst out of the Linga in great anger, and
administered a kick on the chest of Yama, which
almost killed him. Yama came to his senses, realis
ed that this great devotee of Śiva ought not to have
been submitted to the same rules as other ordinary
157
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

mortals and went away the wiser for his visit to

Tirukkadavūr. Śiva then blessed Mārkaņdēya to be
ever of sixteen years of age, so that the destiny that
he should die at the expiry of his sixteenth year
might not operate on him and he is believed to
exist as one of the chiranjīvīs (immortals) . Śiva in
the act of chastising Yama is known as Kālārimūrti.
This beautiful story is often seen perpetuated in
stone and colour in many a temple. In the Tamil
country it is believed that this incident took place
in Tirukkadavūr in the Tanjore district.
The descriptions of Kālārimūrti are given in
all the āgamas. The image of Kālārimūrti is to
have its right foot placed upon a padma-pitha and
the left leg being lifted up so far high as to reach
the chest of the figure of Yama, over which the toe
of Śiva should rest. The figure of Śiva should have
three eyes, lateral tusks, the jațāmakuta adorning
the head and four or eight arms. If the image has
only four arms, one of the right hands carrying a
śūla should be lifted up as far as the ear ; the other
right hand may carry the parašu or be held in the
varada pose ; if the band holds the parašu the edge
of the instrument should be turned towards the
person of Śiva and the height at which this hand
is to be kept raised is that of the hikkāsūtra. The
front left hand should be held with the palm in
168
 SAMHĀRAMŪRTIS.

wont, at the height of the navel and this hand

should be in the sūchi pose. The back left hand
should be kept in the vismaya pose ; in this case, the
ring -finger of the hand should be raised as high as
the ushnīsha or the lower portion of the crown . If,
however, the image of Śiva has eight arms, the
right ones should bear in them the śūla, the parašu,
the vajra and the khadga ; in two of the left hands
there should be the khețaka and the pāśa, while the
two remaining hands should be held in the vismaya
and the sūchi poses respectively. The colour of
Śiva in this aspect is also red, though of the coral,
and he should be adorned with all ornaments.
Kāla , Yama or the god of death should be re
presented with two arms and two legs, with side
tusks and with a karanda -makuta on his head . One
of his hands should carry the pāśa and with this
and the remaining hand he should be doing añjali
to Śiva, his body covered with blood and trembling
with fear ; his legs should be standing apart from
each other (as though he is attempting to steady
himself). Kāla must also be looking up to Śiva for
bis grace .
The above description of Kālārimūrti accord
ing to the Aſsumadbhēdāgamā is supplemented
by the Kāmikāgama thus : the right leg should
be shown, according to this authority, in the act of
159
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

kicking Yama and the left one should be placed on

the ground. In the right hands of Śiva there must
be the śūla and the parašu and in one of the left
hands the nāgapāśa, while the remaining hand
should be held in the sūchi pose. The eyes of Śiva
should be so sculptured as to suggest the idea that
their sight is directed towards Kāla and the śūla
should be turned head downwards and piercing the
neck of Yama. In this work Kāla is required to be
represented as fallen down fainted with eyes filled
with tears. He should be clothed in red garments,
should have red eyes, red hair both on the head, the
moustache and the brows ; he should have side
tusks also. The height of Yama should reach up
to the navel of Śiva and his figure must be shaped
according to the nava -tāla measure.
There is another description given in the
Kāmikāgama according to which the figure of Śiva
may be represented as rising from the Linga which
Mārkaņdēya was worshipping and the figure of
Yama fallen prostrate on the ground. In this
instance, the linga and the image of Śiva should
be sculptured as in the Lingõdbhavamūrti already
described above. The body of Śiva should be
covered with white ashes (vibhūti).
Mārkaņņēya should be seated near the linga
with flowers for offering and his features should
160
 SANHĀRAMŪRTIS.

indicate the fear due to the approach of death

rather than happiness at the appearance of Śiva for
his rescue .
The Kāraṇāgama adds that the two front
hands of Śiva which are to hold the down -turned
trident must be in the kataka pose. Evidently,
this rule is meant to be applicable to bronze images
in which such implements, which are wrought
separately and not cast with the original image
itself, and are generally inserted whenever they are
wanted. The kataka-hasta pose will be seen in all
metal images in whose hands different articles are
meant to be inserted at the will of the worshipper.
For example, in the case of the goddesses who stand
near their consorts, one hand is held in the kataka
pose to receive a natural flower every day in it ; the
hands of Rāma and Lakshmaņa are kept in the same
pose for inserting in them the bow and the arrow ;
in the case also of Viņādhara Dakshiņāmūrti, we
shall see later on that the hands are held in the
kațaka pose .
Five illustrations are given of Kālārimūrti.
The first of these, Pl. XXXIV , is a drawing of the
Kālārimūrti to be found in the Daśāvatāra cave in
Ellora. In this panel Śiva is represented as issuing
from the linga, in front of which is seen the
boy Mārkaņdāya kneeling with his arms folded on
161
 PLATE XXXIV.

onet
e
int
i

ra

TAG = -

Kalāri-murti : Stone panel : Daśāvatāra Cave : Ellora ,

 PLATE XXXV.

temple
KSmKālāri
.:E-1Figllora
ailāsa
ūrti
2.tone
-mFig
.:PSKālāri
attīśvaram
ūrti
. .tope
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

his bent knees. One of the right hands and one of

the left hands of Siva grasp a stout handled, sharp
trident which is aimed at the abdomen of Yama.
The remaining right hand rests on the hip
(katyavalambita hastā ) and the remaining left hand
is held in the vismaya pose. The right leg of
Śiva is buried up to the knee in the linga and the
left leg is represented as kicking Yama. The person
of Śiva is adorned with many ornaments. Yama
has apparently fallen down ; in this miserable plight
ho praises Śiva with his right hand uplifted and in
the left hand he still grasps the pāśa with which he
had bound the neck of Mārkaņdēya.
The second sculpture, Fig 1, Pl. XXXV, also
belongs to Ellora, and is found in the Kailāsa
temple. It is almost similar in its details to the
panel described above. Here Yama stands prais
ing Śiva with one hand uplifted and holds in the
other the pāśa bound to the figure of Mārkaņņēya.
The image of Śiva issues from the top of a linga
before which is seen seated the figure of Mārkan
dĒya with the head broken and lost. The action of
Śiva in kicking Yama with his foot and piercing
him with his sūla is portrayed vigorously.
The third illustration, Fig. 2, PI, XXXV,
belongs to Pattīśvaram in the Tanjore district.
Herein the treatment of the subject is quite
162
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.

different. Śiva is standing with his left leg resting

upon the body of the fallen Yama and is kicking
him with the right foot on his chest. He carries in
his hands the śūla with its head turned downward ,
the paraśu, the mriga and the kapāla. Mārkaņdāya
stands to the right of Śiva with his hands in the
añjali pose praising Śiva .
The next illustration, Fig. 1, Pl. XXXVI, is
of an image to be found in Tiruchchengāttanguļi
and is almost similar to the Pattīśvaram sculpture
described above. The only differences between the
two are that in the former the left leg of Śiva is
lifted up to kick Yama, whereas in the latter, it is
the right leg that is lifted for that purpose ; the
right foot is planted firmly on the body of Yama in
Tiruchchengāttanguļi sculpture, while in the
Pattīśvaram sculpture, the left foot is so placed.
The head of Yama is on the left of Śiva in the
Tiruchchengāttaiguļi image and on the right in
the Pattīśvaram one. The last illustration, Fig. 2,
Pl. XXXVI, is the reproduction of the photograph
of a bronze image kept in the collection of Mr. R. F.
Stoney , Executive Engineer, P. W. D., Madura.
In this instance, śiva is seen emerging from a
linga, within which his right leg is buried up to the
thigh. The other leg is lifted up in the act of
kicking Yama (whose image seems to have been
163
PLATE XXXVI .
Fig
1..
Kālāri-
mūrti:
Stone: Fig.
2.:
Kālārimūrti
Bronze:
Tiruchchengaţtangudi. The
Collection
of.
Mr.
R.
F.
Stoney
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

sculptured as a separate piece) . The back hands

carry the paraśu and the mriga, while the front
ones are so kept as to hold in them a trißūla.
On one occasion Śiva killed three asuras who
dwelt in three forts constructed of metals and who
caused great damage to the suras and the rishis.
The story is given in detail in the Karņaparvan of
the Mahābhārata, an abstract of which is given
below . The three sons of Tārakāsura *, having
performed great penances, obtained from Brabmā
the boons that they should occupy three castles
wherefrom they should move as they desired and
that after a thousand years the three
Tripurantaka castles should unite into one and
murti ,
should be only destructible with a
single arrow. The asura architect Maya built
them the three castles, one of gold which was in
heaven, another of silver in the air and a third of
iron on the earth : each one of these was appropriat
ed by one of the asuras, and they started out on
their tour of harassing the gods. Indra attacked
them with his vajra but did not succeed in putting
them down. The gods then repaired to Brahmā
to consult him as to the means of destroying these
asuras. He told them that they could only be
* These were named Vidyunmāli, Tārakāksha and Kama
láksha.

164
 SAMHĀRAMŪRTIS.

killed with a single arrow and such a weapon could

be wielded only by Mabādēva and directed them
to pray to him for help. They prayed accordingly
and succeeded in inducing him to undertake
the task of killing the asuras. Mahādēva then
demanded of them one half of their powers ( sākti)
to add to his own strength, as, otherwise, it was
impossible to kill those strong demons. They
consented and parted with one half of their strength .
Mahādēva became now stronger than all the other
gods and hence came to be known by the name
Mahādēva , the great god . The various gods served
Mabādēva in other capacities also . Vishņu , became
his arrow , Agni its barb and Yama its feather .
Mahādēva made the Vēdas his bow and Sāvitri
his bow -string. Brahmā became his charioteer.
With the three -barbed arrow consisting of Sõma,
Agni and Vishịu the castles with their inhabitants
were destroyed by Mahādēva .
The purāņik account of the destruction of the
three castles by Mahādēva is based upon very
much older accounts found in the Samhitās and
Brāhmaṇas. For instance, in the commentary
of the Vajasanēyi Samhitā of the Yajurvēda, it is
stated that the asuras being defeated by the
gods, performed austerities and built three castles,
which were destroyed by Agni. Similarly in the
165
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Šatapatha-Brāhmaṇa we are told that the gods and

the asuras fought together, though born of the same
father, Prajāpati. The latter built for themselves
three castles which excited the envy ofthe gods. For
destroying them Indra is said later on to be prepar
ing his thunderbolt with Agni as the shaft, Sõma as
the iron and Vishņu as the point. The Taittirīya
Samhitā somewhat amplifies the story thus : The
asuras had three castles, the lowest being made of
iron , the next higher of silver and the highest of
gold. The gods were unable to conquer them ;
therefore they made an arrow , consisting of Agni
as the wooden shaft, Soma as the iron and Vishņu
as the point. But then they needed one to wield
this weapon ; their choice fell upon Rudra, the cruel,
who destroyed the castles and drove out the asuras
from these regions. Similar references to the de
struction of three metallic castles are found in the
Aitarēya - Brāhmaṇa and other ancient authorities.
Tripurāntakamūrti is described in great detail
in almost all the agamic authorities.
No less than eight different descriptions of the
Tripurāntakamūrti are given in the Ambumadbhê
dagama alone ; but there are not many points of
material difference between one form and the other
given in this work ; however, since a distinction
has been made by this authority, let me adhere to
166
 SAMBARAMŪRTIS .

its descriptions. In the first form of this aspect of

Śiva, the right leg of the image of Śiva should be
kept a little in front, while the left one, slightly
bent, should be behind. One of the right hands
should be held in the simhakarņa pose at about the
height of the nābhī-sūtra and be holding the bow
string in which the arrow is set. The thickness of
the arrow should be that of the little finger of Śiva;
one of the left hands should be grasping the bow
and raised up in a horizontal position ; the thickness
of the bow ought to fit in exactly into the closed
fist of Śiva and should be tapering at both the ends.
The bow should be painted beautifully with various
colours. It may have three bends (see fig. 3, Pl. II,
in Vol. I) or be like the crescent moon and may be
of wood or metal. The thickness of the bow string
is given as one-third of the thickness of the bow
and its length as seven - eighths of the length of the
bow. The remaining hands should be held in the
kartari -hasta pose ; in the right hand there should
be the tanka and in the left, the krishna-mriga.
The figure should be adorned with the jațā -makuta
and all ornaments should be of red colour. On
the left of that of Śiva, there should be the figure
of the Dēví.
The Uttarakāmikāgama adds to the abovo
description the following : the image of Śiva should
167
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

have three eyes ; in its right ear there should be

the makara - kundala ; from the non -mention of any
ornament for the other ear, we have perhaps to
infer that it has to be adorned by none. This
authority states that Śiva may have four hands or
even two ; in the latter case, they should carry the
bow and the arrow . The body of Śiva should be in
the samabhanga attitude.
In the second form of Tripurāntakamūrti the
left foot of Śiva must be kept upon the Apasmāra
purusha, while the rest of the description is
exactly similar to the first. In the third form ,
the left leg of Śiva should be kept standing
vertically while the right should be slightly bent.
In the fourth it is stated that the left foot
should be placed upon the Apasmāra ; this is evi
dently a mistake for the right foot, for, as it is, it
is the description of the second form given above.
The front right and left hands of Śiva, in the fifth
form , should be held that palm of the latter
might be facing up and that of the former turned
down, grasping the point and tail of the arrow ; in
the back right and left hands there should be the
tanka and the mriga or dhanus respectively.
The legs should be somewhat bent but there should
not be the Apasmārapurusha in this form . There
should be the Dāvi to the left of Śiva. In all these
168
 SAMHĀRAMŪRTIS.

five forms of Tripurantakamūrti there should be

only four arms and no more .
In the sixth form , Śiva as the Tripurāntaka
mūrti should have eight arms, in the four right
ones of which there should be the bāņa, the parašu,
the khadga and the vajra ; whereas two of the left
hands should be held in the vismaya and the
kațaka poses respectively, while the remaining two
should carry the dhanus and the khēţaka. There
should be several bends in the body of Śiva ( ati
bhanga ) which should add grace to the general
beauty of the figure. There should also be the Dēvi
to the left of Śiva. In the seventh form , there
should be ten arms; in the right hands they should
carry the bāņa, the chakra , the śūla, the tanka and
the vajra ; and in three out of the five left hands
there should be the dhanus, the sankha and the
khēţaka : the remaining hands being in the vismaya
and the sūchi poses respectively.
In the eighth form , Śiva is to be represented as
driving in a chariot. His right leg should be slight
ly raised and be resting on a part of the chariot,
whereas the left one should be plantedin the middle
of the chariot. In the chariot there should be a
part called the mukuļa, which is not quite intelli
gible. It is stated that this mukuļa should be
tied up with a rope, and Brahmā, the charioteer
169
 PLATE XXXVII .

Tripurāntakamurti : Stone. Daśāvatāra Cave : Ellora.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

should be seated in the middle of this mukuļa ,

with a bamboo stick in one right hand and kam
andalu in the other ; the padma -pāśa (? ) in one
left hand and the kunaikā (a kind of water-vessel)
in the other. Below the mukuļa there should
be standing a white bull. This bull is Visbņu
who got down from the arrow temporarily to
steady the chariot which was giving way under
the feet of Śiva ; and after steadying the chariot
Vishņu returned to the arrow. The chariot should
be shown as sailing in the air.
The common features of the eight forms of the
Tripurāntakamūrti are that they are all of red
complexion, have one face and three eyes, and have
the Dēvi on the left side. In this aspect Śiva is
guided by a passion composed of the satva and the
rajo guņas.
Four illustrations are given of Tripurantaka
mūrti . The first two are to be found in Ellora and
another in the Kailāsanātha temple at Conjeevaram .
Of the two sculptures of Ellora, the first is in the
so-called Daśāvatara cave, Pl. XXXVII. In this,
Śiva stands in his chariot with his right leg kept
forward and the left one, behind ; the body of Śiva is
turned away from the objects aimed at, but his face
and arms are turned in the direction of the three
castles which he is about to destroy. He seems to
170
 PLATE XXXVIII .

Tripurantakamurti : Stone : Kailasa Temple : Ellora .

PLATB XXXIX.

hin

TAG

Tripurāntakamūrti : Stone : Conjeevaram ,

 SANHĀRAMŪRTIS.

have had ten arms ; those that still remain

unbroken are carrying the sword, and the shield, a
third arm is holding the arrow strung in the bow
string, while a fourth holds the bent bow. Brahmā
is driving the chariot which is yoked to two horses.
The second illustration , Pl . XXXVIII, is the
photograph of the sculpture to be found in the
Kailāsa cave in the same place. In this, Śiva has
only two arms ; the right hand bears the arrow while
the left one the bow. On the right shoulder is a
quiver of arrows. Brahmā is seen sitting in the front
portion of the chariot and driving the two horses
yoked to it. In front of Tripurāntakamūrti are
the asuras fleeing before their pursuer.
In the third illustration, Pl. XXXIX, Śiva is
seated in the āliųhāsana posture in the chariot and
has eight arms, in which there ought to be the bow ,
arrow and other implements of war. As in the
previous instances, Brahmā is driving the chariot.
The last illustration, Pl. XL, is the reproduc
tion of the photograph of the beautiful sculpture
found in the maņņapa in front of the central shrine
of the Sundarēsvara temple at Madura, which
belongs to modern times . 98.
Once Śiva assumed the form of a mythical
animal called Sarabha. The circumstances under
which he was obliged to take this form are given as
171
PLATE XL.

.. ‫لهوه‬
V Y

Tripurāntakamūrti : Stone : Madura.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

follows : Vishņu, in his Nộisimhāvatāra, destroyed

the asura Hiranyakasipu who was
5. Sarabhesa
murti. causing great annoyance to the
gods. Even after the destruction
of the asura , Vishņu did not abate his terrific
attitude, which was causing damage to the inhabi
tants of the world. They approached Śiva for
succour and Śiva promised them his help. He at
once assumed the form of a śarabha, an animal with
two heads, two wings of resplendent beauty, eight
legs of the lion with sharp claws, and a long tail ;
making dreadful noise the Śarabha approached
Nřisimba, caught hold of him and tore him up ;
the skin of Narasimha he wore as his garment and
the head was worn on his chest or, as some accounts
bave it, on his makuta às an ornament. Vishņu
came to his proper senses and retired, after praising
Śiva, to his own abode, the Vaikuņtha. Śiva came
thenceforth to be known as Śarabhēśamūrti or
Simbaghnamūrti.
Śarabhāśamūrti is described in the Kāmikā
gama as follows : The body of Śarabhāśa is that
of a bird of golden hue ; it should have two wings
which should be uplifted : Śarabhāśa has two red
eyes, four legs resembling those of the lion resting
upon the ground and four others with sharp claws
kept lifted upwards, and an animal tail; the body
172
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.
above the loins should be that of a human being
but having the face of a lion which should be
wearing upon its head a kirīta -makuța. There
should also be side -tusks and on the whole a terrific
appearance. Śārabhāśa is to be shown as carrying
Narasimha with two of his legs. The figure of
Narasimha should be the ordinary form of a human
being with the hands held in the añjali pose.
The Śrītatvanidhi gives a somewhat different
description. It requires that the figure of Śāra
bhēsa should have thirty -two arms, in the right ones
of which are to be found vajra, mushți, abhaya,
chakra, śakti, daņda, ankuśa , khadga, khatvānga,
paraśu, akshamālā, a bone, dhanus, musala, and
agni ; whereas the left hands ought to keep the pāśa,
varada, gadā, bāņa, dhvaja, another kind of sword,
a snake, a lotus flower, kapāla, pustaka, hala and
mudgara and one hand should be embracing Durgā.
The Uttarakāraṇāgama says that by consecrat
ing this image, all enemies will be destroyed,
battles won , all ailments cured and every good
achieved ; and that the three eyes of this aspect of
Śiva are the sun, the moon and the fire ; that his
tongue is the subterranean fire known as the
baqavānala ; that his two wings are Kāļi and Durgā ;
bis nails, Indra, the belly, Kālāgni; the thighs,
Kāla and Mțityu ; and his gigantic strength
173
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Mabávāyu. Again, in the Sarabhopanishad it is

stated that śara means the Jiva or soul ; Hari is
shining in the limbs of Śarabha, and that Hari
himself is Sarabha who is capable of granting
māksha.
An illustration of the Sarabhāśamūrti is given
in Vol. I, Pl. E, Introduction. It is a bronze image
to be found in the Śiva temple at Tribhuvanam in
the Tanjore district. In this piece of sculpture
Śarabba is represented as having three legs, the
body and the face of a lion, a tail and four human
arms; in the right upper hand is the parašu, in the
lower right one, the pāśa, in the upper left one , the
mriga and in the lower left one, agni. With the
front leg, Sarabhamūrti has pinioned Nộisimha, who
is struggling against his adversary with his eight
arms.
The following account is found in the Varāha
purāna regarding the cutting off of the fifth head of
Brahmā by Śiva. Brahmā created
6. Brahmasira
schchhedaka- Rudra and addressing him as
murti.
Kapāli, asked him to protect the
world . Because he was insulted as Kapāli, Śiva
cut off the fifth head of Brahmā with his left
thumb-nail ; but this head stuck to his hand and
would not fall off from it. Then Brahmã was
requested by Rudra to tell him how he could get
174
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.

rid of the head stuck up in his hand, for which

Brabmā prescribed to Rudra the observance of the
Kāpālika life for twelve years, at the end of which
he promised that the head would fall off. Then
Rudra repaired to Mabēndragiri and wearing a
Yajñāpavīta made of hair, a garland of beads made
of bone and a piece of the skull tied up as an orna
ment in the jatāmakuța on bis head and carrying
a skull filled with blood in his hand, went round
the earth visiting all places of pilgrimage.
At the end of twelve years he arrived at Vārāṇasi,
where, by the followers of Simachāri (?) the skull of
Brahmã was removed from the hand of Rudra.
The place where the head fell obtained the name
of Kapāla-mochana. Rudra then bathed in the
Ganges, worshipped Viśvēśvara at Kāśi and return
ed to Kailāsa.
A somewhat different version is found in the
Kūrmapurāņa. Once upon a time the rishis asked
Brahmā as to who was the origin of the universe.
Brahmā arrogated it to himself. Just then Śiva
appeared on the scene and claimed to be the origi
nator of the universe ; upon this there ensued &
dispute between Brahmā and Śiva. Even though
the Vēdas came to declare that Śiva was the greatest
of all Gods, Brahma would not accept their verdict.
Then appeared in space a huge illumination in which
175
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

was discernible the figure of ſiva. Śiva then

ordered Bhairava to cut off that fifth head of
Brahmā which spoke to him with haughtiness and
disrespect. By the power of his yoga, Brahmā
escaped death and he also learnt by the sacrifice of
one of his heads, the superiority of Śiva.
The following description of Brahmasiraśch
chhēdakamūrti is found in the śritatvanidhi.
The figure of this aspect of Śiva should be of white
complexion, with three eyes, four arms and a
jațāmakuta on the head and the patrakundala in
the right ear and the nakrakundala in the left
one. In the right hand are to be the vajra
and the parašu and in the left ones, the skull
of Brahmā and the śūla. It should be draped in
garments made of tiger's skin .
The Śiva -purāņa calls Bhairava the pūrņa
rūpa or the full form of Śankara and that those
whose intellect is darkened by māyā are not able to
understand the superiority of this aspect of Śiva and
decline to worship it. Bhairava is so called
because he protects the universe (bharaṇa ) and
because he is terrific (bhīshana ). He is also known
as Kālabhairava for even Kāla (the god of death)
trembles before him ; Amarddaka because he kills
bad persons(marddana) andPāpabhakshaņa,because
176
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.
he swallows the sins of his bhaktas or devotees.
He is the lord of the city of Kāśi.
The description of Bhairava is found in the
( a ) Bhairava.
Vishnudharmõttara. It is there
stated that Bhairava should have a
flabby belly, round yellow eyes, side-tusks and wide
nostrils, and should be wearing a garland of skulls,
He should be also adorned with snakes as orna
ments ; besides these there should be other orna
ments also. The complexion of Bhairava is dark
as the rain -cloud and his garment the elephant's
skin ; he should have several arms carrying several
weapons. He should be represented as frightening
Pārvatí with a snake.
Bhairava has many forms such as the Vațuka
bhairava, Svarṇākarshaṇabhairava and so forth .
The features of each one of these forms are describ
ed below.
Vatuka -Bhairava should have eight arms in
six of which are to be the khatvāriga
(b) Vatuka.
Bhairava. the pāśa, the śūta , the damaru , the
kapāla and a snake ; while one of
the remaining hands should carry a piece of flesh
and the other should be held in the abhaya pose.
By the side of this Bhairava there should be a dog
of the same colour as its master. Meditation
upon this form of Bhairava is said to secure all the
177
 HINDU ICONOGRAPEY.

wishes of the votary. So much for the description

given in the Rūpamaņdana ; the following is the
description found in the Vațuka - Bhairavakalpa.
This aspect of Bhairava should have jațās of red
colour, three eyes and a red body. He should carry
in his hands the śūla, the pāśa, the damaru and the
kapāla and be riding upon a dog. Vaţuka - Bhairava
should be stark naked and be surrounded on all
sides by a host of demons.
Four illustrations of Vaţuka -Bhairava are
given, in none of wbich is Bhairava seen with eight
arms as given in the Rūpamaņờana. The South
Indian image of Pattīśvaram, Pl. XLI, carries the
šūla , the damaru , the pāśa and the kapāla and is
naked. It has jvālās or flames surrounding its
jațāmakuta and wears round its neck a long necklace
made of small bells, besides a number of well -wrought
golden and other necklaces. Round the loins is the
kațisūtra or waist zone consisting of a snake. To
show the terrific aspect of this deity, the eyes of the
image are made round and there are shown large
side-tusks. Immediately behind the figure of Bhai
rava is a dog also adorned with a number of necklaces
and other ornaments. This image belongs to the
later Choļa period (12th and 13th centuries A.D.).
The two Northern Indian images as also the
one of the Chālukya style, figs. 1, 3 & 2, Pl. XLII,
178
PLATE XLI .

Bhairava : Stone : Pattiśvaram .

 7

228

Bhaira Bhai rava

S.tone
3.:Fig
Museum tone
ISBhairava
,:1. .ndian
Fig .:S.tone va
2Fig
. m Asiat
Roya
the
of lic
Museum
PLATE XLII .

.
Calcutta Museu
Madras
B
,. ombty
Socie ay
 SAŃHĀRAMŪRTIS.
are alike in their execution. They all carry the
śūla, the khadga, the pāśa and the kapāla , have
their jațās arranged in a circle (or manqala,) and
are naked. They wear garlands of skulls and are
of terrific appearance. The image belonging to the
Indian Museum , Calcutta, fig. 1, Pl. XLII, alone
is smiling, whereas that belonging to the Museum
of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
fig. 3, Pl . XLII , has a scorpion attached as a lāñchh
ana or mark on the front face of the pedestal ; and
these two images are surrounded by emaciated
piśāchas. The sword in the hand of the image of
the Madras Museum ( fig. 2, Pl. XLII), is a short
dagger held with its point downwards. All these
three images stand on sandals, which are absent
in the case of the South Indian image.
Svarņākarshaņa Bhairava should have yellow
coloured body, with four arms
shana Bhairava. and three eyes and should be clothed
in yellow garments. He should be
adorned with all kinds of ornaments and be praised by
all gods. The appearance of this aspect of Bhairava
should be one which suggests perfect happiness
coupled with masterful authoritativeness. He
should be carrying in his hands a vessel filled with
gold and precious gems, a châmara and a tomara and
a large śūla should be resting upon the shoulder.
179
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

We have already seen in the introduction that

Bhairava’s aspect has eight differ
( d) The sixty-
four Bhairavas. ent forms, named Asitānga , Ruru ,
Chanda, Krõdha, Unmatta -Bhai
rava, Kāpāla, Bhishaņa and Samhāra. Each one
of these forms is divided further into eight
subordinate forms, thus making sixty -four in all.
All these are grouped into eight groups and are
described in the Rudra -yāmaļa .
In the group coming under Asitāåga are in
cluded Viśālāksha, Mārttāṇda, Mödaka -priya,
Svachchanda, Vighna-santushta, Khēchara and
Sacharāchara. All theseakte of golden complexion
and have good looking limbs, and carry the triśūla,
the damaru , the pāśa and the khaďga.
The group headed by Ruru consists of Krõda
damshțra, Jatādbara, Viśvarūpa, Virūpāksha, Nānā
rūpadhara, Vajrahasta and Mabākāya. The colour
of the Bhairavas of this group is pure white ; they
should all be adorned with ornaments set with
rubies and should carry an akshamālā, the ankusa,
a pustaka and a vīņā.
Chaņda, Pralayāntaka, Bhūmikampa, Nila
kantha, Vishņu, Kulapālaka, Muņdapāla and Kāma
pāla constitute the third group . All these are to be
of blue colour and have good looks. They should
carry in their hands agni, sakti, gadā and kunda.
180
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.
In the group headed by Krõdha are included
Pingalēkshaņa, Abhrarūpa, Dharāpāla, Kuţila,
Mantranāyaka, Rudra and Pitāmaha. All these
are of smoke colour and should carry khadga,
khēțaka, a long sword and parašu .
In the Unmatta -Bhairava group are Vatuka
nāyaka, Śankara, Bhūta -vētāļa, Triņētra , Tripuran
taka, Varada and Parvatāvāsa . Their colour is
white and they are all to be of good looks andcarry
in their hands the kunda, the khēțaka, the parigha
(a kind of club) and bhindipāla .
Kāpāla, Śaśibhūshana, Hasticharmāmbara
dhara, Yogiša, Brahmarākshasa, Sarvajña, Sarva
dēvēśa and Sarva -bhūtahșidi-sthita form a group
and are all to be of yellow colour and carry the
same weapons as in the previous group.
The seventh group consists of Bhishaņa,
Bhayahara, Sarvajña, Kālāgni-Mahāraudra, Dak
shiņa, Mukhara and Asthira. They all carry the
same weapons as in the above group and are of
red colour.
In the group of Samhārabhairava are Atirik
tānga, Kālāgni, Priyankara, Ghöranāda, Viśālāksha,
Yogiša and Dakshasamsthita ; all these are to be
of the colour resembling the lightning and to carry
the same weapons as in the previous group. Pl.
XLIII, represents the Atiriktārga aspect of
181
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

Bhairava and is found sculptured in one of the

cave-temples of Ellora. Seated near his foot is the
emaciated figure of Kāli ; round him are a number
of blood -thirsty goblins and on his right stands a
brahmaņa votary with his hands held in the anjali
pose . Though grotesque, the sculptor has executed
his work with great skill.
Virabhadra is a form of Śiva assumed at
the time of the destruction of the yajña ( sacrifice)
of Daksha. The following account
7. Virabhadra
murti. of the destruction of the sacrifice
of Daksha occurs in the Kūrma
purāņa . On one occasion Daksha with his consort,
paid a visit to the house of Śiva. In spite of the
solicitous attentions of Siva, Daksha became dis
pleased with his son-in-law, and returned to
his quarters. On another occasion Śiva's wife
Sati went to her father Daksha's house. Daksha
reviled Śiva in the presence of Sati and also abused
her and directed her to quit his house. This insult
offered to her in his own house by Daksha smote
Sati so hard that she burnt herself to death ; she
was afterwards born to Himavān as his daughter
under the name of Pārvati. Learning the demise
of his consort, Śiva cursed Daksha to be born as a
Kshatriya and to commit incest with his own
daughter in that birth. Daksha was born as king
182
PLATE XLIII

Atiriktānga Bhairava : Stone Panel : Ellora.

 SAHĀRAMURTIS.

Prāchētas and was performing a yāga at Gangā

dvāra, but owing to the hatred he conceived for
Śiva in his former existence he declined to dedicate
a portion of the offering to Śiva. All other gods
who had received their portions did not intercede on
behalf of Śiva. But one Dadhichamaharishi alone
remonstrated against the injustice of Daksha's
neglect of Śiva but in vain. Then Dadhicha
cursed all those who were present to become vēda
bāhyas and lovers of lower religious systems and
even to lose the favour of Vishņu on which they so
much counted. He then invoked there the
presence of Śiva. Just then Pārvatí also
requesting Śiva to destroy the irregular sort of
yāga that was being performed by Prācbētas. He
acceded to her request and created Virabhadra
with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, powerful
shoulders, a thousand arms, and resembling in
brightness the fire that devours the universe at the
end of an æon ; having side-tusks, carrying the
saikha, the chakra and a bow and besmeared with
ashes; this Virabhadra was sent to destroy the
yāga of Prāchētas. Pārvati, in her turn, created
Bhadrakāļi and sent her also with Virabhadra,
with a body of gaņas to help them. Virabhadra
destroyed the yāga and in the action that ensued
put out the eyes and plucked the teeth of Sūrya,
183
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

cut off the hands and the tongue of Agni, cursed

Indra's arm , that had been lifted up to strike, to
remain stiff in the same position. Chandra was
crushed by the toe of Virabhadra and Vishņu's
vehicle Garuņa had to flee for life. Daksha came
to his senses and prayed to Śiva, who became
pleased with him and promised the headship over
the gaņas at the end of that æon and dis
appeared.
An altogether different tale is found in the
Varāhapurāņa. Rudra was born from the anger
of Brahmā ; the latter asked him to create beings,
which he did not care to do, but lay in inactivity .
Brahmā therefore created Daksha and six other
Prajāpatis. Daksha begot a lot of children and
grand -children. Indra and other Gods, the grand
children of Daksha, began to perform sacrifices for
the pleasure of Daksha. Meanwhile Rudra who
was sunk in inactivity came and created four species
of animals ; in a short time the voices of Indra and
other gods came to be heard by Rudra who got
angry at the creation of these beings by someone
else before he himself took up the act of creation,
This anger of his glowed in the form of tongues of
fire issuing from his ears and from this fire came a
number of demons who went against the Dēvas,
attacked and destroyed their sacrifices and compelled
184
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS.

them to offer him also a portion of the offerings.

Daksha prayed to Rudra to appease his anger and
gave his daughter Gauri in marriage to Rudra.
Brahmā then allotted to Śiva and his consort a
place in Kailāsa.
The Bhagavata -purāna gives a fuller account
of the enmity between Daksha and Rudra. The
gods and the rishis were assembled at a sacrifice.
Daksha entered the ball when all the assembly,
excepting Brahmā and Mahādēva, rose up. Daksha
made his obeisance to Brahmā and sat down at his
command. But he did not like Mahādēva being
seated when he entered the ball and 80 reviled
Mahādēva in very strong and highly objectionable
language alluding to his roaming in cemeteries and
other repulsive acts and cursed him that he should
never be given thenceforth a portion in the offerings
in yāga made for thedelectation of the gods. Śiva
departed from the ball of sacrifice. Some years after,
Daksha began to perform the sacrifice known as
the Bșihaspatisava. All the gods with their wives
were seen going to attend the sacrifice; seeing
which Sati, the wife of Śiva, pressed him to
take her to her father's house for the sacrifice .
He informed her of the insult offered to him by
her father and advised her not to persist in
going to the sacrifice. But she persisted in going,
185
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and, as was predicted by her husband, was slighted

by her father. On being treated with scant
courtesy, she committed suicide. The news
of the death of his spouse reached Śiva, who
in his anger tore a lock from his matted hair ;
this lock of hair took a gigantic form . Bidden by
Śiva, this Being completely destroyed the sacrifice
of Daksha and brought him to submission to
Śiva .
The Śrītatvanidhi contains a description of the
image of Virabhadramūrti . It should have four
arms, three eyes and a terrific face with fierce side
tusks. In the left hands should be held a bow and a
gadā and in the right ones a khadga and a bāņa .
It should be wearing a garland of skulls and should
be standing on a pair of sandals. By the side of
the figure of Virabhadra there should be the figure
of Bhadrakāļi also. On the right side of Virabhadra
there should be the figures of Daksha with a
goat's head , two eyes and two horns, and with hands
held in the añjali pose .
The Kāraṇāgama has a somewhat different
description of Virabhadramūrti. It says that the
figure of Virabhadra should have four arms, three
eyes, head covered with jatās which emit fire, side
tusks, and wearing garlands composed of bells and
skulls and those made of scorpions, a yajñopavīta
186
 PLATE XLIV.

Fig. 1. Virabhadramurti : Bronze : Madras Museum. Fig. 2. Virabhadramurti : Stope : Tenkasi.

 SAŃHĀRAMŪRTIS.
of snake, and adorned with beautiful anklets ; it
should be standing upon a pair of sandals and
should have short drawers as underwear. The
colour of Virabhadra should be red ; he should have
a face indicating great anger and should look
terrific. He should carry the khadga, the khēțaka,
the dhanus and the bāna. The setting up of this
image is believed to remove all great sins and to
cure people of all their ailments.
Two photographs are reproduced in illustration
of Virabhadramūrti. The first, fig. 1, Pl. XLIV, is
of a bronze image belonging to the Madras Museum ;
its hands are broken and therefore the objects
carried in them cannot be made out. The figure
has round eyes and side -tusks indicating the terrific
nature of this aspect of Śiva. It stands upon a
pair of sandals. The second photograph, fig. 2, on
the same plate, is that of an image carved on a
pillar in the manqapa in front of the Śiva temple
at Tenkāśi and is of the 15th century A.D. In
this piece of sculpture Virabhadra has ten arms ;
three out of the five right hands carry the bāņa,
the paraśu and the khadga ; of the remaining two
hands, one holds a long sword (partly broken )
which is thrust into the neck of Daksha and the
other pulls out an arrow from the quiver. The
left hands keep in them the dhanus, the musala (?),
187
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

the pāśa, a round shield and an oblong one with a

beautiful device on it. The jațāmakuța bas round
it tongues of flames. Virabhadra is standing upon
the prostrate body of Daksha-Prajāpati.
Fig. 1, Pl. XLV, represents Daksha -Prajāpati
and his wife ; this piece of sculpture is to be found
in Angūr in the Bellary district and belongs to the
Chālukya -Hoysaļa school and is executed very
well . It is to be noted that Daksha has the face
of a goat.
The Śiva -purāņa gives the account of the
destruction by Śiva of the asura
8. Jalandhara named Jalandhara . The fire that
haramurti.
emanated from the forehead of
Śiva at the time of the destruction of the three
castles of the Tripurāsuras was let into the sea
where Sindhu joins it . This rose up as a child
named Jalandhara . When he grew old he loved
and married Brinda, the daughter of Kālanēmi and
became reputed as the most powerful king in the
world . Once upon a time Rāhu , with his maimed
body came to the court of Jalandhara ; he was asked
about the cause of his deformation to which Rāhu
replied that when the Milky Ocean was churned, he
misconducted himself and was therefore punished,
and added that the gods then took away from
the ocean a great quantity of gems. The news of
188
 PLATE XLV .

)-AG
IT

PDaksha
.1rajapati
.0
-Fig
wife
his
:and Fig
SAndhakāsurav
.2.tone
:Panel adhamūrti
ngur
District
: ellary
A.,BStone Daśāvatāra
Cave
.:Ellora
 SAHĀRAMŪRTIS .

the possession by the dēvas of a lot of riches induced

Jalandhara to wage war against them and he began
in right earnest to attack them. The gods com
plained about their lot to Vishņu who fought hard
but unsuccessfully with Jalandhara ; meanwhile
Jalandhara's might evoked Vishņu's admiration,
as a consequence of which , Vishņu asked Jalan
dhara to ask for any boon he desired. The asura
took this opportunity to request Visliņu and his
consort Lakshmi, to come and reside in his capital.
Vishņu was therefore obliged to repair to the city of
Jalandhara. The gods then desired that Śiva should
become hostile to the asura and kill him. For
this purpose, they induced Nārada to kindle enmity
between the asura and Śiva. Nārada went straight
to the palace of Jalandhara and told him that such
a pretty damsel as Pārvati,the consort of Śiva, was
alone the fittest partner in life to Jalandhara and
that he should therefore make every attempt to
possess her. Thus incited by Nārada, Jalandhara
despatched immediately messengers to Śiva to
surrender Pārvati to him . Śiva forth with set out
for battle with this impudent asura, but very
soon the gaņas of Śiva were put to fight by the
asura . Śiva then appeared in person for a combat,
but did not succeed well . In the meantime Jalan
dhara created , with his māyā, a host of very pretty
189
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Gandharvas and Apsarasas and made them sing and

dance before Śiva, who became absorbed in the
dance and music ; he became unaware of the fact that
his weapons dropped down from his hands. Seeing
that that was the best opportunity for him, Jalan
dhara assumed the form of Śiva and proceeded to
Pārvati to ravish her. But she knew the person
who was disguised as Śiva and invoked Vishṇu to
come to her help. Vishņu appeared on the scene ;
Pārvati requested Vishậu to ravish Brindā, the
wife of Jalandhara . Pārvati's wishes were carried
out immediately. Brinda not being able to bear
the indignity offered to her committed suicide and
died, cursing Vishņu that in one of his avatāras
he should suffer the loss of his wife by abduction
by another. Jalandhara could not find Pārvati at
her abode, hence he returned . Śiva had also re
covered from the spell of the music ; a battle ensued
in which Jalandhara was killed with the Sudarsana
chakra which Śiva obtained from the sea. Thus
ended the life of the asura Jalandhara .
The description of the image of Jalandhara
haramūrti is given as follows : The colour of
Śiva in this aspect is red ; he should have three
terrific looking eyes, and only a single pair of arms ;
in the right hand he should carry an umbrella and
in the left a kamandalu . On his head should
190
 SANHĀRAMŪRTIS.

be a dishevelled jațābhāra containing in it the

crescent moon and Gangā. He should be adorned
with kundalas in the ears, hāras on the neck and
anklets on his legs and his feet of Śiva should
rest on a pair of sandals. The posture of ſiva
should be such as to indicate his desire to move
quickly.
Jalandhara should be represented with two
arms, and be adorned with kirīta, kankaņa
(bracelets) and all other ornaments. He must
have a sword tucked up below his forearm, while
the two hands should be held in the añjali pose.
On the hands thus held there should be the Sudar
sanachakra . The colour of Jalandhara should be
yellow .
Anantānandagiri in his Śankaravijaya states
9. Mallari Siva. that there was a quarter called
Malla in Ujjayini. In it dwelt a
sect of people who were adoring Śiva in the aspect of
Mallāri and conducting themselves like dogs, after
the fashion of the dog -vehicle of Mallāri, barking
like it and putting on the appearance of the dog,
adorning their necks with garlands made of shells.
They believed that Mallāri was the origin of the
whole universe and were offering pūjā to him as
the Supreme Being. Sankarāchārya proved to
them that their appearing like dogs and barking
191
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

like them and other characteristic customs of

theirs were opposed to the śāstras and converted
them to the religion of the Brāhmaṇas.
The aspect Mallāri that is referred to above is
described in the Mallāri -māhātmya thus : Mallāri
is to be of the colour of gold, wearing on his jațā
makuta, the crescent moon, in his ears white
shining kunđalas, and round his neck, necklaces of
rubies and pearls and a garland of flowers. In his
arms there should be bracelets of snakes and he
should be clad in yellow silk garments. The orna
ments of Śiva should be hidden here and there by the
hoards of snakes and there must be a smile playing
upon the lips of Śiva. In the hands are to be seen
a ďamaru and a khadga. His vehicle is to be a
white horse and he must be surrounded by seven
dogs.
The paurāṇic story of the destruction by Śiva
of the great demon Andhakāsura
10. Andhaka
suravadha -murti.
has already been given in connec
tion with the Sapta -Mātřikās on
pages 379-382 in Volume I. To illustrate the
descriptions of the aspect of Śiva as Andhakāsura
vadha -mūrti, three photographs are reproduced ,
all of which belong to the Cave-temples of the
Bombay Presidency. The sculptures represented
on Pls. XLV - XLVII, belonging as they do to
192
 PLATE XLVI.

다
23401

Andbakāsurayadhamurti : Stone Panel : Elephanta.

PLATE XLVII.

Andhakāsurayadhamūrti : Stone Panel :

Kailāsa Temple : Ellora.
 SAŇHĀRAMŪRTIS.

one school, bear a strong family likeness; the

artists have dwelt upon the subject in exactly
the same manner and it is therefore sufficient
to describe one of these pieces of sculpture. In
all the three instances, Śiva has eight arms, in
two of which he carries a triśūla , at the end of
which is pinned the body of Andhakāsura and from
it blood drops down. The goddess Yōgēśvari,
squatting on the ground, holds in her hand a cup
in which she catches the blood -drops as they trickle
down. Śiva himself bears the kapāla in one of his
hands to collect in it the blood flowing down from
the body of Andhakāsura. In the other hands of
the sculpture of the Daśāvatāra cave, Śiva is seen
keeping the damaru and the khadga ; two other
hands of his hold stretched the skin of the elephant
in the shape of a prabhāmandala and the remain
ing hand is held in the tarjani pose.
Yögāśvari or Kāli carries in her other hand a
short curved dagger : her body is represented as
very emaciated and her head is surrounded by a
jațāmandala. Just above the head of Kāļi is the
figure of a ďākiņi, half human and half bird, sitting
waiting for her prey of human flesh.
On the right of Kāļi is the Dāvi, seated upon
a padmāsana and viewing with awe the events that
are taking place before her.
193
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The sculpture belonging to the Kailasa at

Ellora and that belonging to the Elephanta Cave
are not different in their description, but it must
be noted that the latter is one of the finest pieces
of workmanship of the period to which it belongs ;
in this sculpture, one hand of Śiva carries a ghanta
instead of the damaru.

194
OTHER UGRA FORMS OF SIVA .
 OTHER UGRA FORMS OF SIVA .
MONG the rites and ceremonies that are pre
A scribed for kings for attaining success against
their enemies is the adoration of
11.Aghoramurti.
Aghoramūrti. The description of
the rites that have to be performed is given in the
Lingapurāņa. A priest who has attained mantra
siddhi or the power of efficaciously using mantras,
should for that purpose repair to a place where there
is a corpse or where there is a temple dedicated to
the Saptamātřikas (or the seven mothers), and con
struct five kuņņas ( receptacles for fires), one on each
cardinal point and one in the centre. On the four
teenth day of the dark fortnight * the ceremonies

* The fourteenth tithi of the dark fortnight of the month

of Phalguni is known as Agbõra -chaturdasi; it is said that
those who worship Siva in the aspect of Aghõra on this day
will be taken to Siva's abode.
भाद्रमास्यसिते पक्षे ह्यघोराख्या चतुर्दशी ।
तस्यामाराधितशम्भुनयेच्छिवपुरं ध्रुवम् ॥
( Apte's Sanskrit Dictionary.)

197
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

ought to be begun and continued to the eighth day in

the succeeding bright half of the next month . During
this period the priest with four of his disciples, who
have also attained mantra -siddhi, should sit in
front of the kundas, himself occupying the middle
and the four disciples the four quarters, before
the kundas and perform homa sacrifices in the fire
concentrating their thought upon Aghora. Then
they should make a wooden effigy of the enemy
king, place it in one of the kunļas with the head
downwards and burn it with the fire brought from
the burning ground. There are a few other minor
ceremonies of no great interest.
The following is the`description of the Aghora
who is required to be meditated upon. The figure
of Aghora should have eight arms; in the hands
are to be seen the śūla, damaru , pāśa , kapāla,
daņda, dhanus, bāņa and khadga ; the neck of
Aghora should be blue and his complexion black.
He should be naked, or be clad in the skin of the
elephant and the lion and be adorned with orna
ments composed of snakes and scorpions, and be
covered with the ashes of the dead bodies of human
beings. His face should be terrific in appearance
and should have side tusks. A snake should bind
his hair and he should be surrounded by demons and
goblins.
198
 OTHER UGRA FORMS OF SIVA.

Another description, according to which the

Aghoramūrti is generally sculptured and set up in

temples, is found in the Kāraṇāgama. In this

work he is known as the Agbõrāstramūrti andit is
stated therein that the image of this aspect of Siva
is set up for gaining victory, for destroying such
great sins as brahmahatyā or brahmanicide and for
granting riches. Aghūrā stramūrti should have
three eyes, eight arms and be of terrific look, with
side tusks. The colour of this aspect of Śiva is
dark . He is to be draped in red clothes, adorned
with garlands of red flowers, ornaments set with
rubies, a garland of skulls, and another composed
of short daggers (khadgamālā) and a third of
scorpions. His hair should be flaming and his
forehead marked with ashes in the shape of the
crescent moon. In his two hands he should carry
a triśūla horizontally as though about to charge
with it, and the other hands should hold a vētāļa,
khadga, damaru, kapāla and khaąga ( ghanțā ?).
A third description is given in the ſivatat
varatnākara . According to this, Aghora has a
single face, and thirty-two arms ; on the head is a
jațā -makuța and in it the crescent moon . He
should have three eyes. In his right hands are to
be abhaya, khadga, śūla, chakra, damaru , a bone,
bāņa, gadā, a lotus flower, kapāla, jñānamudra,
199
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

kunda, arkuśa, akshamāla , khatvānga and parasu ;

in the left hands, varada, kavacha (shield), tanka,
pāśa, mudgara, a snake, agni, mriga, ghanțā, dhanus,
katyavalambita-hasta, ratnas or gems, a water lily,
a pitcher, musaļa and pustaka . This Aghoramūrti
should have also a garland of skulls and be standing
upon the severed head of Kāla. An image of the
above description is believed to grant all protection
to its votaries.
Aghoramūrti with ten arms is described as
possessing three eyes and a terrific
12. Dasabhuja countenance. The colour of his
Aghoramurti.
body is blue and that of the
garments red. There are to be snake ornaments
all over the body. In his ten hands he should
carry the parašu , damaru, khaďga, khēțaka, bāņa,
dhanus, śūla and lapāla and the remaining hands
should be held in the varada and abhaya poses.
Two photographs, figs. 1 and 2 on Pl . XLVIII,
are reproduced in illustration of Aghoramūrti, both of
which belong to Southern India. The first image is
to be found in the Śiva temple at Tirukkalukkunram
and the other in the Śiva temple at Pattiśvaram .
Both of them are almost similar to each other ; in
these pieces of sculpture two front hands bear the
triśūla in a horizontal position, while the other
hands carry the ghanța, the pāśa, the khēțaka,
200
 UUS
PLATE XLVIII .

aram
tone mūrti tone
TSAghoramūrti
.2.irukkalukkupram
.:Fig
Aghora
P.:S. .attiśv
1Fig
 OTHER UGRA FORMS OF SIVA .

kapala, the khadga and the damaru. The head

is surrounded by tongues of flames and the face, with
its round eyes and the side-tusks, indicates the
terrific nature of this image. Round the neck is a
large garland of skulls reaching down to the ankles
and the prabhā -mandala surrounds the figure.
An asura named Dūshana was giving trouble
to the Brāhmaṇas residing in and near Ujjayini.
They prayed to Śiva to relieve them from the
visitations of the cruel asura . Śiva pleased with
the prayers of the Brāhmaṇas,
13. Mahakala
with Mabakali. appeared on the spot and with a
breath of his reduced Dūshaņa to
ashes. The Brāhmaṇas then prayed to Śiva to
stay in their midst; Śiva assumed the form
of a Jyotirlinga and the name Mahākāļa and
stopped at Ujjayini. Such is the account of
Mabākāla of Ujjayini as given in the ſivapurāņa.
The description of the image of Mabākāļa with
his consort Mabākāļi is found inthe Lalitopākhyana.
It is stated therein that Mahākāļa should be em
bracing Mabākāļi and be wearing a black coat.
The colour of Mabākāļa is black. His eyes should
be red on account of the excessive drink in which
he is indulging ; he should bedrinking from the brah
māņda (the colossal shell from which Brahmā was
born ) used as a vessel to hold the liquor. His sight
201
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

must itself be resting fondly on his dark coloured

consort Mahākāļi, and both of them should be seated
upon a simhāsana. Mahākāla, swallower of the
Universe, should have by his side Kāļa and Mțityu.
He should also be meditating upon Lalitā , doing
pūjā to her and bestowing long life on her devotees.

202
ANUGRAHAMURTIS.
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS .
have already stated Śiva possesses also
ASs thewe faculty of affording grace to his votaries
and that in this aspect he is said to be an Anugraha
mūrti. Let me proceed with the description of
some of the anugrahamūrtis of Śiva.
In the village of ſeyñalūr on the bank of the
river Maņņi in the Chāļa country
1. Chandesanu
grahamurti. there lived a pious and learned
Brāhmaṇa named Yajñadatta of
the Kāśyapagātra. He had a son by name Vichā
raśarman of great intelligence. One day when the
lad was going to the school, he saw a cowherd
assaulting brutally a cow, that sacred animal
which deserves being worshipped. Incensed at the
behaviour of the cowherd, young Vichāraśarman
took upon himself the duty of tending the cows of
the village, to which the villagers acceded . From
that day the cows became happy and began to yield
much more milk than their udders could hold and
naturally the extra milk began to flow out. Vichā
raśarman seeing that the milk was wasted, collected
205
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

it in vessels, set up lingas made of sand and

began to bathe them with this extra milk, with
intense piety for Śiva. The cowherd who lost his
position on account of this Brāhmaṇa boy, found
this a fine cause for denouncing him and immedia
tely repaired to the village and reported to the
villagers that the boy Vichāraśarman was wantonly
milking the cows, drinks milk with his chums and
spills the rest on mounds of sand. The complaint
thus often repeated, made one of the villagers go
and see for himself the truth of the accusation pre
ferred by the cowherd and to his surprise he saw
young Vichāraśarman actually pouring milk on
sand mounds, but he did not pause to investigate
and see that it was only the extra milk that the
boy, in his intense devotion to Śiva, was offering to
the sand -made symbol of the linga. Forthwith
he complained to the father of the boy, Yajñadatta,
about the wickedness of his son. On this complaint
the father also went one day to the river side
to see what his boy was doing and found him
in the act of spilling milk in the sand. He ap
proached the boy and stood near him, but, in his
deep devotion the proximity of the father was not
perceived by Vichāraśarman. On seeing the
apparent mischief of his son, Yajñadatta, in anger,
kicked the mound of sand ; whereupon the son
206
 ANUGRAHAMORTIS .

woke up from his reverie and cut off with his axe
the leg that kicked the object of his worship with
the result that Yajñadatta fell. Śiva who was
pleased with the devotion of this boy Vichāra
šarman appeared on the scene with his consort
Pārvati and offered him his grace. Śiva told the
boy that in his intense love for himself (Śiva) he
even went to the extent of cutting off the leg of
his father, and promised him that thenceforth he
would be in loco -parentis to him , embraced him
and made him the head of his ganas and the
steward of his household under the name of Chan
ņāsa. Śiva commanded that thenceforth the
offerings made to bim must be given to Chaņņēs
vara, the clothes worn by him should be set aside
for his devotee and in token of his favour he also
tied round the head of Vichāraśarman the flower
garland then worn by him .
The scene representing Śiva as offering to
Chaņdēía his grace is described in the Arśumad
bhēdāgama. Śiva should be seated with Pārvati
as in the case of Umāsabitamūrti described already.
But his face should be turned a little to the left ;
his right hand should be held in the varada pose
and the left hand be placed on the head of Chaņņēša.
With hands folded in the añjali pose Chaņņēša
should be standing on a padmāsana in front of
207
 HINDU IOONOGRAPHY.

Śiva ; the colour of Chaņdēša is golden yellow .

The Uttarakāmikāgama states that Śiva and Umā
should be seated as in the case of Chandraśēkhara
mūrti and Chaņņāśvara with hands in the añjali
pose should be either standing or sitting before
Śiva, who with his right hand should be holding
the end of a flower- garland and with the left hand
tying it round the head of Chaņdēša. The height
of the figure of Chaņņēša may be up to the knee,
thigh, navel , breast, neck or mouth of that of
Śiva and it should be made in accordance with the
adhama -daśa - tāla measurement. The Pūrva
kāraṇāgama and the silparatna have practically
the same description as that found above.
Four pictures are reproduced to illustrate the
description given above. The first fig. 1, Pl . XLIX ,
is of a sculpture to be seen in the big Śiva temple at
Gangaikoņdaśõlapuram , built by Rājāndraśõla, the
son of Rājarāja the great. In this is seen ſiva
seated with his wife Pārvati on a seat, below which
is seated Chaņņēša. In the two back hands of ſiva
are the parašu and the mriga ; the right front hand
holds the end of a flower garland and the left front
one is tying it round the head of Chaņņēša. This
fine piece of sculpture belongs to the Chõļa period
and is of the first quarter of the eleventh century
A.D.
208
 .G.
T.A
PLATE XLIX .

Chaņdāś
1.::S.tone ānugrahamurti
Fig
S2:Chaņdāśānugrah
. .tone
Fig amūrti
.
Gangaikondasol apuram Conjeevaram
.
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS .

The original of the second illustration, fig. 2,

Pl . XLIX is found in the Kailāsanātha temple
at Conjeevaram . In this ſiva is standing on his
right leg, while the left one is resting upon &
raised seat. He has four hands, the right one of
which is held in the varada pose ; it is not quite
clear from the photograph what objects are kept in
the remaining hands. To the right of Śiva stands
Chaņņēsvara with the axe with which he cut down
the leg of his fatber resting upon his right shoulder.
Below him and fallen on the ground is the father of
Chaņņēša, with his left hand held in the vismaya
pose. The sculpture is in a highly damaged condi
tion. It belongs to the reign of the Pallava King
Rājasimha and is of the 7th century A.D. The third
and the fourth illustrations, figs. 1 and 2, Pl.L, are of
the Chaņdēśānugrahamūrtis sculptured on the base
of the gõpura in front of the Sthāņunāthasvamin
temple at Suchindram and on the pillar in the front
mandapa of the Minākshi-Sundarēśvara temple
at Madura respectively. They both resemble the
sculpture at Gangaikondaśālapuram .
Vishņu obtained through the grace of Siva
the chakra and the circumstances
2. Vishnvanu-
grahamurti, or
thereof are narrated in the ſiva
Chakrad'a na
murti. purana . On one occasion Vishņu
found himself unable to conquer

209
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

certain asuras, and prayed to Śiva for the grant of

the chakra which was in Śiva’s possession . To
his prayer he added a pājā in which he employed a
thousand lotus flowers daily. One day he sat for
pājā with the required number of flowers but at
the end he missed one flower, which, to test the
strength of his devotion Śiva had secreted ;
Vishņu at once plucked one of his eyes which
are always compared to lotuses, (kamala-lochana)
and threw the same in offering on Śiva. Śiva became
so pleased with the devotion of Vishịu that he
presented him with the chakra which was originally
in his possession . This fact is also alluded to in
the Mahābhārata .
The Uttarakāraṇāgama and the Śrītattvanidhi
give the description of the Chakradānamūrti. The
first authority states that Śiva should have three
eyes, four arms, a pacific appearance, and the
jatāmakuța on the head. The left leg should
be bent and be resting on the seat, while the
right one should hang down. In the right hands
are to be the tanka and the chakra, the left ones
being in the varada pose and holding a krishna
mriga. Surrounding the head of Śiva is to be a
prabhāmaņờala and a siraśchakra. On the left of
Śiva should be seated Pārvati and on the right
Brabmā should be standing. Vishậu, with hands
210
 PLATE L

Fig. 1. Cbandēsānugrabamurti : Stone : Fig. 2. Obandēśānugrabamurti : Stone :

Madura. Sucbiodram .
 G
TA
PLATE LI .

namurti
Obakrad
Visbņvanugrabamūrti
):(oFig
.1.r Visbạvanugrab
2:SFig
. .tone amūrti
CStone
:. onjeevaram ,Madura
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS.

folded in the añjali pose, should be worshipping or

doing pūjā to Śiva with lotuses and his eye.
The Śrītattvanidhi is not particular about the
tanka in the hand of Śiva, but gives the alternative
of carrying the parašu. In this work it is stated
that Vishậu ought to be standing to the left of ſiva
in such a manner as to indicate his readiness to
receive the boons and the chakra, after finishing his
pājā of Śiva with lotuses and his eye. Śiva should
be seen presenting Vishņu with a pītāmbara (a
yellow garment), the kaustubha (an ornament) and
the chakra, as also the name Kainalāksha to Vishņu.
Vishņu should be black in colour, clad in yellow
garments and adorned with all ornaments. In two
of his hands should be the sankha and the chakra
and the other two should be held in the anjali
pose .

Two illustrations of Vishộvanugrahamūrti are

reproduced . The first of these, Pl. LI , fig. 1,
belongs to the Kailāsanātha temple at Conjeevaram .
Śiva is seated on a raised seat with his consort,
having his two back hands raised up in astonishment
(vismaya pose ), the right front hand rests upon the
seat, the remaining left hand being held in the
simhakarna pose. Behird Śiva stands an attendant
and below the seat is seen Vishņu kneeling ; with
one of his left hands he is plucking out his eye, the
211
 HINDU IOONOGRAPHY.

other left hand holding the last remaining lotus

flower ; the front right one is held in the kataka pose,
while the remaining hand is not visible in the
photograph. The second illustration, fig. 2, Pl. LI,
is of a piece of sculpture found in the Minākshi
Sundarāśvara temple at Madura . In it, Śiva and
Pārvati are seated upon a bhadrāsana and Siva
is seen presenting the chakra to Vishņu , who is
standing reverently and receiving it.
Nandikāśvara is an important adjunct to the
family of ſiva. His history is given in detail under
Nandikēśvara or Adhikāra - Nandi
3. Nandisanu
grahamurti. elsewhere in this volume. When
Nandi's tenure of life on earth was
coming to an end, he prayed intensely to śiva to
grant him a longer lease of life. Śiva appeared and
granted him his prayer, as also the command
over a portion of his gaņas, and complete exemp
tion from old age and pain. He then took the boy
near him and threw round his neck the flower
garland that was gracing his own. At once he be
came a duplicate of Śiva, with three eyes and ten
arms. Śiva took a quantity of the water of the
Ganges which he had tied in his jațā and sprinkled
it upon Nandi. It began to flow as the river
Jatodaka. Śiva ordered his consort Pārvati to treat
Nandi thenceforth as her own son . She also smelled

212
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS.

the top of the head of Nandi* and milk began to

flow from her breast and fall in three spouts on the
head of Nandi ; this milk also became a river under
the name Trisrõtas. Nandi out of joy bellowed
then like the bull . This noise also gave rise to a
river named Vțishadhvani. Śiva still more pleased
with Nandi presented him with his own golden
makuta and ear -rings set with precious gems. Sūrya
seeing that Nandi was thus honoured and loved by
Śiva sent a cool downpour of rain. The water
having come in contact with the gold of the makuta,
began to flow as two rivers named Svarņõdaka
and Jāmbūnadi. Thus near Japyāśvara the place
where all these events occurred , five rivers began to
flow . Nandi was afterwards crowned as the lord of
the gañas and was married to Suyaśa the daughter
of the Marut gañas.
In this aspect of Śiva, Vighnēśvara seems to
have been blessed by Śiva imme
4.Vighnesvare- diately after he was restored to life
by placing on his shoulders the
head of an elephant. (For this account of Gaņēša,
see Vol. I, pp. 36-39). Śiva should have, as usual,
four arms, three eyes and the head adorned with a
jatā -makuța and he should be seated with his
* An instinctive practice of mothers in regard to their
obildren ,

213
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

consort Pārvati. Śiva should have one of his right

hands in the abhaya pose and placed on the head of
Vighnāśvara ; the corresponding left hand should be
in the varada pose and the remaining hands should
be shown as carrying the parašu and the mriga.
The right leg of Śiva should be bent and be resting
on the seat while the left one should be hanging
down. The colour of Siva is to be black and there
should be all ornaments on his person. Near him
on the left should be seated Pārvati, smiling and
keeping in her right hand an utpala flower and
holding the left hand in the varada pose.
Curiously enough, it is stated here that Pārvati
should have three eyes. She too has her right leg
bent and the left one hanging.
Vighnēśvara, of red colour, adorned with a
kirītamakuța op his head , and carrying in his hands
the pāśa and ankuśa, should be standing reverently
before Śiva with his other two hands held in the
añjali pose .
Arjuna was presented by Śiva with the powerful
weapon named the pāśupatāstra to
6. Kiratarjuna- fight
murti.
successfully
fight successfullyagainst the
Kauravas. The account of the
gift of the weapon by Śiva is narrated in the
Vanaparvan of the Mahābhārata thus : Arjuna
being advised by Indra to beseech Śiva to grant him
214
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS.
the powerful pāśupatāstra , went north to the Hima
laya mountain, where he began to observe severe
austerities for pleasing Śiva. The rishis were
alarmed at the severity of the austerities of Arjuna
and reported the matter to Śiva. Śiva being
already aware of the reason for the penance of
Arjuna, pacified the șishis and himself assuming
the form of a kirāta (hunter ) approached Arjuna.
Just at that moment an asura in the form
of a boar was about to attack Arjuna ; Arjuna
having seen the boar coming against him aimed
his arrow against it , but the kirāta disputed
the right of Arjuna to shoot the boar which he was
the first to aim at. Arjuna not consenting to the
claim of the kirāta, they both simultaneously shot
the boar and killed it . Arjuna then reviled the
kirāta as an ansportsman - like person, upon which
a fight ensued between the kirāta and Arjuna, in
which the latter was uniformly unsuccessful, and
1 at the end fell exhausted . After he regained his
senses, he recognised in the kirāta Śiva himself
and fell at his feet and praised him. Śiva in his
turn admired the strength and courage of Arjuna
and promised the most powerful weapon which
Arjuna was praying for and was fit to employ,
1

namely the pāśupatāstra . Thus did Arjuna procure

from Śiva the pāśupatāstra .
215
 PLATE LII

: Stone
-
Kirātamūrti tone
SPāśupatāstr
:Fig
.2.risailam adādamūrti
.
Tiruchchengāţtanguậi
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The Kirātārjunamūrti is described as having

four arms, three eyes and a jațāmakuta on the
head . He is adorned with all ornaments and wears
nice garments and a yajñopavita. His colour is
red. He is to be standing perfectly erect (sama
bhanga) carrying in his hands the dhanus, the baņa,
the paraśu and the mriga. Arjuna is to be seen
standing on the right of Siva and Gauri on the left.
Arjuna should be represented as having only one
face, set with two eyes and standing with his hands
held in the añjali pose. His head should be
adorned with a jațāmakuța and his person with all
ornaments .

Two illustrations are given of the Kirātamūrti.

The first belongs to the ſiva temple at Tiruch
chengāttanguậi, in which Śiva and Pārvati stand
together. The former carries the parašu , the
mriga and a bow . The photograph is of an image
to be found in Śrībailam . In this is seen Śiva
portrayed in the act of giving the weapon pāśu
patāstra to Arjuna. (See Pl. LII, figs. 1 and 2).
The weapon pāśupatāstra is described in the
Saivāgamas as a person thus :-The Pāśupatāstra
should have four faces each with three eyes ; it
should have four arms and terrific faces with awful
tusks, stiff hair and fierce moustache, all lending
strongly the impression that it is a terrific aspect
216
 ANUGRAH AMŪRTIS.

of Siva. In the four hands there should be the

śakti, the mudgara, the sankha and the khadga.
This image representing the Pasupatāstra should be
seated upon a padmāsana.
Rāvaņa, king of Lanka, having gone to defeat
Kubēra, was returning after achieving his purpose.
On his way he came to Śaravaņa, the place in
whicb. Kārttikeya was born . He ascended the
hill, from the top of which he saw
5. Ravananu
grahamurti. a much more pleasant garden
whither he drove his vimāna Push
paka. But wben it neared the place it would not
move any further. At this place Rāvaņa met a
tawny coloured, monkey -faced and powerful dwarf,
by name Nandikēśvara, one of the strong adherents
of Śiva, who, on being asked why the car was un
able to move further, told Rāvaņa that Mabādēva
with his consort Umā was sporting on the mountain
and had prohibited all, even the gods, from crossing
that way. In great anger Rāvaņa asked who that
Mahādēva was and laughed contemptuously at the
monkey -faced Nandikēśvara. Nandikēśvara, who
was no other than a form of Śiva, grew incensed at
the insult offered to him by Rāvaņa and cursed that
he should be destroyed by monkeys like himself in
appearance and strength. Not being able to proceed
further and being cursed by Nandikāśvara, Rāvaņa
217
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

determined to pluck up the mountain Kailāsa, from

its very roots, threw his ten arms round the moun
tain and began to lift it up. He was able to move
it, so that those that were on it trembled and Umā
actually began to shake out of fear and clung to her
lord. Śiva, learning the real cause , pressed the
mountain with the great toe of his foot, which fixed
the mountain firmly as of old and also pinned down
Rāvaņa underneath it. Rāvaņa seeing his own
miserably helpless condition , and advised by his
counsellors to propitiate Mabādēva wept for a
thousand years, singing hymns in praise of Śiva ;
the latter was at last pleased with Rāvaņa, whom
he presented with a sword at his request and let
him to return to Lanka. Because at the time he
cried, he was given the name Rāvaņa .
Three photographs are reproduced in illustra
tion of this legend. The first and second, Pls . LIII
and LIV belong to the Ellora rock caves and the
third to Bēlūr in the Mysore State. The first
which is to be found in the Daśāvatāra cave is
one of the finest pieces of sculpture extant in
India. The natural proportions of each image in
the group, the great realism in their moulding
and the expression on the face of many a figure
in it, especially the fright of Parvati, all these
are admirably worked out. In this group,
218
 PLATE LIII

Rāvaņānugrahamürti : Stone Panel : Ellora.

 PLATE LIV .

E:Panel
S. llora
tone nugrahamurti
Råvaṇa
 PLATE Lv.

Rāvaņānugrahamurti ;
Stone : Bölür.
 ANUGRAHAMŪRTIS.

Śiva and Pârvati are seated upon the mountain

Kailāsa which the artist has in the conven
tional manner represented as a pile of rhomboidal
pieces. Surrounding this pair are seen two of his
own attendants and two female attendants of
Părvati and on either side are two of the gaņas,
dwarfish little fellows standing in a very reverential
attitude. Below the mountain is to be seen
Rāvaņa, of mighty strength trying to up -root
the Kailāsa hill. His posture is suggestive of the
display of his strong muscular energy . Pārvati, in
great fear, embraces the well-proportioned and well
built body of Śiva, who is calm and unperturbed,
and is seen in his turn embracing and reassuring his
frightened consort.
The second panel which is found in the so
called Dhumar Lena Cave, is almost similar to the
above described sculpture, but utterly lacks the
spirit and realism of the former. The other differ
ences between the two are that in the latter there
are more gaņas and a number of gods with their
consorts praising Śiva and Pārvati.
The original of the third photograph is sculp
tured on the south wall of the central shrine of
Chennakāśavasvāmin temple at Bālir. It is a most
elaborately carved piece of sculpture and is charac
teristic of the Hoysala style. The Kailāsa mountain
819
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

is so minutely carved as to accommodate in it

a large number of gods and goddesses and all
sorts of animals, from the elephant down to the
snake. On the top and in a finely carved
manďapa are seated Mahādēva and Pārvati, sur
rounded by a number of other deities who are
praising Mahādēva. Below the mountain is to be
seen Rāvaņa in a kneeling posture trying to lift up the
mountain, as in the other photographs. He has a
sword in his hands, perhaps the one presented to
him by Śiva.

220

1
NRITTAMURTIS .
 NỘITTAMŪRTIS .
IVA, we have already said, is a great master
in the art of dancing. He was often dancing
in ecstacy on the burning ground with great glee,
accompanied by sweet music in which also he was
a great expert. The Bharata -Nătyaśāstra men
tions a hundred and eight different kinds of dances
and in the Gaivāgamas it is stated that Śiva danced
in a hundred and eight modes. Perhaps the one
hundred and eight kinds of dances mentioned in the
śāstra are identical with the one hundred and eight
modes of dances of Śiva. The Nātya -śāstras dis
tinctly mention the necessity of dancing for both
males and females ; in the case of the former,
dancing is said to give a suppleness to the limbs,
which is very useful in warfare. It is very curious
that all the one hundred and eight kinds of dances
are sculptured on either side of a gopura in the
Natarāja temple at Chidambaram with their de
scriptions in Sanskrit as they are found in the
Bharata -Nătya -śāstras engraved below each one
of them . These sculptures and the texts are
223
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

reproduced in the Madras Epigraphist's Annual

Report for 1913-14 .
The Saivāgamas, state that Śiva danced in a
hundred and eight modes but content themselves
with the description of nine modes only as it is very
difficult to describe all. Of these the first variety
is the one which we see associated with the figure
of Națarāja, commonly found in all Śaiva temples of
importance. According to the Amśumadbhēdāgama
the image of Naţarāja should be sculptured accord
ing to the Uttama -daśa -tāla measurement. The
front left hand should be held in the dandahasta or
the gajahasta pose across the body, and the back
left hand should carry agni either in a vessel or
upon the palm itself. In either case the agni should
be at the end, middle or the root of the middle finger.
The front right hand should be held in the
abhaya pose, the top of the middle finger of which
should be just touching the hikkā - sūtra. On the
fore-arm of this hand, there should be the sarpa
valaya, a description of which is given on page 23 in
the Chapter on Definition and description of terms
in Vol. I ; it is there called bhujangavalaya and
means the same thing as sarpavalaya. The back
right hand should keep a damaru . The right leg
should be slightly bent and placed upon the back
of the Apasmārapurusha and the knee should reach
224
 NRITTAMURTIS.
the nabhisūtra. The left leg should be lifted up,
somewhat turned towards the right leg and kept
across it. On the head of Śiva there should be the
jațāmakuţa adorned with flower garlands, dhurdhura
and arka flowers, a snake, jewelled ornaments, a
grinning human skull and the crescent moon tied
on the left side. From this jutāmakuța should
issue on either side five, six, seven or eleven jatās
and these stand either horizontally or arranged in a
circle. The body of Śiva should be adorned with
a yajñopavita, a urassūtra ( a chest band ), rings on
all fingers except the middle ones, on all toes except
the middle one and anklets on the ankles. The
face should be smiling. The chest should be
smeared with saffron paste and the rest of the
body with ashes. The garment must be made of
tiger's skin.

The Apasmāra - purusha who is trodden on by

Śiva should have his head on the right side and his
legs on the left side of Śiva. He should be black
in colour and be playing with a snake, by keeping
all his fingers in a cuplike shape, and resembling
the hood of a snake (nāga -mudrā ).
On the left of Natarāja should be standing
his consort Pārvati, in the manner described in
Umā-sabita -Chandraśēkharamūrti.
226
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The measurements of the position of the

various limbs of this image are given in Appen
dix A.
This is the first mode of dancing of Śiva as
found in the Amśumadbhēdāgama. The Uttara
Kāmikāgama gives a somewhat detailed descrip
tion, of which only those that are not already
given above are noticed here. Śiva, according to
this authority, should have four arms kept in the
poses described and holding the objects mentioned
above, three eyes and two legs disposed as in the
above description. The jațās should be spread
around the jațāmakuța . These jațās might vary
from five to thirty, each one being separated from
one another. In the intervals between the jātās
might be the flowers of dhurdhura, arka and other
plants. The colour of these jațās should be
brownish red . In the jațās on the right side there
should be the figure of Gangā with the upper
half shaped in the form of a woman and the
lower half like running water, standing with hands
in the añjali pose ; on the jatās on the left side there
should be the crescent moon. Round the neck of
Śiva there should be necklaces of different sorts ; one
should be made of pearls, another should be of
snakes, a third of vakuļa flowers and a fourth
composed of sea-shells, boar's tusks, tiger's claws
226

1
 NŽITTAMŪRTIS .
and beads, with a pendant of tortoise shell. On
his left shoulder there should be an upper garment
made of tiger's skin, a deer's skin , or a very fine
textured cotton cloth . On his left earlobe there
should be a patra-kundala and on the right one &
nakra -kundala ; on the ankles, anklets made of tiny
bells and another set composed of ornamental
designs. The colour of Śiva-Naţarāja should be
milky -white. The rest of the description is exactly
that given in the Amśumadbhēdāgama.
The Apasmāra should be made in the chatus
tāla measurement, with two arms, two eyes, with
the face downcast or looking up and should be
holding in his left hand a cobra with uplifted hood.
The height of Gangā should be equal to that of
the face of Siva. She should have three ( ?) eyes,
two arms held in the añjali pose, adorned with the
karanda -makuța and all other ornaments .
On the right side of Naţarāja ihere should be
either the ſishi Bhțingi or Bhadrakāļi.
This dance, it is said, is known as Bhujanga
trasa . If the foot of the uplifted leg is kept higher
than the knee of the standing leg, the dance is said
to be Bhujanga -lalita.
In the Natya- śāstra however that particular
dance which is known by the name of bhujangatrāsa
is defined as follows: one leg being bent in a
227
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

triangular fashion and liftedup while the body about

the hip and knee being slightly turned on one side, is
called bhujangatrāsa. Abhinavaguptāchārya, the
commentator of the Bharata - Natya -sastra, explains
the term Bhujangatrāsa in his Natya -veda -vivriti,
thus: ' This kind of dance is called bhujangatrāsa,
because in it the dancer suddenly lifts up his leg
as though he discovered a snake very near him ,
and appears to be of an unsteady gait. In this,
one arm should be in the dòla -hasta pose and the
other in the kațaka pose ; * and the dola -hasta
pose is defined in the Bharata -Natya -śāstra thus :
If the hand bangs down freely from the somewhat
drooping shoulder, in the form of the patākā -hasta,
it is called dola - hasta pose.t
The Bilparatna adds to the foregoing descrip
tions of the Nřittamūrti the fact that surrounding
कुञ्चितं पादमुत्क्षिप्य त्रश्रमूरु विवर्तयेत् ।
कटिजानुविवत्तौ च भुजङ्गतासितं भवेत् ॥
नृत्तस्यानादिसिद्धत्वात्करणमिदमुक्तरूपम् । असंकितदृष्टनिकटतस्सर्पत्रा
साविष्टस्येव गतिसंवर्ते भुजङ्गनासितम् । क ....................दिवशाद्वा वर्तित
परिवर्तितौ भवतः । क्रमेणैको दोलहस्तः परं खटकाख्य इति करणम् । एत
त्सादृश्यात्तु भुजङ्गत्रासिता वारिवक्ष्यते । एवं करणतुल्यनामा सर्वचारिषु वाच्यम् ॥
(नाट्यवेदविवृतिः ॥)
+ अंसौ प्रशिथिलौ मुक्तौ पताकौ तु प्रलम्बितौ ।
यदा भवेता करणे स दोल इति संझितः ॥
228
 NỘITTAMŪRTIS.
the figure of the dancing Śiva there should be a
prabhāmandala resembling the orb of the sun ; and
the Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama states that the eyes of ſiva
should resemble the shape of the bird kurari, that
in the right ear of Śiva there should be the nakra
kundala and in the left ear patrakuņdala, that the
garment of Siva should be a tiger's skin, that the
agni in the left hand should have three tongues
or flames and that between the two left hands there
should be a piece of tiger's skin to serve as the
upper garment. It further adds that the figure of
the Apasmārapurusha should be made in the
chatustāla measurement and should have three
bends in its body.
The descriptions given above of the first form
of the Nțittamūrti, refer to the figures of Națarāja
commonly occurring everywhere in Southern India.
In all Śiva temples of importance a separate place is
allotted to Natarāja which is known as the Natana
Sabhā or simply Sabhā. The most important of
these Sabhās is that at Chidambaram. From the
earliest times Chidambaram has been held very
sacred by the Saivas who call it “ the temple ”. In
the days of Tirujñānasambandha, the Śaiva saint,
that is, in the middle of the seventh century A. D. ,
it was already very famous. Further from time
immemorial the god in the temple at Chidambaram
229
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

had been the family deity of the Chõļas who were

strongly Śaiva in their persuasions. They had
covered the Sabhā with gold and hence it came to be
known as the Kanakasabhā ( or the golden hall) and
the image of Națarāja as Kanakasabhāpati. The
Sabhā at Madura, the capital of the Pāņdyas, had a
covering of silver and was known as the Rajata
sabhā. The Chōļas might have desired to out-do the
Pāņdyas in their regard for their family deity and
hence covered the Sabhā, not with silver as the
Pāņdyas had done, but with gold ; and in the days of
the king Parāntaka Chola I, the roof of the Sabhā
was regilt. (A.D. 908-948 ). At the present day the
Nāțţukkottaichettis have once again covered the
temple with gold. Chidambaram has been maintain
ing its importance from the earliest times and has
always been the seat of activity of several Śaiva
scholars. For instance, the Periyapurāņam de
scribing the lives of the sixty -three Śaiva saints was
written and published by Śēkkiļār in this temple ;
many a work on Śaiva Siddhānta was written and
published there. The saint Māņikkavāchaka spent
the evening of his life in Chidambaram and such
great Śaiva saints as Jñānasambandha, Nanda and
others are said to have been absorbed in the figure of
Śiva at Chidambaram . On account of such holy
associations, the temple at Chidambaram is clothed
230
 NŽITTAMŪRTIS.
with extraordinary sanctity and mysticism , and
a good deal of philosophical significance is attri
buted to the dancing immage of Śiva that graces
the Sabhā in the temple.
The significance of the mystic dance is
explained in several ways. The same materials
which were gathered by me for the purpose of ex
plaining the mystic nature of the dance of ſiva
have been turned to account by Dr. A. K. Ananda
kumarasvami in writing independently a very
beautiful article which he contributed to the Sid
dhanta -Dipikā (Vol. XIII, July 1912) . Since the
work has already been done by him and,if I may
respectfully say so, in quite a splendid manner,
my task is lightened and I have much pleasure in
reproducing with his kind permission, the whole of
the article here.

THE DANCE OF SIVA.

THE Lord of Tillai's Court a mystic dance

performs: what's that, my dear ?" —
Tiruvāchagam , XII, 14.
A great master-of-dancing (Natarāja) is Śiva!
The cosmos is His theatre, there are many different
steps in His repertory, He himself is actor and
audience

231
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.
When the Actor beateth the drum ,
Everybody cometh to see the show :
When the Actor collecteth the stage pro
perties,
He abideth alone in His happiness.
How many various dances of Śiva are known
to His worshippers I cannot say. No doubt the
root idea behind all of these dances is more or less
one and the same, the manifestation of primal
rhythmic energy : Śiva is the Eros Protogonos
of Lucian, when he wrote :
It would seem that dancing came into being at
the beginning of all things, and was brought
to light together with Eros, that ancient
one, for we see this primeval dancing clearly
set forth in the choral dance of the constel
lations, and in the planets and fixed stars,
their interweaving and interchange and
orderly harmony.
I do not mean to say that the most profound
interpretation of Śiva's dance was present in the
minds of those who first danced in frantic, and
perhaps intoxicated energy , in honour of the pre
Āryan hill-god, afterwards merged in Śiva. A great
motif in religion or art, any great symbol, becomes
all things to all men ; age after age it yields to men
such treasure as they find in their own hearts.
232
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.
Whatever the origins of Śiva's dance, it became in
time the noblest image of activity of God which
any art or religion can boast of. Of the various
dances of ſiva I shall only speak of three, one of
them alone forming the main subject of interpreta
tion . One is an evening dance in the Himālayas,
with a divine chorus, described as follows in the
Śiva Pradosha Stotra
“Placing the Mother of the Three Worlds
upon a golden throne, studded with precious gems,
Śūlapāņi dances on the heights of Kailās, and all
the gods gather round Him :"
Sarasvati plays on the vīņā, Indra on the
flute, Brahmā holds the time-marking cymbals,
Lakshmi begins a song, Vishņu plays on a drum ,
and all the gods stand round about:”
Gandharvas, Yakshas, Patagas, Uragas,
Siddhas, Sādbyas, Vidhyādharas, Amaras, Apsaras
and all the beings dwelling in the three worlds
assemble there to witness the celestial dance and
hear the music of the divine choir at the hour of
twilight.”
This evening dance is also referred to in the
invocation preceding the Rathā Sarit Sāgara.
In the pictures of this dance, Śiva is two
handed , and the co-operation of the gods is clearly
233
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

indicated in their position of chorus. There is no

prostrate Asura trampled under Śiva's feet. So far
as I know, no special interpretations of this dance
occur in Saiva literature.*

The second well- known dance of Śiva is called

the Tāņdava, and belongs to His tamasic aspect as
Bhairava or Virabhadra. It is performed in ceme
teries and burning grounds, where Śiva, usually in
ten -armed form , dances wildly with Dēvi, accom
panied by troops of capering imps. Representations
of this dance are common amongst ancient sculp
tures, as at Ellora, Elephanta, and also at
Bhuvanēśvara. This tāndava dance is in origin
that of a pre -aryan divinity, half -god, half-demon ,
who holds his midnight revels in the burning
ground. In later times, this dance in the cremation
ground, sometimes of Śiva, sometimes of Dāvi, is
interpreted in Śaiva and Śākta literature in a most
touching and profound sense.
Thirdly, we have the Nādānta dance of Nata
rāja before the assembly (sabhā) in the golden hall of
* It is not known upon what authorities the varieties of
dances referred to here and the descriptions of images made in
these dancing postures, are based. I am not aware of any
texts which mention a two handed figure of siva employed in
the act of dancing. (T.A.G.) .

234
 NRITTAMŪRTIS.
Chidambaram or Tillai, the centre of the Universe,
first revealed to gods and fishis after the submission
of the latter in the forest of Tāraka, as related in
the Köyil-Purāņam . The legend, which has after
all, no very direct connection with the meaning of
the dance, may be summarised as follows :
In the forest of Tāraka dwelt multitudes of
heretical fishis, followers of the Mimāmsa. Thither
proceeded Śiva to confute them, accompanied by
Vishņu disguised as a beautiful woman, and Ādi
Śēsha. The pishis were at first led to violent
dispute amongst themselves, but their anger was
soon directed against Śiva, and they endeavoured
to destroy Him by means of incantations. A fierce
tiger was created in sacrificial fires, and rushed upon
Him ; but smiling gently, He seized it and, with
the nail of His little finger stripped off its skin, and
wrapped it about Himself like a silken cloth . *
Undiscouraged by failure, the sages renewed their
offerings, and produced a monstrous serpent, which,
however, Śiva seized and wreathed about His
neck like a garland. Then He began to dance ;
but there rushed upon Him at last a monster in
the shape of a malignant dwarf, Muyalaka (the
* A similar story is elsewhere related about an elephant
and these account for the elephant or tiger skin , which Śiva
wears .

235
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

Apasmārapurusha ). Upon him the God pressed the

tip of His foot, and broke the creature's back, so
that it writhed upon the ground ; and so , His last
foe prostrate, Siva resumed the dance, witnessed by
gods and rishis.
Then Adi Śēsha worshipped Śiva, and prayed
above all things for the boon, once more to behold
this mystic dance ; Śiva promised that he should
behold the dance again in sacred Tillai, the centre
of the Universe. The dance of ſiva in Chidam
baram or Tillai forms the motif of the South Indian
copper images of Śri Natarāja, the Lord of the
Dance. These images vary amongst themselves in
minor details, but all express one fundamental
conception. Before proceeding to enquire what
these may be, it will be necessary to describe the
image of Śri Natarāja as typically represented . The
images then, represent Śiva dancing, having four
hands, with braided and jewelled hair of which the
lower locks are whirling in the dance. In his hair
may be seen a wreathing cobra, a skull, and the
mermaid figure of Gangā ; upon it rests the crescent
moon , and it is crowned with a wreath of cassia
leaves. In His right ear He wears a man's ear-ring, a
woman's in the left ; He is adorned with necklaces
and armlets, a jewelled belt, anklets, bracelets, finger
and toe -rings. The chief part of His dress consists of
236
 NỘITTAMŪRTIS.
tightly fitting breeches, and He wears also a flutter
ing scarf (angavastram ) and a sacred thread. One
right hand holds a drum (damāru, uậukkai), the
other is uplifted in abhaya mudrā (do not fear): one
left hand holds fire, the other points downward to
the lifted foot. The right foot is pressed down
upon the asura Muyalaka, a dwarf holding a cobra ;
the left foot is raised. There is a lotus pedestal,
from which springs an encircling arch of glory,
(tiruvāśi), fringed with flame, and touched within
by the hands holding drum and fire. The images
are of all sizes, rarely if ever exceeding four feet in
total height.
Even without reliance upon literary references ,
the interpretation of this dance would not be diffi
cult. Fortunately, however, we have the assistance
of a copious contemporary literature, which enables
us to fully explain not only the general significance
of the dance, but equally, the details of its concrete
symbolism . Some of the peculiarities of the
Natarāja images, of course, belong to the conception
of Śiva generally, and not to the dance in particular.
Such are the braided locks, as of a yogi : the
cassia garland : the skull of Brahmā : the figure of
Ganga, the Ganges fallen from heaven and lost in
Śiva's hair : the cobras : the different ear -rings, be
tokening the dual nature of Mabādēva, ' whose half
237
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

is Umā ' : the four arms. The drum also, is a general

attribute of Śiva, belonging to his character of yõgi,
though in the dance, it has further a special signi
ficance. What then is the meaning of Siva's dance,
as understood by Śaivas ? The dance is called
Nādānta. Its essential significance is given in texts
such as the following :
“ Our Lord is the Dancer, who, like the heat
latent in firewood, diffuses His power in mind and
matter, and makes them dance in their turn ." * +
The dance, in fact, represents His five activities
(Pañchakritya), viz., Srishti (overlooking, creation,
evolution ), Sthiti (preservation, support), Samhāra
(destruction, evolution) , Tirõbhava (veiling, em
bodiment, illusion, and also, giving rest,) Anugraha
(release, salvation, grace) . These, separately consi
dered, are the activities of the deities Brahmā,
Vishậu, Rudra, Mahāśvara and Sadāśiva.
* காட்ட அனல்போல் உடல் கலந்து உயிரையெல்லாம்
ஆட்டுவிக்கும் நட்டுவன் நம்மண்ண லெனவெண்ணாய் .
+ Kadavu ! Māmunivar's Tiruvātāvūrār Purānam Putta
raivātil-vepra- sarukkam , stanza 75, translated by Nallasvāmi
Pillai, Śivajñānabodnam , p. 74. This could also be rendered ;
Like heat latent in firewood, be fills all bodies :
Our Father dances, moving all souls into action, know
ye !
Compare Eckhart , " Just as the fire infuses the essence
and clearness into the dry wood, so has God done with man."

238

1
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.

This cosmic activity is the central motif of the

dance. Further quotations will illustrate and explain
the more detailed symbolisms. Uņmāi Viļakkam ,
verse 36, tells us :
Creation arises from the drum : protection
proceeds from the hand of hope : from fire proceeds
destruction : the foot held aloft gives mukti.” Here
mukti is the same as anugraha, release. It will be
observed that the fourth hand points to this lifted
foot, the refuge of the soul.
We have also the following from Chidambara
Mummaņi Kõvai.
“ O my Lord, Thy hand holding the sacred
drum has made and ordered the heavens and earth
and other worlds and innumerable souls. Thy lifted
hand protects the Chētana and Achētana Prapañcha
which Thou hast created. All these worlds are
changed by Thy hand bearing fire. Thy sacred foot,
planted on the ground, gives an abode to the tired
soul, struggling in the toils of karma. It is Thy
lifted foot that grants eternal bliss to those that
approach Thee. These Five-Actions are indeed
Thy handiwork.”

The following verses from the Tiruküttu

Darśana ( Vision of the Sacred Dance), forming the
239
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

ninth tantra of Tirumular's Tirumantram , expand

the central motif further :

" His form is everywhere : all- pervading is His

Siva-Sakti :
Chidambaram is everywhere, everywhere His
dance :
As Siva is all and omnipresent ,
Everywhere is Śiva’s gracious dance made
manifest.

“ His five -fold dances are in sakaļa and

mishkala form ,,
His five-fold dances are His Panchakritya :
With His grace He performs the five acts,
This is the sacred dance of Uma-Sahaya. *
“ He dances with Water, Fire, Wind and Ether,
Thus our Lord dances ever in the courtt
“ Visible to those who pass over Māyā and
Mahāmāyā ,

ஆனநடமைந்தகளசகளத்த
ரானநடமாடியைங்கருமத்தாக
வானதொழிலருளாலைந்தொழிற்செய்தே
தேன்மொழிபாகன் றிருநடமாடுமே .
+ காளியோடாடிக் கனகாசலத்தாடிக்
கூளியோடாடிக் குவலயத்தேயாடி
நீடியநீர் தீகால் நீள் வானிடையாடி
நாளுறவம்பலத்தே யாடுநாதனே .
240
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.
Our Lord dances His eternal dance."
" The form of the Sakti is all bliss (ananda) --
This united bliss is Uma's body :
This form of Śakti arising in sakaļa
And uniting the twain is the dance ᵒf
“ His body is Akas , the dark cloud therein is
Muyalaka,
The eight quarters are His eight arms,
The three lights are His three eyes,
Thus becoining, He dances in our body as the
assembly (sabhā) ” . I
This is His dance. Its deepest significance is
felt when it is realised that it takes place within
the heart and the self : the kingdom of God is
within . Everywhere is God : that Everywhere is
the heart. Thus also we find another verse :

தீமுதலைந்துந் திசையெட்டுங்கீழ்மேலு
மாயுமறிவினுக் கப்புறமானந்த
மாயைமாமாயை கடந்துநின்றார்காண
நாயகனின்று நடஞ்செய்யும் வாறே.
| சத்திவடிவுசகலவானந்தமு
மொத்தவானந்தமுமையவள்மேனியாஞ்
சத்திவடிவுசகளத்தெழுந்திரண்
டொத்தவானந்தமொருநடமாமே .
1 ஆகாசமாமுடலங்கார்முயலக
னேகாசமாந்திசையெட்டுந்திருக்கைகண்
மோகாயமுக்கண்கள் மூன்றொளிதானாக
மாகாயன்மன்றுள்நடஞ்செய்கிறாளே .
241
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

“ The dancing foot, the sound of the tinkling

bells,
The songs that are sung and the varying steps,
The forms assumed by our Dancing Guru
para
Find out these within yourself, then shall
your fetters fall away .'
To this end, all else but the thought of God
must be cast out of the heart, that He alone may
abide and dance therein . In Uņmai Viļakkam ,
we find :

' The silent jñānis destroying the threefold

bond are established where their selves are de
stroyed. There they behold the sacred and are
filled with bliss. This is the dance of the Lord of
the assembly, " whose very form is Grace.. ” |
With this reference to the ' silent jminis '
compare the beautiful words of Tirumūlar :
*
ஆடியகாலுமதிற்சிலம்போசையும்
பாடியபாட்டும்பலவான நட்டமுங்
கூடிய கோலங்குருபரன் கொண்டாடத்
தேடியுளேகண்டு தீர்ந்தற்றவாறே .
+ மோனந்த மாமுனிவர் மும்மலத்தை மோசித்துத்
தானந்த மானிடத்தே தங்கியிடு - மானந்த
மொண்டருந்தி நின்றாடல் காணுமண்ரு மூர்த்தியாய்க்
கொண்ட திரு வம்பலத்தான் கூத்து.
242
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.
“When resting there they (the yogis who
attain the highest place of peace) lose themselves
and become idle ....Where the idlers dwell is the pure
Space. Where the idlers sport is the Light.
What the idlers know is the Vēdānta. What the
idlers find is the deep sleep therein ” .*
Siva is a destroyer and loves the burning
ground. But what does He destroy ? Not merely
the heapens and earth at the end of a kalpa, but
the fetters that bind each separate soul. Where
and what is the burning ground ? It is not the
place where our earthly bodies are cremated, but
the heart of the bhakta, the devotee, laid waste and
desolate. He brings not peace but a sword . The
place where their selves are destroyed signifies the
place or state where their egoity or illusion and
deeds are burnt away : that is the crematorium,
the burning-ground where Śri Națarāja dances,
and whence He is named Sudalaiyāļi, Dancer of
* இருந்தார் சிவமாகி யெங்குந்தாமாகி
இருந்தார் சிவன் செயலியாவையு நோக்கி
இருந்தார் முக்காலத்தியல்பைக் குறித்தங்
கிருந்தாரிழவு தெய்திய சோம்பே .
சோம்பர் இருப்பது சுத்த வெளியிலே
சோம்பர் கிடப்பது சுத்த வொளியிலே
சோம்பர் உணர்வது சுருதி முடிந் திடம்
சோம்பர் கண்டார்ச் சுருதிக்கட் பேக்கமே.
243
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the burning - ground. In this simile, we recognize

the historical connection between Śiva's gracious
dance as Natarāja, and His wild dance as the
demon of the cemetery .
This conception of the dance is current also
amongst Śāktas especially in Bengal, where the
Mother rather than the Father-aspect of Siva is
adored . Kāļi * is here the dancer, for whose
entrance the heart must be purified by fire, made
empty by renunciation. A Bengali Hymn to Kāļi
voices this prayer :
“Because Thou lovest the Burning -ground,
I have made a Burning-ground of my heart
That Thou, Dark One, haunter of the Burning
ground,
Mayest dance Thy eternal dance .” +
Nought else is within my heart, O Mother :
Day and night blazes the funeral pyre :
The ashes of the dead, strewn all about,
I have preserved against Thy coming,
With death conquering Mahākāla neath Thy
feet

Vide article on " What is Kāli ? " in, S.D. Vol. III,
p. 13, - Ed . S.D.
1 உலகமே யுருவமாக யோனிகளுறுப்பதாக
விலகுபேரிச்சா ஞானக்கிரியை யுட்கரணமாக
வலகிலா உயிர்கட்கெல்லா மிருபயனாக வைந்து
நலமிடு தொழில்களோடு நாடக நடிப்பன் நாதன்.
244
 NỘITTAMŪRTIS.
Do Thou enter in, dancing Thy rhythmic
dance,
That I may behold Thee with closed eyes ” .
Returning to the South, we find that in other
Tamil texts the purpose of Śiva's dance is explained.
In Śivajñāna Siddhiyār, Supaksha, Sūtra v. 5,
we find,
“ For the purpose of securing both kinds of
fruit to the countless souls, our Lord, with actions
five, dances His dance ” . Both kinds of fruit, that
is Iham , reward in this world, and Param , bliss in
Mukti.
Again, Uņmai Viļakkam , vv. 32, 37 , 39 inform
us
The Supreme Intelligence dances in the soul
........ for the purpose of removing our sins. By these
means, our Father scatters the darkness of Māyā,
burns the thread of Karma, stamps down Mala
(āņava, avidyā ), showers Grace, and lovingly plun
ges the soul in the ocean of bliss (Ananda). They
never see rebirths, who behold this mystic dance " .*

* எட்டு மிரண்டுமுருவானவி லிங்கத்தே

நட்டம்புதல்வா தவிலக்கேள் - சிட்டன்
சிவாயமே வென்னுந் திருவெழுத்தஞ்சாலே
யவாய மற நின்றாடுவான்.
மாயை தனையுதறி வல்வினையைச் சுட்டு மலஞ்
சாயவ முக்கியருள் தானெடுத்து - நேயத்தால்
245
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The conception of Līlā, the world -process as

the Lord's sport or amusement, is also prominent
in the Saiva scriptures ; thus, Tirumilar writes :
" The Perpetual Dance becomes His Play " .
This aspect of His activity appears to have
given rise to the objection that He dances as do
those who seek to please the eyes of mortals ; to
which the answer is given that He dances to main
tain the life of the cosmos and to give release to
those who seek Him .
In another way , more arbitrary, the Dance of
Śiva is identified with the Pañchāksbara, the five
syllables Si-va-ya-na-na, which have a peculiar and
special significance in Saiva symbolism. In Unmai
Vilakkam , vV . 33-35 they are identified in the dance
as follows :
" In His feet is na ; in His naval is ma ; in His
shoulders is Śi ; in His face is vā ; in His head is
Ya ". *
ஆநந்தவாரிதியி லான்மாவைத்தா னழுத்தல்
தானெந்தையார் பாதந்தான் .
உரையுணர்வுக் கெட்டா வொருவன் மிடுபஞ்சாக்
கரத்தால் வரை மகடான்பாதி - பரையிடமாய்க்
காணும்படியே கருணூயுருக் கொண்டாடல்
பேணுமவர்க்குண்டோ பிறப்பு,
*
ஆடும்படிகேள் நல்லம்பலத்தா னையனே
நாடுந் திருவடியிலே நகரம் - கூடு
மகரம்முதரம் வளர்தோள் சிகரம்
பகருமுகம் வாமுடியப்பார் .
246
 NỘITTAMŪRTIS.
A second way of contemplating the Panchāk
shara is also given, as follows :
" The hand holding the Drum is si ; the
hand held out is vā ; the hand holding out protec
tion ( abhaya ) is ya ; the hand holding fire is na ; the
foot holding down Muyalaka is ma ”. *
The text continues :
“ The meanings of the five letters respectively
are God, Sakthi, Soul, Tirdbhava and Mala.....If this
beautiful Five -Letters be meditated upon, the soul
will reach the land where there is neither light nor
darkness, and there Sakti will make it One with
Sivam”.t
Another verse of Unmai Viļakkam explains
the fiery arch (tiruvasi) : The Parichakshara and
the Dance are identified with the mystic syllable
Õm, the arch being the kombu or hook of the
* சேர்க்கும் துடிசிகரம் சிக்கனவாவீசுகரம்
ஆர்க்கும் யகரமபயகரம் -- பாக்கிலிறைக்
கங்கி நகரமடிக்கீழ் முயலகனார்
தங்கு மகரமது தான் .
+ ஈசன் அருள் ஆவி யெழிலார் திரோதமலம்
மாசிலெழுத்தஞ்சினடைவாம் .
அண்ணல் முதலாயழகா ரெழுத்தைந்து
மண்ணிலிராப் பகலற்றின்பத்தே - நண்ணி
யருளானது சிவத்தே யாக்குமணுவை
யிருளானது தீரவின்று.

247
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

ideograph of the written symbol : “ The arch over

Sri Naţarāja is Õmkāra ; and the akshara which is
never separate from the Õmkāra is the contained
splendour. This is the Dance of the Lord of
Chidambaram ” .
The Tiru - Arul- Payan , however, (Ch. IX . 3)
explains the tiruvāśi more naturally as represent
ing the dance of Nature, contrasted with Siva's
dance of wisdom .
The dance of matter ( Prakriti) proceeds on
one side : the jñāna dance on the other. Fix your
mind in the centre of the latter” .
I am indebted to Mr. Nallasvāmi Pillai for a
commentary on this :
The first dance is the action of matter
material and individual energy . This is the arck,
tiruvāsi, Omkāra, the dance of Kāļi. The other is
the Dance of Śiva — the akshara inseparable from
the Omkāra - called ardhamātra or the fourth letter
of the Praņava, Chaturtam and Turīyam . The
first dance is not possible unless Siva wills it and
dances Himself.

* ஓங்காரமே நற்றிருவாசி யுற்றதனின்

நீங்காவெழுத்தே நிறை சுடாராம் - ஆங்காரம்
அற்றார் அறிவாரணி யம்பலத்தானாடலிது
பெற்றார் பிறப்பற்றார் பின் .
t ஊன நடன மொருபா லொருபாலா
ஞான நடந்தானாடு .
248
 NŽITTAMŪRTIS.
The general result of this interpretation of the
arch is, then, that it represents matter, nature,
prakriti ; the contained splendour, Śiva dancing
within and touching the arch with head, hands
and feet, is the universal omnipresent Purusha.
Between these stands the soul, as ya is between
Śi-va and na -ma .
Now to summarise the whole interpretation,
we find that The Essential Significance of Siva's
Dance is threefold : First, it is the image of his
Rhythmic Activity as the Source of all Movement
within the Cosmos, which is represented by the
Arch : Secondly, the Purpose of his Dance is to
Release the Countless souls of men from the Snare
of Illusion : Thirdly the Place of the Dance, Chi
dambaram , the Centre of the Universe, is within
the Heart.

In these notes I expressly refrain from all æsthe

tic criticism and have endeavoured only to translate
the central thought of the conception of Siva's dance
from plastic to verbal expression, without reference
to the beauty or imperfection of individual works.
In conclusion, it may not be out of place to call
attention to the grandeur of this conception itself
as a synthesis of science, religion and art. How
amazing the range of thought and sympathy of
249
 HINDU IOONOGRAPHY.

those rishi-artists who first conceived such a type

as this, affording an image of reality, a key to the
complex tissue of life, a theory of nature, not merely
satisfactory to a single clique or race, nor acceptable
to the thinkers of one century only, but universal
in its appeal to the Philosopher, the Bhakta, and
the artist of all ages and all countries. In these
days of specialisation , we are not accustomed to such
a synthesis of thought ; but for those who saw '
such images as this, there could have been no divi
sion of life and thought into water-tight compart
ments. Nor do we always realise, when we criticise
the merits of individual works, the full extent of
the creative power which , to borrow a musical
analogy, could discover a rāga so expressive of
fundamental rhythms and so profoundly significant
and inevitable.
Every part of such an image as this is directly
expressive, not of any mere superstition or dogma,
but of evident facts. No artist of to -day, however
great, could more exactly or more wisely create an
image of that Energy which science must postulate
behind all phenomena. If we would reconcile Time
with Eternity, we can scarcely do so otherwise than
by the conception of alternations of phase extending
over vast regions of space and great tracts of time. *
[* Oliver Lodge, Hibbert Journal, Vol. X, No. 2, 1911.)
250
 NỔITTAMŪRTIS.
Especially significant, then, is the phase alternation
implied by the drum , and the fire which ' changes,'
not destroys. These are but visual symbols of the
theory of the day and night of Brahma !
In the night of Brahma, Nature is inert,
and cannot dance till Śiva wills it . He rises
from His rapture, and dancing sends through
inert matter pulsing waves of awakening sound,
and lo ! matter also dances, appearing as a glory
round about Him. Dancing, He sustains its mani
fold phenomena. In the fulness of time, still
dancing, he destroys all forms and names by fire
and gives new rest. This is poetry : but none the
less, the truest science.
Again, this Națarāja is not only Truth,
but Love : for the purpose of His Dance is
Grace, the giving of freedom to countless indi
vidual souls . Lastly, also, how supremely great
in power and grace this dancing image must
appear to all those who as artists have striven
in plastic forms to give expression to their in
tuition of Life !

It is not strange that the figure of Națarāja

has commanded the adoration of so many genera
tions past : we, familiar with all scepticisms,expert
in tracing all beliefs to primitive superstitions,
251
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY ,

explorers of the infinitely great and infinitely

small, are worshippers of Śri Natarāja still.
A. K. C.”
Five photographs are given in illustration of
the Bhujangatrāsa mode of dance of Śiva. The
first, Pl. LVI, is that of the beautiful figure of
Natarāja discovered at Tiruvālaņgāļu and now
preserved in the Madras Museum . It is one of the
finest specimens of bronze casting in South India
and evokes our admiration for the excellence of its
design and execution. The prabhāmaņdala, the
jațas, the upper cloth tied round the chest and the
damaru are broken and lost. The head is orna
mented with peacock feathers, the dhurdhura
flowers, a skull, a cobra and the crescent moon .
The original of the second photograph , Pl . LVII ,
which was found buried in the earth at Kottappāļi
is at present kept in pūjā in the temple at
that village. As required by the āgāmas, the Dāvi
is sculptured as standing near Națarāja, but on a
separate pedestal. There are five jațās on each
side and between each pair of them are worked out
flowers and the figure of Gangā. The Dēvi is
standing in the tribhanga posture and has her left
hand let down and the right arm bent and held in
the kațaka pose. The illustration , fig. 1, LVIII,
comes from Rāmēsyaram . The image has not got
252
 PLATE LVI .

Nagarāja ; Bronze : Madras Museum .

 PLATE LVII .

Nataraja
KDivironze
otappadi
.:Bwith
 PLATE LVIII

Fig 1. Natarāja : Bronze : Rāmēśvaram . Fig 2 Nataraja : Ivory : JTrivandram .

PLATE LIX .

11
11

Naţarāja with Devi : Bronze : Pattiśvaram

 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.
the jatās round the head ; the head is adorned with
a kirīta like jaţāmaluța and the back hands are not
fully stretched out as in the previous illustrations.
The work lacks the vigour of action which is well
portrayed in the other instances, and does not
appear to be altogether a commendable piece of
art. Fig. 2 on the same plate is a piece of ivory
carving executed in the School of Arts, Trivand
ram , which is made in utter disregard of the agāmic
rules. Pl. LIX is a pretty piece of sculpture belong
ing to the temple at Pattīśvaram .
The second, the third and the fourth varieties
of Nritta are not very different from the first. In
the second form of dance, the Aſsumadbhēdāgama
states, there should be the figure of Gangā standing
on the jațās flowing on the right side of Śiva with
hands held in the añjali pose ; and that the height
of this figure of the river Gangā should be sixteen
angulas, an angula being a hundred and twentieth
part of the total height of the figure of Śiva. In
the third kind of dance it is stated that the left foot

of the Nțittamūrti should be placed on the body of

the Apasmāra -purusha and the right leg lifted up.
A jațābhāra or jaţāmandala spread round the
crowned head of the figure of ſiva in the form of a
circular disc is required in the fourth form of Nșitta
or dance.

259
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

The fifth form of the dance of Siva is somewhat

different from the previous ones. In this the
right leg is to be lifted straight up to the crown
of the head and the left leg, somewhat bent,
should be resting upon the Apasmāra -purusha ;
Śiva in this aspect has eight arms ; in three out
of the four right hands are to be seen the śūla,
the pāśa, and the damaru, while the last one
should be kept in the abhaya pose ; one of the
left hands is to be held crosswise, from left to
right in the gajahasta pose, and the three other
hands are to carry the kapāla, the vessel of fire and
a bell (ghanța ).
In the sixth variety of dance, the legs of the
figure of Śiva should be as in the case of the
fifth variety described above ; but Śiva is to be
represented here as having sixteen arms; one
of the right hands is required to be held in the
abhaya pose and the remaining right ones to carry
the damaru, vajra, śāla, pāśa, tanka, danda
(hasta ?) and a snake ; or, abhaya, śūla, pāśa
khadga, damaru , dhvaja (patāka -hasta ?), vētāļa
and the sūchi pose. One of the left arms should
be held in the gajahasta pose, being held across
the body from left to right, while the remaining
ones carrying either agni, mithuna ( a double
headed instrument like the vajra ?), valaya (quoit),
254
 NỔITTAMŪRTIS.
a banner ,* ghanțā, khēțaka and kapāla ; or agni,
gajahasta, khēțaka, the vismaya pose, ghanța,
kapåla, khadga and the sūchi pose.
To the left of the dancing Śiva should be stand
ing his consort, carrying in her left arm Skanda and
keeping her hands in the añjali pose, while the
child Skanda should, out of fear at the sight of the
ecstatic dance of his father, be catching hold of the
breast and abdomen of his mother, the Dēvi. On
the face of the Dēvi the emotions of fear and
wonder and yet a friendly feeling should be brought
out by the skilful artist.
The photograph reproduced on Pl. LX , in
illustration of the sixth mode of dance belongs to a
series of well-carved life-size stone images in the
Śiva temple at Teņkāśi. In this, one of the left
hands is shown as carrying a dhvaja with the bull,
the characteristic totem of Siva's banner, sculptur
ed on it. To the right and left of the figure of Śiva
are the rishis Vyāghrapāda and Patañjali respec
tively with hands folded on their chests in the
añjali pose. This piece of sculpture is one of the
* Here the word may be understood to mean a banner or
the band held in the form of a banner, patāka - hasta. In fact,
these two different senses are taken and sculptures executed
accordingly. See the description of the illustratiors to the
sixth nritta .

255
PLATE LX.

1.

Nagarāja : Stone : Tenkāśi.

 PLATE LXI.

Nrittamurti : Stone : Tiruchchengâttangudi.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

best specimens of the later Pāņdya period and is in

an excellent state of preservation .
In the seventh form of nritta, the image of
Siva is required to possess eight arms, three eyes
and an out-spreading jațāmaņdala ; the left leg of
Śiva should be placed upon the Apasmārapurusha
and the right leg lifted up fully stretched, as far
as the head. One of the right hands should be
held in the abhaya pose, the others carrying the
śūla, the pāśa and the damaru . Two of the left
arms should be kept in the gajahasta and the vis
maya poses, respectively ; the remaining two
carrying a kapāla , and an agnipātra (or vessel of
fire). There should be a bend in the body of
ten angulas from the medial line (madhya sūtra ).
To the left of the dancing figure of Śiva should
stand that of the Dēvi.
If in the seventh mode of dance there be
substituted six hands in the place of eight, we get
the eighth form of the Nșittamūrti. In this, one
of the right bands ought to be held in the abhaya
pose and the remaining ones should carry the damaru
and the śūla ; and one of the left arms is to be
kept in the gajahasta pose, another in the vismaya
pose and the third should carry a kapāla.
Here it must be particularly noted that the
images of the fifth and sixth forms of the
256
 NŽITTAMŪRTIS.
Nřittamūrtis should possess only two eyes, whereas
all the rest, described hitherto and hereafter,
should have three eyes.
The ninth form of Nțittamūrti is described
as follows:—The image of Śiva should have four
arms, three eyes and a jațāmakuta on the head .
One of the right hands is to be held in the abhaya
pose and the other should carry a damaru,
whereas one of the left arms is to be held in
the gajahasta pose and the other hand ought
to carry fire in it . In this particular dance,
Siva's left foot should not be placed upon the back
of the Apasmārapurusha but should rest upon a
piſha and should be somewhat bent. The great toe of
the right foot should also rest upon the pitha.
A photograph, Pl. LXI, the original of which is
found in the Śiva temple at Tiruchchengāttanguļi,
is reproduced here in illustration of this, the ninth
dance of Siva. There is a very close adherence to
the description in the making of this image and the
work is well executed.
From a study of the so-called nine different
forms of the Nșittamūrtis it becomes patent that
these do not really represent nine varieties of
dances as described in the Natya -sāśtra. We find
the dance of the common form of Natarāja to be
what is technically known as the bhujangatrāsa
257
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

mode of dancing. Besides these nine varieties of

the Nșittamūrtis described in the Amśumadbhēdā
gama, we meet with several different images of
Natanamūrtis in actual sculpture. Some of them
do, as a matter of fact, represent a few of the
modes of dancing whose descriptions are found in
the Bharata Natya - śāstra. Since the art of danc
ing, which was very popular till so recently as
twenty years ago, is fast going out of fashion owing
to the notion of a large section of the English
educated people of India that nautch ought to be
discouraged owing to its association in practice with
dancing girls who have, quite contrary to the original
lofty ideals of the institution, degenerated into
professional prostitutes, the study and practice of
one of the Fine Arts of India is gradually dying out
and is least understood by theeducated classes at the
present day. The works dealing with the science
have almost perished for want of appreciation, and
it is very difficult to meet a scholar who is really
well versed with the Nātya -śāstra in its theoretical
and practical aspects. Consequently the explana
tions of the few modes of dance of Śiva met with
in actual sculpture which are attempted below are,
it is feared, likely to be somewhat inaccurate, but
endeavour is made, with the help of the only com
mentary on the subject written by the great
268
 PLATE LXII .

Panel
mode llora
tone
.:ESof
Śiva
Dance
Kațisama
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.
Abhinavaguptāchārya,* to describe them as cor
rectly as possible.
Plate LXII exhibits a mode of dance which is
called the Kațisamam in the Nātya
Katisama
dance.f sastra. In this mode, according to
the text of the Nātya -śāstra, the
legs are required to be in the pose known as the
svastikāpasritam , while one of the hands should be
near the navel and the other on the hip ; and the
pelvis should be in the udvāhita pose. The term
svastikāpasritam is explained in the Natya śāstra ;
There is only one copy of this rare work hitherto dis
covered and this one also is here and there damaged. It is
now in the custody of the Curator of the Sanskrit Manuscripts
in Trivandram . If other copies are found, the work deserves
being published by a competent scholar of the Nātya -śāstra.
+ स्वस्तिकापसृतः पादः करौ नाभिकटिस्थितौ ।
पार्श्वमुद्वाहितं चैव करणं तत् कटीसमम् ॥
स्वस्तिकादनन्तरं.... ......इत्यनेनाक्षिप्ताया अनन्तरमुप
क्रान्तायाः प्रयोगमाह - चकारेण करौ च स्वस्तिकौ अवधृतौ । तत एका
नाभिस्थः कनक एव मपटः कर्षद्यामर्धचन्द्रः । तदेव पार्श्व व्यानतमपरमुद्वाहितं
द्वितीयेनाङ्गेनाकुञ्चितं पादमुत्क्षिप्य व्याक्षिप्यत्वं चितं न्यसेत् “जङ्घा स्वस्तिक
संयुक्ता प्रक्षिप्ता नाम सा स्मृता" " उत्क्षिप्य चक्रा तु यदानामिका सा
कनीयसी । अस्यैव तु कपित्थस्य तदसौ कटकामुखं ” “ यस्याङ्गुलेन चापवत्सोऽ
पचन्द्रः " " ऊर्ध्वाहितमूर्तीकृतमुरो
ज्ञेयं प्रयोक्तृभिः " इति । पार्श्वमप्युद्वाहितं
वैष्णवं चात्र स्थानकं कटिल्लभ्यते ॥
(नाव्यवेदविवृतौ ॥)
259

।
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

but it is easier to make out the meaning of the term

from a number of sculptures and from the ety
mology of the term . Two legs kept crossing each
other is known as the svastika pose ; in this pose
if the legs are kept a little apart from each other,
that is, without touching each other, they are said
to be svastikāpasrita pose . Again , if the hands are
kept as described in the text quoted above, the pose
is, according to the Nātya -vēda -vivriti, the com
mentary on the Bharata -nātya śāstra by Abhinava
guptāchārya, known as the svastika pose . In
this pose, Abhinavaguptāchārya says, the hand that
is near the navel should be kept in the kataka -hasta
pose and the other hand in what is known as the
arddha -chandra pose : in the latter pose the thumb
and the other fingers should be kept so as to resem
ble a bow . Again, udvāhita pose of the pelvis is
that in which one side of it is raised and the other
lowered proportionately. The mode of standing
in the kațisama dance is technically known as the
vaishnavasthānam , which Abhinavaguptāchārya
describes as follows: In the vaishnavasthāna one
leg should be resting firmly on the ground and the
other bent and placed across the first at a distance
of two and a half angulas. This sort of posture
is prescribed for men when they are conversing
with others or throwing the discus.
260
 NĶITTAMŪRTIS.

In the illustration given on Pl. LXII, Śiva

has eight arms. Of these, one of the right hands is
carrying a damaru ; another is held near the navel
in the kataka pose, a third is lowered down and on
it is thrown a fine cloth, the upper garment of Śiva,
and the fourth is broken . One of the left arms is
raised in the tripatāka pose, another is resting on
the thigh, and the hands of the third and fourth
are broken . The legs are in the svastikāpasrita
pose. The head is adorned with an extremely well
executed jațāmakuta and is surrounded with a
prabhāmandala. The upper arms wear beautiful
spiral bands resembling snakes. On the chest and
around the neck hangs a necklace of rare beauty
and a yajñopavīta is seen lying across the chest.
Besides these, there are the udarabandha and
katisūtra on the abdomen and the loins. The
under -wear of Śiva is silk and tiger's skin, the latter
of which is sculptured very distinctly and accu
rately. Pārvati is seen standing to the left of Śiva
with the baby Skanda in her arms. Between her
and her lord are two female musicians playing upon
two musical instruments. Behind Pārvati stands
a man with a big jațābhāra bearing on its front a
fillet and has a pair of long moustaches; perhaps
he is one of the attendants of Śiva. Over his head
are the four Dikpālas, Yama, Indra, Nirſuti
261
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and Agni. To the right of Siva are three or four

male musicians of whom one is playing upon the
flute, another is sounding the drum . The head of
the elephant-headed Ganesa, the first son of Siva,
is peering through from the background. Over his
head are the remaining Dikpālas. This is also one
of the finest pieces of sculpture of its period.
The next mode of dance is technically called
Lalitam . * In this, the left arm
Lalita dance..
should be held in the gajahasta
pose and the right in the pravartita pose. The
former has already been described and should be
familiar to those who have studied the first volume
of this treatise. According to the Natyā -sastras,
gajahasta is a combination-pose in which both
hands are employed to produce the required effect
and this is described thus : in the case of a human

* करिहस्तो भवेद् वामो दक्षिणश्च प्रवर्तितः ।

[ बहुशःकुट्टितःपादो ] ज्ञेयं तल्ललितं बुधैः ॥
समुन्नतो लता.... ....यो दक्षिणं विविधं कृत्वा
बहुशो वर्तितस्ते “ बाहुशीर्षाद् विनिष्क्रान्तौ नितम्बौ, " " केशदेशाद् विनि
कान्तौ परिपार्थोत्थितौ सदा । तथा विज्ञेयौ केशबन्धौ ” इत्येवं प्रकारनृत्त
हस्तयोजनया वर्तितः चकाराद्वनान्ते पताको वरः कर्ण इति करिहस्ता पादश्च
हस्तवस्त्रानुसारेण निकुट्टितः पुन.............. ....... त्रिसंविद्वासनृत्तविषय
मेतदन्त एव ललितामनामकरणम् ॥
(नाव्यवेदविवृतौ ॥)
262
PLATE Lxu .
11

Lalita mode of dance of Siya : Stone Panel : Ellora.

 NRITTAMŪRTIS .
being who has only two hands if one hand is
stretched right across the chest towards the
other shoulder and if the other hand, is bent
thrice in the tripatāka pose, that is, the upper
arm lifted up as high as the shoulder horizontally
and the forearm held at right angles to it vertically
and the palm of the hand bent at right angles to
the forearm and facing upwards, the double -hand
pose is called gajahasta according to the Natya
śāstra. This definition is, no doubt, different from
the explanation found in Volume I of this treatise,
but the one given here is applicable to the combi
nation-pose of both the arms. Pravartita hasta
simply means uplifted arm . The leg pose required
for the Lalita dance is technically called kuțțitam ,
which is described in the Nātya -vēdavivriti thus :
if one leg rests firmly on the ground and the other,
resting upon the toe, strikes the ground with the
heel, the leg pose is called nikuttitam .
In the illustration, Pl. LXIII, Śiva is represent
ed as dancing in a vigorous manner. The trunk
of his body is thrown on one side and to the back,
with the left side of the pelvis lifted and the right
side depressed. His left leg is standing on the
ground and the right resting on the toe is stamping
the ground with the heel. One of the right hands
carries the damaru , another the parašu , a third is
263
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.
broken and the fourth is held in the gajahasta pose ;
while one arm is kept in the tripatāka pose,
another in the ordinary pataka or streamer pose
( in which it is kept stretched horizontally, away
from the shoulder), the third appears to be held in
the tarjanī pose and the last in the sūchi pose. A
pretty jatāmakuţa adorns the head while the ears
are ornamented with kundalas. There is the yajño
pavīta, the hāra, the udarabandha and a snake
employed as kațisātra . On either side are groups of
four Dikpālas. To the left of Śiva is Pārvati holding
in her right hand the hand of her boy Skanda, while
with her left hand she holds a portion of her gar
ment. Near her to her left is standing a gaña. To
the right of Śiva is Nandi sounding the drum,
another playing on the flute and a third doing
something which is not clear. On the seat on
which Śiva dances, there is the famished figure
of Kāļi seated in an easy pose and witnessing
the dance of her lord. This panel is remarkable
for its vigorous action. This one and the
previous panel , belong to the rock temples at
Ellora.
Pls. LXIV-LXV exemplify the dance called
Lalāța-tilakam . * In this mode of dance one of
* वृश्चिकं चरणं कृत्वा पादस्याङ्गुष्ठकेन तु ।
ललाटे तिलकं कुर्याललाटतिलकं तु तत् ॥
264
 3
PLATE LXIV.

Śiva
of
:dance
mode
Lalāța
-tFig
.1.ilaka dance
.2ilaka
-tFig
Lalāța
.
:mode
siva
of
TStone
.: iruchobengāţtanguļi Stone
C:. onjeevaram
 PLATE LXV.

dance
Siva
of
:mode
.1.ilaka
-tFig
Lalāța .2.ilaka
-tFig
:Lalāta
ſiva
dance
of
mode
Stone
T. enkasi TStone
:. aramangalam
 NRITTAMŪRTIS.

the legs is to be lifted up (technically known as

the vrischika pose) as if going to mark the fore
head with its toe with a tilaka mark . Abhina
vaguptāchārya informs us that that leg pose in
which the leg is lifted up behind is called the
vrischika pose, for it then resembles the tail of a
scorpion. In Fig. 1, Pl. LXIV, Śiva is seen stand
ing on the Apasmārapurusha on his left leg, while
he has his right leg lifted in the vrischika pose ;
one of the left arms is lifted up in the patāka
pose, while the other holds a kapāla. One of the
right hands bears a damaru and the other is kept
in the abhaya pose. On the left of Śiva is seen the
figure of Bhairava dancing in the Lalita mode ; on
the right is a figure (who might be Nandi) sounding
the drum . This piece of sculpture is to be found
in the Śiva temple at Tiruchchengāţtanguời and
is of the same age as the figure on Pl. LXI illustrat
ing the ninth mode of dance of Siva.
The sculpture reproduced as fig. 2, on Pl. LXIV ,
is to be found in the Kailāsanāthasvāinin temple at
Conjeevaram . In this Śiva has eight arms carrying
various objects such as the •śūla, the valaya and
पादस्य तस्यैव पश्चाद्भागामितस्याङ्गुष्ठेन तिलकं तिलकक्रियाहेतुभूतत्वेन
लक्षितं संश्लेषितं कुर्यादित्यासिकमेतत्करण
विषये प्रयुज्यते ॥
(नाव्यवेदविवृतौ ॥)
265
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the dhvaja ; one of his right hands is in the abhaya

pose. The left leg of Śiva is planted firmly on
the ground, while the right one goes up, from behind,
as far as the top of the crown. To the immediate
left of Śiva is Nandi, also dancing, but in the Lalita
mode ; and immediately to the right is a kinnara,
half man and half bird playing apparently on a
stringed instrument. On the right and left niches
adjoining the central one of Śiva are the figures of
Brahmā and Vishņu standing and praising Śiva.
The third illustration, Pl. LXV, fig. 2, belongs
to the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Tāramanga
lam and is a very recent production. Here, the
figure of Śiva has sixteen arms carrying various
objects. The right leg of Śiva is lifted up as far as
the crown while the left one is somewhat bent and
resting upon the back of the Apasmārapurusha. One
of the left hands holds a damaru which is sounded
by one of the right hands; also one ofthe left arms
is lifted up to the head in the patāka pose. To
the right of the figure of Śiva is that of Brahmā
sounding the cymbals and to the left is the figure
of Vishņu sounding the drum . Between Brahmā
and Śiva is a figure of a rishi ; who it is, is not clear.
The Apasmārapurusha is lying with his head
towards the right and the legs towards the left of
Śiva and holds in his hands a snake.
266
 PLATE LXVI .

.:ſiva
BSof
dance
mode ādami
Cbatura
1. .tone
Fig Cbatura
Fig
mode
ofronze
TBdance
2.iruvarangulam
.:Siva
 PLATE LXVII ,

.
View
Front Back
View
.
mode
BTNof.) anjore
:(Dt
ſiva
dance
Chatur allur
ronzea
 NỔITTAMŪRTIS.
Another mode of dance commonly met with
in the sculpturing of the dancing Śiva is known as
chaturam. * The Bharata - Natya Sastra defines
this mode thus : ' The left arm should be in the
añchita pose, the right one in the chatura pose, and
the right leg in the kuţțita pose .' Abhinavaguptā
chārya seems to be giving the term alapallava as
a synonym of anchita and explains alapallava as
follows : that pose of the hand in which the fingers
are kept separated and all turned towards the palm,
is called alapallava . Again, the chatura pose,
according to the same authority, is one in which
the little finger is kept vertical, the three others
stretched at right angles to the little finger, while
the thumb is placed in the middle of the three
fingers.
Figs. 1 and 2, Pls. LXVI and LXVII, illustrate
in a manner the dance called chaturam. Of these,
*
अञ्चितः स्यात् करो वामः समश्चतुर एव तु ।
दक्षिणः कुट्टितं पादश्चतुरं तत् प्रकीर्तितम् ॥
अन्वि(श्चि ?) त इत्यलपल्लवस्तिस्रःप्रसारिता यत्र तथा चोर्ध्वा कनीयसी
तासां मध्ये स करश्चतुरः स्मृतः । एवकारेण वक्षःक्षेत्राद्द्वयोरप्यलं , तु शब्देन
संनिवेशाधिक्यं केवलमिति सूच्यते । कुट्टित इति 'स्थित्वा पादतलाप्रेण पाणि
भूमौ निपात्यते' । इट्टितांशरूपं एतद् विदूषकस्य सविस्मयसूच्याभिनयादौ
यथा सानुरेखण्डसवर्मीमिसा सा ।
( नाव्यवेदविवृतौ ।)
267
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the first is the reproduction of a very well executed

piece of sculpture to be found in the lower cave at
Bādāmi. In this, the central figure of Śiva has
sixteen arms in which are seen such objects as the
śūla, the parašu and a snake. One left arm is in
the gajahasta pose and the lowermost right hand
is in the chatura pose whereas the third right hand
from above is in the añchita pose. The figure of
Śiva is adorned with various ornaments and a
prabhā -mandala graces the head, which is sur
mounted with a neatly carved jatā-makuța. The
left leg is in the kutțita pose. Behind and on the
right of Śiva is seen his bull-vehicle ; on his left is
Gaņēša, also attempting to dance. There are two
drums to the left of Gaņēía one of which is being
sounded by a male, perhaps Nandiśvara.
Fig. 2 is almost exactly similar to fig. 1.
One other mode of dance represented in sculp
tures of Siva is known by the name of talasam
sphoţitam *. In this mode of dancing the dancer
stamps vehemently the ground in front of him with
द्रुतमुत्क्षिप्य चरणं पुरस्तादथ पातयेत् ।
तलसंस्फोटितौ हस्तौ तलसंस्फोटितौ स्मृतौ ॥
अतिक्रान्तया चार्या दय ................ णमुत्क्षिप्तं कृत्वा तथैवाने
निपातयेत् तत्समकालं च पताको हस्तौ संश्लेषितशब्दादभिहित इति
तलसंस्फोटितं तस्यैतद्विषय एव यथा तालीद्देवी सुसुख सुभस इजणु इत्यादौ ॥
(नाट्यवेदविवृतौ ॥)
268
 PLATE LXVIII .

Talasamsphõţita mode of dance of Siva : Stone :

Kailāsanāthagvāmin Temple : Conjeevaram .
PLATE LXIX.

11

Talasamsphoţita mode of dance of Siva : Stone :

Chengunnūr: Travancore State.
 PLATE LXX .

Nrittamurti: Stone : Conjeevaram .

 NĶITTAMŪRTIS .
one of his feet lifted fairly high. In this mode of
dance the hand pose patāka hasta is also insisted
upon , according to the commentary Natyavēda
vivriti. Talasamsphoţita mode of dance is exempli
fied in Pls. LXVIII and LXIX . The original of
the first photographic reproduction is in the
Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Conjeevaram . The
right leg of Śiva is lifted up as high as the knee of
the left one and is in the act of thumping the
ground ; the left is somewhat bent and is resting
upon the ground. Of the eight arms of Śiva, one
is held in the patāka pose, another in the abhaya
pose while the rest are in various other nātya
poses. From the jațāmakuta of Śiva issues one
jațā on the left side on which is seated Gangā
with hands folded in the añjali pose. Her head is
shaded with the hood of a five -headed cobra .
Pārvati is seated on a seat to the left of Śiva. The
photograph reproduced on Pl. LXIX is also of
this class and is of a piece of sculpture to be found
in the Śiva temple at Chengunnūr in Travancore.
Tid last illustration, Pl. LXX , is of a kind of
dance, which it is not easy to identify with any one
of the hundred and eight standard modes of dance
enumerated in the Natya Śāstra. In this sculp
ture, also found in the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple
at Conjeevaram , Śiva is seen suddenly assuming
269
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

in the middle of his dance, a posture similar to the

ālīąhāsana. He has eight arms, of which one
carries the śūla , another the paraśu , a third one a
snake and so on. One of the hands is in the gaja
hasta pose, another in the patāka pose and a third
in the chatura pose. On the left side there are three
niches in one of which is seen Pārvati seated, in
another the bull of Śiva couchant, and in the third
an elephant; similarly on the right are three niches
in which is a figure which are inidentifiable, some
musical attendants and an elephant respectively.
In a niche below the central one are three ganas
imitating the dance of their lord.

270
DAKSHINAMURTI.
 DAKSHINĀMŪRTI .
have already stated that Śiva is a great
WEE master of yoga, music and dancing and have
described in detail his dances in the chapter on
“ Nřittamūrtis . As a teacher of yoga, music and
other sciences he is known by the name of Dakshi
ņāmūrti. One account gives an explanation
regarding the etymology of this name; it states
that because Śiva was seated facing south when he
taught the rishis yoga and jñāna he came to be
known as Dakshiņāmūrti. This aspect of Śiva is
always invoked by students of science and arts.
The great Śankarāchārya, among several other
celebrities, has sung the praise of this aspect of
Śiva, which is as remarkable for its peacefulness
as the Nřittamūrti is for joyfulness.
Dakshiņāmūrti is viewed in four different
aspects namely, as a teacher of yoga, of vīņā, of
jñāna and as also an expounder of other Šāstras
(Vyākhyānamārti). Of these, the last form is the
one which is most frequently met with in temples.
It has already been mentioned elsewhere that in all
Hindu temples, both Śaiva and Vaishṇava, the
niche on the south wall of the central shrine should
have the figure of Dakshiņāmūrti enshrined in it.
273
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

VYĀKHYĀNA DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
As an expounder of the śāstras, Dakshiņā
mūrti should be represented as seated on a secluded
spot on the Himālayas, under a banyan tree, on a
seat covered with a tiger's skin ; or, as another
account has it, on a white lotus (padmāsana ). The
right leg of Dakshiņāmūrti should be hanging
below the seat while the left one bent and rested
across on the right thigh. The kind of sitting
posture adopted here is called the vīrāsana. The
leg hanging down may or may not rest on the
back of the Apasmārapurusha. Dakshiņāmūrti
should have three eyes and four arms : of these the
front right one is held in the jñānamudrā or the
sandarśanamudrā * pose and the front left hand
may be kept in the varada pose or stretched
straight in the daņda pose, the elbow resting upon
the left knee in that latter posture. Even when
the hand is in the varada pose it should rest upon
the left knee but with the back of the hand touching
it. The back right hand should hold the aksha
mālā, while in the back left hand there should be
either agni ( fire) or a sarpa (snake) . In one
account it is stated that one of the left hands may
be, as already stated, in the varada or the danda
* This is known as the samdamśa in the Nātya -śāstras,
a name which occurs also in the āgamas.
274
 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
pose ; if it is in the former pose, it might keep a
book, the other left hand holding a snake, fire
or a lotus or nilotpala flower. The various parts
of the body of Dakshiņāmūrti should be free from
bends - a rigidity indicative perhaps of the resolute
will and force of thought of the god in the aspect
of the teacher. His head might be adorned with
a jațābhāra, jațābandha, jațāmaņqala or jațā
makuța ; or the jațās might be held together with
a patta -bandha. In any case the mass of jatās
should be embellished with the flowers of the
durdhura (dhatura ) and other wild plants, as also
with a serpent on the left and with small tinkling
bells, the kapāla and the crescent moon on the
right side. In the middle of the jātābhāra there
should be visible the smiling face of the river
goddess Gangā. The complexion of Dakshiņāmūrti
is pure white, resembling a sphatika (crystal) ;
according to another account the colour of
Dakshiņāmūrti may be white, red, yellow or black.
His person should be adorned with all ornaments,
clothed with perfectly white clothes and tiger's
skin, should wear a white yajñopavīta and have on
his chest a coat of white sandal paste. In his left
ear there should be a Śankhapatra and in the right
ear a kuņdala, or there may be only the sankha
patra or the kunđala in both the ears. A garland
275
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

of rudrākshas should be hanging round the neck and

descending as far down as the chest. The coun
tenance of the god should be absolutely free from
ever a trace of mental perturbation. His sight
must be fixed upon the tip of the nose ; according
to the Kāraṇāgama the sigut must be fixed on the
tip of the toe. The ſilparatna adds that this
aspect of Śiva which preaches the dharma or law
is very auspicious to the devotees and grants all
good to its worshipper .
Surrounding the great teacher-god, are to be
ļishis eager to learn the śāstras. The names of the
rishis are given differently in different works ; for
example, the Aſsumadbhēdagama mentions the
rishis Nārada, Jamadagni, Vasishta, Bhrigu, Bhāra
dvāja, Sanaka and Agastya. The Kāmikāgama
mentions the names Kausika, Kaśyapa, Bhāradvāja,
Atri and Gautama and omits the names of two others
though it gives the number of șishis as seven. The

Kāraṇāgama gives the names of Agastya, Pulastya,

Viśvāmitra and Angirasa only. These rishis should
have jatāmakuțas on their heads, the garland of
rudrāksha seeds round their neck and white yaj
ñopavītas on their person. Their bodies should be
covered with ashes (vibhūti or bhasma) and be
clothed in white garments. The height of these
Țishis should not exceed that of the chest of
276
 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI .
Dakshiņāmūrti. It is stated in the Kāmikāgama
that the complexion of the ?ishis Kausika and
Kaśyapa should be dark, of two others (unmentioned
in the text) yellow, of Bhāradvāja red a nd of Atri
and Gautama a mixture of dark and red . In
grouping them on a panel around the figure of
Dakshiņāmūrti, two may be placed on one side and
three on the other, or three and three on each side,
or three and four on either sides.
The god Dakshiņāmūrti should be adored by
kinnaras, dēvas and others.
The Apasmāra -purusha should hold his right
hand in the sarpa -mudrā pose, that is, bold the
palm of his hand in the form of the hood of a cobra,
in front of the cobra which he should hold in his
left hand.
The Dakshiņāmūrti Upanishad and the Sūta
samhitā give the esoteric meaning of the figure of
Dakshiņāmūrti. It is stated that He is the supreme
god who, at the end of an æon (kalpa) absorbs within
himself the whole universe and remains resplend
ent with joy. Dakshiņāmūrti is such a deity.
Jñana (knowledge) is known also as dakshiņā and
since dakshiņā is ever in front of Śiva and is gazing
at him in the aspect of Dakshiņāmūrti, he is called
Dakshiņāmukha. The Apsmāra -purusha under his
foot is the personification of the ignorance of the
977
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

living beings, which he keeps under subjection under

the tread of his foot. The book he holds in his
hand contains all wisdom and illuminates the souls
of beings . The akshamālā which he carries in his
hand is the representation of the tatvas. His body
is composed of eternal bliss and eternal energy ; the
wide-spreading banyan tree casting deep shade is
the symbol of māyā (illusion) and the vộishabha
of Śiva is dharma (law) . Dakshiņāmūrti is teaching
the rishis who are already deeply versed in the
Vēdas the ātma-vidyā (knowledge of self and soul)
and rescuing them from saṁsāra (bondage ). He is
himself imperishable , without birth or death and
the kamalāsana or the lotus-seat upon which he is
seated is the symbol of the sacred syllable Õm.
Eight photographs are reproduced in illustra
tion of the above description. Of these the first
illustration, Pl . LXXI, comes from Deogarh and
represents a very fine piece of sculpture. This
panel has as its central figure Dakshiņāmūrti seated
on a raised platform placed under a tree, with his
left leg hanging and the right one bent and rested
upon the seat. On his head is a jațābandha ; the
back right hand carries an akshamālā and the front
right hand is held in the jñānamudrā pose. The
back left hand carries a long object which is not
easy to identify ; perhaps it represents a cadjan
278
 PLATE LXXI .

Li
Jñāna Daksbiņāmūrti: Stone Panel : Deogarh,
 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
manuscript : or a bundle of ku śa grass (kūrcha) the
front left hand carries a pot , perhaps an amţita
ghața, as required in the Vishnudharmõttara. He
wears round his loins a garment which descends as
far down as the knees ; on his left shoulder and
descending below as far as the left thigh and lying
on it is a krishnājina (or deerskin), the head and
front legs of the deer being clearly visible there :
this skin is worn in the upavīta fashion. The
whole figure is slightly bent forward and a few
jațās are seen descending over the shoulders. The
face portrays beautifully the calmness that is
insisted upon by the āgamas and the sight is fixed
below.
Below his seat and near his left leg are seen
two deer, also listening to this exposition of dharma.
This brings to mind the analogy of the representa
tions of Buddha's preaching the dharma wherein
also the same animals are introduced as members
of the audience. Behind stands an ascetic with
crossed arms and legs and carrying on his left hand
an akshamālā ; he has a tapering beard and his
jațās are tied up in a kpot on the crown of his
head .
To the left of Dakshiņāmūrti is seated a person
as tall as himself. He is also seated underneath a
tree on a rocky seat. This may either be a ſishi or
279
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

Śiva himself in the aspect of the Vyākhyāna

Dakshiņāmūrti ; on the latter supposition the other
person (seated to the right) must be taken to be
Yoga -Dakshiņāmūrti. However it is not possible
to say definitely whom this figure represents. The
right hand of this image though carrying an
akshamālā is held in the chin -mudrā pose, while the
left hand is held in the bhū -sparsamudrā pose. Its
head is adorned with a neatly executedjațāmakuta,
and its body is covered with a deer skin in the
upavīta fashion . The right leg is let down the seat
and is resting on the ground and the left leg is bent
and kept on the seat. The garment covering the
lower portion of the body descends as far below as
the knees. As in the case of the other figure there
is behind it a smaller one, also an ascetic, whose
right hand, holding an akshamālā, is kept in the
chinmudrā pose and the left hand carries a water
pot. Below the seat of this image is a lion
couchant with its head resting upon its forelegs
which are kept crossed over each other.
There are dēvas and gandharvas, who are
shown as flying in the air over the heads of these
two central figures carrying flower garlands in their
hands. Higher up and in a separate compartment
is sculptured Brahmā as seated on a padmāsana ;
as usual, he has four heads ; but only two arms ;
280
 PLATE LXXII .

.1.akshiņāmurt
AJñana
:-DFigvur i DFig
Jñada
.2:S- .aksbiņamurti
tone
District
T).( anjore
 PLATE LXXIII .

Jõāna-Dakshiņāmūrti : Stone : Tiruvorriyūr.

 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.

the right hand is kept in the chinmudrā or abhaya

pose and the left carries a kamanďalu. On both
sides of Brahmā are a dēva and his dēvī, flying in
the air and praising him .
The second image whose photograph is repro
duced as fig. 1, on Pl. LXXII, is to be found in
the Śiva temple at Āvūr in the Tanjore district.
It is also a well executed piece of sculpture. In
this image the jațās are bound together by a lalāța
patta of elaborate workmanship. In the left ear is
a patrakundala and in the right a nakrakundala ;
on the chest are the yajñāpavīta and a necklace of
rudrāksha seeds ; there are also the chhannavīra
and the udarabandha and a cloth worn in the
upavīta fashion. The front right hand is kept in
the chinmudrā pose and the front left hand, which
rests on the left knee, bears a book. In the back
right hand is the sarpa (snake) while in the back
left hand is agni (fire ). The right leg hangs down
the seat and is placed upon the Apasmārapurusha
and the left foreleg rests upon the right thigh.
This image belongs to the early Chāļa period.
The photograph reproduced on Pl. LXXIII is
of a comparatively modern sculpture to be found in
a Śiva shrine built in the second prākāra of the
temple at Tiruvorriyūr. It is coarse in its execution
281
 PLATE LXXIV .

Fig. 1. Jñāna-Dakshiņāmūrti : Stone : Fig. 2. Jñana -Dakshiņāmurti

Suchindran . Stone : Kāvēripākkam .
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and lacks effect. The jațās in this case are spread

fanwise and are bound at their base by a lalāta
patta. The image has the same objects in its hands
as the one noticed above (Pl. LXXII , fig. 1) . But
there is in addition the figure of a rishi seated below
the seat of Dakshiņāmūrti , with its hands held in
the añjali pose. The seat on which Dakshiņāmūrti
is seated in fig. 1, Pl. LXXII, is a bhadrapitha
while in Pl. LXXIII it is the mountain represented
in the usual conventional manner .

The fourth illustration , fig. 2, Pl. LXXII, is

exactly similar to the third ; but there are two Țishis
sculptured separately and seated on either side of
the central figure.
The fifth illustration, fig. 1 , Pl . LXXIV, is from
Suchindram in South Travancore. The image is
of a comparatively recent date. It has on its head
a carefully worked up jațāmakuța ; and a few stray
jațās are seen flowing down on the shoulders. The
posture assumed herein is the vīrāsana. In the
right back hand is seen a lotus flower, in the back
left hand a sarpa, while the front right hand is held
in the chinmudrā pose and the front left hand
carries a book.

Fig. 2, Pl . LXXIV, is the photograph of the

figure of Dakshiņāmūrti found in Kāvēripakkam
282
 PLATE LXXV.

TSDJñāna
1.:-Figtone
aksbiņāmūrti
. .iruvēngavāśal BDJñāpa
:-Figaksbiņāmūrti
.2.ronze
.,Mr.
Mof adras
Kay
Collection
OTTO
 DAKSHINĀMŪRTI .

and belongs to the Pallava period . Herein, the

deity has on his head heavy curls of hair constitut
ing the jațābhāra ; he carries the akshamālā in his
back right hand, agni (?), in the back left hand
and a book in the front left hand ; the front right
hand is held in the vyākhyāna -mudra pose. The
right leg is hanging below the seat, while the left
one is kept bent in the utkuţikāsana posture.
Round the neck are two hārās (necklaces) on the
chest, the yajñopavīta and in one ear a vſitta
kundala ; the other ear wears no ornament. Below
the seat are to be seen a deer and a cobra listening
to his discourse .
Fig. 1 , Pl . LXXV, is the reproduction of a
photograph of the Jñāna-Dakshiņāmūrti kept in the
southern niche of the central shrine of the ſiva
temple at Tiruvengavāśal in the Pudukottah State.
In this case, the deity is represented as seated with
his left leg kept in the utkutikāsana posture and on
it is stretched the front left arm . Fig. 2, on the same
plate is that of a bronze statuette belonging to the
collection of Mr. Kay, Madras. It is almost similar
to the figure on Pl . LXXIII ; the only difference is
that in the figure belonging to Mr. Kay, the back
right hand keeps agni and the back left one, a snake,
whereas in the Tiruvorriyūr image the order is
reversed .

283
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

JÑĀNA-DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
There is not much difference between the
Vyākhyānamūrti and the Jõānamūrti. In the latter
the general posture of Siva is exactly the same as
in the former, but in the back right hand there
should be the akshamālā, and in the back left hand
an utpala flower. The front right hand should be
held in the jñānamudrā pose, whereas the front left
hand may be kept in the abhaya or the daņda pose .

YOGA -DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
This form of Daksbiņāmūrti may be sculptured
in three different ways. In the first, the two legs
of the image should be crossed as in the svastikā
sana ; while the front right hand should be held
near the chest in the yogamudrā pose and the front
left hand should rest upon the lap in the character
istic yogic posture. In the back right hand there
should be the akshamālā, and in the back left hand
a lotus flower. The gaze must be fixed on the tip
of the nose : and a few jațās should hang over the
shoulders. This image of Dakshiņāmūrti should
be surrounded by fishis who should be adoring him.
In the second mode of representation of Yoga
Dakshiņāmūrti the left leg of the figure should be
bent in the utkuţikāsana posture; surrounding the
284
 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI .

body of the figure and its left leg should be a yoga

patta. The right leg should be hanging down the
seat. The front left arm should be kept stretched
and be resting by the elbow on the knee of the bent
left leg. The rest of the description is identical
with that given for the first form.
The third form is required to be sculptured
thus : The two legs are bentand crossed in a more
or less vertical position (as in the figure of Yoga
Nārasimha ), and round these and the body is passed
a yogapatta to keep the legs in position . The front
two arms are stretched and kept resting on the
knees. In the back right hand there should be the
akshamālā and in the back left hand a kamandalu .
The jātas should be disposed of in the form of a
jațāmaņqala and in it should be the crescent moon,
a snake and other objects. The colour of the body
of this aspect of Dakshiņāmūrti is white, but his
neck should be represented as of black colour. The
image should be adorned with all ornaments includ
ing a number of snake ornaments.
The illustration on Pl. LXXVI, is a well
carved figure of Śiva in the yogāsana posture. It
is enshrined in a fane situated in the south prākāra
of the Śiva temple at Tiruvorriyūr. The inscrip
tions on the walls of this shrine refer to the image
set up in it as Padampakkanāyinār and state that
285
 PLATE LXXVI .

30

Yoga -Dakshiņāmurti (locally known as Gauļisvara) : Stone : Tiruvorriyūr.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

it was set up in the fifth year of the reign of the

|
Chāļa king Virarājēndradēva (about A.D. 1067-8 ).
1 From the position of this shrine with reference to
the main central shrine, that is, to the south side
of it, and from the posture and other features of
the image itself enshrined therein, it may, without
fear of contradiction, be stated that it is the first form
of Jñāna -Dakshiņāmūrti described above. The
figure has a well executed jațā -makuța ornamented
with jewelled discs and bands round it ; kundalas
in the ears ; and hāra and necklace of rudrāksha
seeds and yajñāpavīta on the chest. The forearms
are adorned with a number of bracelets and the
upper armswith keyūras. The legs are crossed one
over the other so as to bring the soles up ; this is
exactly the yogic āsana called the svastikāsana.
In the back right hand there appears to have been
a śūla, whose shaft alone now remains, the head
being broken ; in the back left hand is the kapāla ;
the front right hand is held in the chinmudrā pose
and the front left hand also in the pose character
istic of an expounder of sciences. This image now
goes by the inexplicable name of Gaulīśvara and
near it and to its proper right has been set upin more
recent times the figure of Sankarāchārya , on the
base of the seat of this latter are carved the figures
of his four great disciples.
286
 PLATE LXXVII .

Ba

Yoga- Daksbiņāmūrti: Stove : Conjeevaram .

 DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
The second form is illustrated by Pl. LXXVII .
The original of this photograph is in the Kailāsa
nāthasvāmin temple at Conjeevaram . In this
sculpture Śiva has his left leg bent and rested verti
cally on the seat and this leg and the body are
bound together by the yogapatta. The front right
hand is held in the yogamudrā pose , while the front
left hand is in the abhaya pose. The back right
hand keeps an akshamālā, and the back left hand
agni or a lotus flower. * The right leg is hanging
down the seat. Śiva is as in the previous instances,
seated under the shade of a banyan tree and below
his seat are deer lying, with their heads lifted up to
Śiva. Below his right elbow is a cobra with an
uplifted hood, also gazing at the enchanting figure
of Śiva . Above the head of Śiva are seen seated a
pair of bhūtas on either side. On three niches
situated on either side respectively of Dakshiņā
mūrti (not shown in the picture) are șishis sitting
At some later period of the history of this temple, when
the surface of the stones of which the sculptures are composed
began to peel off, they have all been covered with a thin coat of
plaster. The plasterer not being able to make out the exact
nature of some badly injured objects has shaped slightly
different things in their stead : thus, a lotus flower that is
required by the āgamās seems to bave been evidently mistaken
for the most likely object in the back left hand of ſiva, namely,
agni.

287
 PLATE LXXVIII .

Yoga -Dakshiņāmūrti : Stone : Conjeevaram .

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

and listening to the preaching of the Dharma or

Yoga by Śiva.* The image whose photograph is
reproduced as Pl. LXXVIII is almost similar to
that on Pl . LXXVII ; the back right hand , in this
instance, carries a cobra. Dakshiņāmūrti is seen
sitting here upon a bhadrapitha placed upon a hill.
Pl. LXXIX is the photograph of the image of
Dakshiņāmūrti to be found in the Siva temple at
Nañjangāļu in the Mysore Province. This
represents, only so far as its sitting posture goes,
the third form the Yoga-Dakshiņāmārti. The
āsana assumed is that form of utkuţikāsana
described under the third form . The legs are
bound with the body with a yogapatta. But
in fact the image is a combination of all aspects
of Dakshiņāmūrtis - namely, the Yoga, the
Viņā -dhara and the Vyākhyāna forms; it is the
Yoga form because its sitting posture is the yogic ;
* Mr. Alex . Rea in bis " The Pallava Architecture " de
scribes a panel containing the images of Dakshiņāmurti and the
rishis thus : " in this panel, eleven seated sages are listening to
the exhortations of Siva, who is represented in a panel on the
north side of the central shrine. He is armed with different
symbolical weapons, and seems to be preaching war" (1) Such
mistakes are fairly common in his publications and hence need
no serious refutation ; nor are his drawings reliable, for, to
quote an instance, a sankha in the hand of an image is wrongly
represented in the drawing as a padma.
288
 PLATE LXXIX .

Dakshiņāmurti : Stone : Nañjangõdu.

 DAKSHINĀMŪRTI.

the Viņādhara because it carries in its back left

hand a vīņā; and Vyākhyāna because its front right
hand is in the chinmudrā pose and the front left
hand carries a book. The figure is seated below a
banyan tree and the lañchhana (the totemistic
emblem ), the bull, is carvedin a counter-sunk surface
on the pedestal , in front. Below the seat and in the
middle of it is seated a Lingāyat priest who holds
in his left hand a linga. On either side of this
guru are his disciples with their hands in the añjali
pose. A prabhāvaļi is placed behind the figure of
Dakshiņāmūrti on the jambs of which are standing
one on each side a ſishi with the hands in the
añjali pose.
VĪŅĀDHARA -DAKSHIŅĀMŪRTI.
As a great teacher of music, both instrumental
and vocal, Śiva is worshipped in the form of Viņā
dhara-Dakshiņāmūrti. The description of the image
of this aspect of Dakshiņāmārti is found in the
Kāmika, the Amśumadbhēda and the Kāraṇāgamas.
The Amśumadbhēdāgama states that the left leg
should be kept in the utkutika posture and the two
front hands should hold the vīņā ; the rest should
be exactly similar to the description of the Vyā
khyānamūrti. According to the Kamikāgama the
Gāna -Dakshiņāmūrti should have his front right
and left hands held in the kațaka pose, the former
289
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

with its palm facing below and the latter facing

above. The kațaka pose being slightly different in
form , the Kāmikāgama calls the pose the sarpa
kara . The left arm should be lifted up and the
right arm lowered below, so as to hold in proper
position the long-handled musical instrument, the
vīņā . The vīņā should be held at the top by the
left hand and by the right hand at the lower end ;
the resonating body of the instrument should rest
on the right thigh. The lower right hand should
be manipulating the strings of the instrument.
The measurement of the vīņā is next given as
follows : the vīņā should be projecting three arugulas
beyond the right thigh and four angulas above the
left kațaka -hasta . The distance between the two
points specified above is the length of the vīņā
danda or the hollow shaft of the instrument whose
width at the top should be two angulas. The gourd
resonator attached at the lower end should be six
angulas in diameter and three angulas in height.
A few general observations are also added bout
the figures of Dakshiņāmūrti. It is stated that the
face of Dakshiņāmūrti should be turned towards the
hand held in the sandarśanamudrā pose ; also the
gaze of the god may be fixed on this hand. Surroun
ding the figure of Dakshiņāmūrti there should be
different kinds of animals and reptiles, sages (munis)
290
PLATE LXXX.

us

Viņādbara-Dakshiņāmārti: Bronze : Madras Museum .

 PLATE LXXXI .

Viņādbara -Dakshiņāmūrti : Bronze : Vadarangam .

II
|
 DAKSHINĀMŪRTI .

and ascetics (siddhas), vidyādharas, bhūtas and

kinnaras ; Śiva should be seated in a place on a
mountain where all sorts of flowering trees and
plants grow luxuriantly and under a banyan tree,
on the right side of its trunk, on a jewelled pitha
covered with a tiger's skin and he should present a
benign look : and the ſishis the ancestors of the
Śivadvijas (Saiva brāhmaṇas) should be seated
round him. The figure of Dakshiņāmūrti may be
sculptured as seated or standing surrounded or not
by çishis, with his legs either resting or not upon
the Apasmāra -purusha and with or without the
banyan tree, bhūtas and others mentioned above.
Two photographs, Pls. LXXX and LXXXI, are
reproduced in illustration of the Viſādhara -Dak
shiņāmūrti; both ofthem are identical in shape and
in the details of moulding. * Śiva is seen standing
* These two images figure on Pls. XV and XVI of Mr. 0. C.
Gangoly's South Indian Bronzes. Besides these, he has re
produced two other photographs of the same aspect of ſiva on
Pls. I and XIV . In every detail all the four figures agree ; for
instance, in all, the right leg stands straight on the ground
while the left one is slightly bent ; all four have four arms, the
back hands of which carry the paraśu and the mriga and the two
front bands are held in the kataka poses required in the āgamas
and are evidently meant to koop a viņā in them ; the very same
ornaments, head - gear and clothing are to be seen on all the
images. In the case of PI. I, there is a slight divergence from
291
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

with his right leg kept firmly on the ground, while

the left leg is placed a little forward slightly bent.
The front two hands are held in the kațaka pose ,
the left one looking up and the right one looking
down. Evidently a separately cast vīņā was intend
ed to be inserted in the hands whenever wanted
and hence this instrument is not to be seen in
either image. The back right hand carries a
parašu and the back left one a mạiga. There are
all sorts of elaborately sculptured ornaments on the
person of the figures. The first figure (Pl.
LXXX) belongs to the Madras Museum , while the
second (Pl. LXXXI) is to be found in the temple at
Vadaraṇgam in the Tanjore district. The second,
an earlier piece of sculpture, is of very high artistic
value ; the first is of rather inferior workmanship.
the description of the āgamās, namely , the left leg, instead of
being placed directly on the ground, is held supported on its
head by a bhuta — which deviation is one of the artistic embel
lishments of the master -sculptor. In spite of the striking
similarity, nay identity among the four images, they are
called by different names : thus, the figure on Pl. I is said to
be Kālasambāra or Kālakālamūrti; that on Pl. XIV, Ganga
dhara , that on Pl. XX, Chandrasekhāra or Sõmadhāri ; and
lastly ; that on Pl. XVI, Pramēswara Swami (sic). It is not
quite clear either from the dhyāna- ślākās quoted or from the
short descriptive notes added to each if the identifications are
justifiable at all.
1 292
KANKALAMURTI AND BHIK
SHATANAMURTI .
i

11

1
.

1
 KAŃKĀĻAMŪRTI.
Once upon a time the great rishis, desirous of
learning as to who was the real author of this
Universe went to the top of the mountain Mēru
and put Brahmā, who was seated thereon, the
question which was engaging their thought. In
his vanity, forgetting the real creator, he boasted
that he himself was the great Architect of the
Universe. Meanwhile, Śiva appeared on the scene
and justly claimed the place for himself. Though
his own position was reasonably defended by Śiva,
Brahmā would not yield ; the Vēdas and the
Praņava (the sacred syllable Õm ) also interceded
on behalf of Śiva in vain. At last, through the
will of Śiva, there appeared near by a huge pillar
of illumination, which demonstrated the greatness
of Śiva, but Brahmā remained still obstinate.
Incensed with anger at the thoughtless conduct of
Brahmā, Śiva ordered Bhairava to cut off that one
out of the five heads of Brahmā, which reviled
him . Brahmā suffered temporary death, but, soon
revived by the power of his austerities, and accepted
295
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the superiority of Śiva. However, the sin of having

killed Brahmā (the major sin called brahmahatyā )
possessed Bhairava (a form of Śiva). Bhairava
requested Brahmā to suggest to him some penance
to get rid of this sin ; Brahmā advised him to beg
food in the skull of the head cut by him till he met
Vishņu who would devise means for wiping off
the sin . Till then , said Brahmā, the sin would
assume the form of a woman and be ever pursuing
him . Bhairava surrounded by a host of bhūtas
(goblins) went from place to place begging for food.
All the women of the houses he visited fell in love
with him and set out, singing and dancing, to
accompany him . Last of all he reached the abode
of Vishņu and attempted to enter it, but Vishvak
sēna, the gate -keeper, would not allow him to
enter. A fight ensued in which Vishvaksēna was
killed and added one more sin of brahmahatyā.
Bhairava, fixing the body of the gate-keeper of
Vishậu on his trident, got into the interior of
Vishņu’s mansion and begged for food . Vishņu
cut open an artery on the forehead of Bhairava and
told him that the blood that flowed from it was the
fittest food for him . Bhairava next requested
Vishṇu to assist him in washing off his sin . Vishņu
pleaded on behalf of Bhairava to the personified
female form of Brahmahatyā to quit him but she
296
 KAŃKĀĻAMŪRTI.
would not leave him . However, the thought occur
red to Vishậu that if Bhairava went to Vārāṇasi
the sin would leave him off and he advised him
to go to this sacred place for being freed from his
sins. Dancing with joy Bhairava wended his way
to Vārāṇasi (or Kāśi) with the body of Vishvaksēna
and as soon as he reached that place, the sin left
him and plunged into the nether world. The skull
of Brahmā and the dead body of Vishvaksēna also
left him and he once again became pure Mahēsvara
and returned to Kailāsa. Vishvaksēna was restored
to life and he joined Vishộu's service as usual.
Such, in short, is the account we meet with in the
Kurma-purāņa regarding the bearing of the skull
and the dry bones (kankaļa) of Vishvaksēna by
Śiva and also regarding his begging expedition.
There is a confusion here about Śiva and a parti
cular aspect of his, Bhairava ; also the sin of the
slaughter of Vishvaksēna is imposed upon the
shoulders of Śiva which were already groaning under
that of the cutting off of the head of Brahmā.
The reason for Śiva having begged so is
revealed by a study of the Dharma- Šāstras. It is
therein laid down that if a Brāhmaṇa happens to
kill another of great learning and good conduct (such
a learned person is called a bhrūņa), the sin could
be expiated by following the course of conduct
297
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY
prescribed thus : the sinner should, with his own
hands, erect for himself a hut in the forest, hoist on
it as a flag the head of the man he killed and live
therein, having for his upper garment the skin of a
horse or an ass, which he should wear with the
hairy side appearing outside. His underwear should
be made of threads of the hemp and when worn
it should not descend below the knee. Carrying 1
I !

a skull in one hand, as his begging bowl and

one of the long bones of the arm (khațvānga)
of the deceased as a stick he should start out
begging for his food saying “ who is there who II

would feed the murderer of a bhrūņa .” He should

not visit more than seven houses for making his
living and if any day he does not succeed in getting
food from them, he should go without it that day.
He should take his food and drink from this skull.
At home in his hut, he should observe the vow of
silence and be contemplating upon the sin commit
ted. He may undertake to tend the cows belonging
to a Brāhmaṇa village and on that account and
on account of receiving food alone he can enter the
village. At other times he should conduct himself
like one belonging to one of the classes considered
to be untouchable. While walking on a public way
if he meets an Arya on the road he should , like a
pig, move away to the very edge of the road, leaving
298
 KANKĀĻAMŪRTI.
it clear for the Arya to go by. Thus should be
spend twelve years only to absolve himself from
the sin and no more ; from the day he committed
the murder he ceases to be fit for the society of the
Āryas; by this course of conduct alone, he wipes
off the sin and prepares himself for a better birth
in the future. If, however, the life prescribed above
in the Dharmaśāstra is unendurable, he may end it
in one or other of the following ways. In those
days, there were cattle-raids committed often for
political reasons. * He may fight against the raiders
and suffer death in their hands ; or, if he is unfortu
nately successful in his attempt at driving away
the raiders, he may still attempt on future occa
sions with a view to die in the same cause. If
thrice he comes out successful in repelling the
cattle-raiders, he is absolved from the sin. Or, he
* War is divided into two classes in Tamil literature,
namely, ara -ppor and mara -ppor, that is, righteous or dharma
yuddha and unrighteous or adharma- yuddha. In declaring
a righteous war against an enemy king, notice is given to good
men and women, children , mendicants and ascetics, and cows
to quit the place which is to be attacked. Since cows cannot
be intimated the informed of the invading king, they are
carried away by the army of the invader preparatory to
war and this act is considered sufficient notice to all the others
to leave the place as early as practicable. In the mara - ppor
Do such notice is given.
299
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

might get into the thick of a battle seeking to be

shot dead ; it then becomes, the Dharma -śāstra says,
incumbent on the soldiers to kill this murderer of a
bhrūņa. Such, in short, is the punishment meted
out to the Brāhmaṇas murderer of a learned
Brahmana . *
सू ० - अथ भ्रूणहाश्वाजिनं खराजिनं वा बहिर्लोम परिधाय पुरुषशिरः
प्रतीपानार्थमादाय ॥
हरदत्तव्याख्या - षडङ्गस्य वेदस्याध्येता तदर्थवित् प्रयोगशास्त्रस्य च
सव्याख्यानस्य चार्थवित् कर्मणोऽनुष्ठाता अनुष्ठापयिता च ब्राह्मणो भ्रू
भ्रूणः.
णः ........
.पुरुषस्य शिरः यस्य कस्यचिन्मृतस्य शिरः प्रतीपानार्थ छान्दसं
दैर्घ्य पानमेव प्रतीपानं पानग्रहणमुपलक्षणं भोजनमपि तत्रैव .......
Āpast. Dharma-sútra, Haradatta's Comm . 1st Praśna,
10th Patala, 29th . Khandika..
सू ० - खटाङ्गं दण्डार्थे कर्मनामधेयं प्रब्रुवाणश्चंक्रम्येत को भ्रूणने भिक्षा
मिति ।। .

Ap. Dh. Su. , Har. Com . I, 10, 29 .

सू - अरण्ये कुटिं कृत्वा वाग्यतः शवशिरध्वजोऽर्धशाणीपक्षमधोनाभ्यु
परिजान्वाऽऽच्छाद्य ॥
हरदत्तव्याख्या - कृत्वति वचनान्न परकृता कुटी ग्राह्या .
शवशिरो ध्वजो यस्य स शवशिरध्वजः सलोपश्छान्दसः स्वव्यापादितस्य
ब्राह्मणस्य शिरोध्वजदण्डस्याग्रे प्रोतं कृत्वेत्यर्थः । यस्य कस्यचिच्छवस्येत्यन्ये ।
आयामविस्तारयोरुभयोरप्यर्धम् । अधोनाभ्युपरिजानु च यथा भवति तथा s
च्छाद्य तावन्तं प्रदेशमाच्छाद्य सापेक्षत्वाद् प्रामे प्रतिष्ठेतेति वक्ष्यमाणेन
संबन्धः । मध्ये क्रियान्तरविधिः।
Āpastambha -Dharma-sútra, with Haradattāohārya's
300
 KANKĀĻAMŪRTI.
Now , the Purāṇas and other authorities are
one in asserting that Śiva cut off the head of
Brahmā, the most learned of all beings in the
Vēdas and Šāstras and hence a veritable bhrūņa of
bhrūņas. The sin of brahmahatyā stuck, as it ought,
to him and he underwent the course of conduct
prescribed for a bhrūņaghna (murderer of bhrūņa).
With the skull for his drinking and eating vessel,
with bones for his staves, he went about begging for
food and, be it noted, he went to the seven houses
of the seven great rishis and also he never lived in
any town or village, but made the burning ground
outside the village his abode. From all accounts
about Śiva found recorded in the ancient literature
we see that the course of conduct followed by Śiva
was exactly that prescribed, in the early Dharma
śāstras, to a bhrūnaghna. Having committed the
murder of Brahmā, the best of Brāhmaṇas, it is to
be conjectured that Śiva should have become unfit
for the society of the Aryas; if so, the question
arises whether it was this disqualification on the
part of Śiva that made him hateable to the

commentary on it named Ujjvala , 1st Praśna,

9th Patala , 24th Khandikā.
Cf. Manu Smriti, XI, 72-86, Gautama, XXII, 2-10 ,
Kurma- Purāņa, XXXth chapter end.
301
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Āryas, as he is said to have been in the earlier

literature (See the Introductory chapter).
There is another slightly different account con
cerning the act of begging for food associated with
Śiva and this account serves only the purpose of
explaining why, in his aspect known as the Bhikshā
tanamūrti, he is seen stark naked when going out
abegging. The Lingapurāņa states that in the
forest of Dāruvana even women and children took
to the performance of austerities and forgot the
worldly ways of living (pravritti-mārga ). To make
them feel the need also of the worldly ways, Śiva
started out to beg in their quarters ; for this purpose ,
he became a black, ugly looking being and naked he
went into their midst. The appearance of this
notable figure drew the attention of all the inhabit
ants of the Dāruvana and through his māyā the
residents of this forest took to all sorts of bad ways
of this world . Angered by the bad example set up
by the new comer, the ¡ishis cursed him, but,
instead of being affected by it, he disappeared. The
ộishis became aware that the intruder was no other
than Śiva and repented their inability to have
offered him worship when they had the good for
tune to have in their midst his human embodiment.
Brahmā advised them to worship his linga studi
ously if they desired to see him in person once
302
 KAŃKĀĻAMŪRTI.
again. They followed his advice and were rewarded
for their devotion by Śiva appearing before them
once again and blessing them.
The images of the Kankālamūrti and the
Bhikshāțanamūrti are generally found in almost all
Śiva temples of importance throughout Southern
India and all the Saivāgamas contain more or less
detailed descriptions of these images. The Amśu
madbhēda, the Kāmika and the Kāraņa āgamas,
as also the Šilparatna describe them as follows:
The figure of the Kankāļamūrti should be a
Kankalamurti.
standing one, with the left leg
planted firmly on the ground and
the rightslightly bent and kept a bit forward suggest
ing that the figure is in the act of moving. The
colour of the body of Śiva in this aspect is pure white.
He should be wearing red -coloured upper gar
ments while his under -wear should be composed
of silk and tiger's skin. The head should be
ornamented with the jațāmakuța ; on the left side,
it should be adorned with a few durdhura (dhatura)
flowers and a snake and on the right with the
crescent moon . His face should be beautiful and
beaming with the feeling of happiness, smiling and
singing sweet songs. The pearly teeth of Śiva should
be half visible and the ears adorned both with ordin
ary kunđalas or with a makara-kundala in the right
303
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

ear and a śankhapatra in the left one. There should

be the yajñāpavīta on his chest. Of the four hands,
the front right one should keep the bāņa - here the
term bāņa seems to mean a short resined stick
used in exciting the membrane of a sort of drum,
while the front left one should keep a drum known
by the name of ąhakka . The back right arm
should be stretched out and its hand held in the
kațaka pose near the mouth of his pet animal, the
deer ; and in the back left hand should be the
kaňkāļa-danđa or the staff on which the bones of
the arms and the legs of the murdered person are
tied up together by a rope and ornamented with
the feathers of the peacock and a banner. The
bones should be dry and of blackish colour and be
free of flesh ; but there should be traces of blood
on them and on the small jingling bells tied to the
staff. This kankāļadanđa should be placed horizon
tally on the left shoulder, one end being held, as
already noticed, by the back left hand. In the
girdle round the loins of Śiva there should be tucked
up a dagger made of gold, with a silver handle ; he
should be wearing a pair of wooden sandals on his
feet and the whole of this curious get-up should be
finished with a number of snake ornaments distri
buted all over the body. The Kankāļamūrti should
be surrounded by a number of women and the
304
 KANKĀĻAMŪRTI.
bhūtaganas ( goblins) represented variously as dan
cing, singing and in other attitudes ; one of the
bhūtas should carry on his head a large vessel for
storing in the food received in alms and be situated
on the left of Śiva. Of the women who surround
Śiva some should appear to be completely possessed
of irrepressible love for him, some eager to embrace
him , some others blessing him, while still others
serving in his vessel food ladled out from another
with a spoon. Out of lust for Śiva the clothes of the
women should appear slipping down their loins.
There should also be hosts of fishis, dēvas, gandhar
vas, siddhas and vidyādharas everywhere around
Śiva, with arms crossed on the chest in the añjali
pose. The god Vāyu should sweep the streets before
Śiva, Varuņa should sprinkle them with water, the
other dēvas should shower flowers on him, the rishis
should praise him by repeating the Vēdas, Sūrya
and Chandra should carry umbrellas over his head
and the celestial musicians Nārada and Tumburu
should sing songs to the accompaniment of musical
instruments. The height of the women who are
keeping company with Śiva may be that of the chin,
chest or the navel of Śiva ; the height of the bhūtas
should be equal to three or three and a half times
the length of the face of Śiva and they should be
shaped according to the pañcha -tāla measure.
305
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

In the case of the image of the Bhikshātana

Bhikshatana- mūrti, the general posture of śiva
murti.
is the same as in the Kankāļamūrti
aspect ; that is, the left leg standing firmly on the
ground and the right slightly bent suggesting
walking. The front right hand and the back left
are held as in the case of the Kaňkāļamūrti,
whereas the front left hand should carry a kapāla
and the back right one a damaru . The head may
have the jațās dishevelled (jatābhārā) or arranged
in the form of a circle ( jațāmaņdala ) with the
crescent moon in it. The forehead should be
adorned with a patta or ornamented band ; there
should also be the other ornaments all over the
body. But there should be no kind of clothing on
the person of Śiva, not even the waist zone. In
stead of this latter there should be a snake tied
round the waist ; besides this, there should be other
snake ornaments in appropriate places on the person
of Śiva. On the chest is to be seen a white
yajñāpāvīta. The neck of Śiva should be of blue
colour and his forehead should be beautified with
the tripuņðra mark. In this aspect he should not
carry the kankāļa-daņậa, but in its place there
should be the śūla decorated with a lot of peacock
feathers. There should be a pair of wooden
sandals on his feet ; sometimes it might be omitted
306
 KAŃKĀĻAMORTI.
also. The hand that bears the kapāla should be
lifted as high as the navel, whereas the one that
carries the damaru should be raised as far as the
ear and the distance between the wrist of this arm
from the ear is to be sixteen angulas. As usual,
Śiva should possess in these two aspects three eyes.
The rest of the description of the Bhikshātanamūrti
is identical with that given already under
Kankālamūrti.
The Suprabhēdāgama adds that the kapāla
held by Śiva is that of Brahmā and the kankāļa
that of Vishậu ; herein the Paurāṇic story of the
murder by Śiva of both Brahmā and Vishvaksēna,
an aspect of Vishņu, is accepted and followed.
A number of photographs are reproduced in
illustration of the Kankāļamūrti and the Bikshā
tanamūrti ; unfortunately all of them belong to
South India, a fact which seems to point out that
these two aspects of Śiva were more favoured by
the Southern people than the Northerners, who
worshipped the equally naked Bhairava more
freely instead. All the images of the Kaňkāļa
mūrti as also those of the Bhikshātanamūrti are
practically similar to one another, and it will
therefore be sufficient to give the description of any
one of each aspect.
307
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

On the whole eleven photographs are repro

duced in illustration of the descriptions of the
Bhikshātana and the Kankālamūrtis ( Pls. LXXXII
-LXXXIX ) . Of these, five are of Bhikshātana
and five of Kankālamūrti ; and the remaining one
may be taken either as the one or the other,
because it does not conform strictly to the descrip
tion of either. It might be noticed that the left
back hand of all the bronze images of the Bhikshā
tana and the Kankālamūrtis are held in the kataka
pose ; they are so held as to permit of being inserted
in them a separately cast kankāļadanda or a śikhi
piñchha, if necessary. The dead body of Vishvaksēna
is clearly visible in the photographs of the Kankāla
mūrti images in temples of Nagēśvarasvāmin , Tiru
chchengāttanguời and Suchịndram . The pet deer of
Śiva is seen with all the stone representations of the
Kankāļa and the Bhiksbātanamūrtis given here,
but has been left off while the photographs of some
of the bronze figures were taken . The sculpture
belonging to the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at
Conjeevaram has only two arms, in one of which
is a śikhipiñcha and the other keeps an akshamālā
and is held in the chinmudrā pose ; it is doubtful
if it is wearing any clothes and it has no jațāmakuța
on its head ; and from the general appearance it is
to be inferred to be a Bhikshātanamūrti rather
308

!
 PLATE LXXXII

Kaikāļamurti: Stone : Dārāsuram .

PLATE LXXXIII.

Kankāļamūrti : Bronze : Tenkāśi.

 PLATE LXXXIV.

Kankālamurti : Stone : Sushindram.

 PLATE LXXXV .

Kankāļa umbhak
KS1.:. .tone
Fig õņam
mūrti T:Figiruchchengāttargudi
SKankālamūrti
.2.tone
 PLATE LXXXVI .

Fig. 1. Bbiksbātanamurti : Stone : Fig. 2. Bhikshātanamúrti : Stone :

Conjeevaram . Tiruchchengāttangudi.
PLATE LXXXVII .
Bronze
Bhikshātanam 2.:
urti
Fig.
1..:
BhiksbātanamStone
urti:
Fig
Tiruveņkādu.
Kumbhakõņam.
 PLATE LXXXVIII .

भव

30

Bhikshātanamurti : Bronze : Valuyur.

PLATE LXXXIX

Bhikshāśanamurti : Bronze : Pandañanallur.

 KANKĀĻAMŪRTI.
than the Kankāļamūrti. The cut of the face of the
image of Bhikshātanamūrti of Valuvūr is in strik
ing similarity with that of the image of the Vțisha
vāhanamūrti of Vēdāraṇyam , which makes us
believe that the artist (sthapati) who made these
two images was perhaps one and the same person .
All the images are made very well indeed, but we
should separate from these the bronze statue of
Bhikshātanamūrti of Tiruveņkādu and the stone
figure of the same of the Nāgāśvarasvāmin temples
for the special notice of the readers. Both of them
are gems of art. The extremely easy and natural
posture, the remarkably well-proportioned limbs,
and the smile which the artist has eminently
succeeded in depicting on the countenance of the
bronze Bhiksbātanamūrti are noteworthy. In the
stone image the posture and the general effect are
splendid. One other peculiarity which is not found
in the āgamic descriptions but found in the sculp
ture is a tiny bell tied by a string just below the
knee of the right leg ; it is found in the majority of
the instances reproduced in this chapter.

309
OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS
OF SIVA :
Gangadharamurti, Ardhanarisva
ramurti, Haryardhamurti, Kal
yanasundaramurti, Vrishavaha
namurti and Vishapaharana
murti.
OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.
HE king Sagara had, by his first wife Kēsini,
THE a son named Asamañjasa and sixty thousand
others by the second wife Sumati. Asamañjasa was
from his childhood a wicked man and his example
affected the other children of Sagara and made them
equally bad. The gods who could not bear the evil
Gangadhara- ways of the sons of Sagara asked
murti .
the rishi Kapila, one of the aspects
of Vishņu, as to what would be the fate of all the
wicked sons of Sagara, to which the rishi replied
that in a short time they would all perish. Sagara
arranged for a horse-sacrifice, for which purpose
he let loose a horse. It was stolen by Indra
and bidden in the Pātāļa- loka. Tracing the foot
prints of the horse the sixty thousand sons of
Sagara excavated the earth till they reached the
Pātāļa-loka and there found the horse in the hermit
age of Kapila. These wicked sons of Sagara
mistaking Kapila for the thief rushed on him to kill
him . But Kapila by the power of his penance
reduced them to ashes. Having waited long for the
313
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

return of his sons in vain, Sagara sent his grandson

Amśumat (son of Asamañjasa) to search for the
horse as also his uncles. He too traced his way
into the Pātāļa-loka and found the horse near
Kapila. Being, unlike his uncles and father, a well
behaved boy, he implored Kapila to permit him to
take away the horse ; the Țishi pleased with the boy
gave over the horse to him, informed him of the
fate of his uncles and conferred upon him the boon
that they would all go to heaven in the life-time of
his grandson. The horse- sacrifice was celebrated
by Sagara and after sometime he passed away. The
son of Amśumat was Dilipa and his son was Bhagi
ratha. The rishi Kapila had told Amśumat that if
the water of the Gangā was sprinkled on the ashes
of his uncles they would go to heaven. Bhagiratha
performed severe austerities to bring down the
celestial river Gangā ; the latter was pleased with
Bhagiratha and asked him who could resist the
force of her fall on earth from heaven ; if none
could, the fall would cause the earth to be pierced
in the middle. He replied that Rudra, the power
ful, would be able to bear the force of her descent
and began to address his penances to Rudra
for granting him the boon of receiving Gangā
on his (Rudra's) head. Śiva, being satisfied
with the austerities of Bhagiratha, went to the
314
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

Himālayas to receive Gangā. At first Gangā

thought Śiva would be unable to bear her descent
and came down in great volume and with enormous
force. Śiva, indignant at her haughty behaviour
towards him, determined to humble her. Having
received her on his mighty head covered with
matted hair, Śiva made Gangā wind through the
labyrinth of his locks of hair for a long time before
she was able to reach the earth. Being once again
requested by Bhagiratha, Śiva let the river Gangā
flow down on the earth . Bhagiratha led Gangā
to where his ancestors' ashes lay and made them
attain heaven by the contact of the waters of the
holy river Ganges. It is under the circumstances
described above that Śiva came to wear on his head
Gangā and thence became known as Ganga
dharamūrti. The story of the descent of Gangā
for the sake of Bhagiratha is given in the Vishnu
purūna, the Bhagavata -purāņa and the Rāmāyana.
The image of Gangadharamūrti is described in
the Amśumadbhēdāgama, the Kāmikāgama and the
Kāraṇāgama. It is stated that the figure of Śiva
should be standing with his right leg planted verti
cally on the earth and the left one slightly bent.
The front right hand should be placed near the
chin of his consort Umā, whom he should be
embracing with his left front arm ; the back right
315
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

arm being lifted up as high as the ushnīsha or the

crown on the head, should be holding a jațā or a
lock of matted hair, on which should be the figure
of the goddess Gangā ; the back left hand should
carry a mriga.
On the left of Śiva there should be Umā stand
ing in a state of mental uneasiness * which emotion
must be portrayed on her face by the sculptor. The
right leg of Umā should be somewhat bent, while
the left one should be straight. Her right hand
should be hanging down freely and the left one
should be carrying in it a flower; or, the right hand
might be holding a few folds of the cloth about her
thigh.
On the left should be Bhagiratha in company
with a number of rishis, praising Śiva . The group
of figures described above constitute the panel of
Gangādharamūrti. The central figure of Śiva may
also be called Gangā- visarjanamūrti.
The following are the additional facts found in
the Kāmika and the Kāraṇāgamas. The figure of
Śiva should have four arms and three eyes ; of these,
the front right hand should be in the abhaya pose
and the front left one in the kațaka pose. The

* This is the feeling of jealousy due to siva trying to

favour another lady with his attentions.
316
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.
other two hands should be carrying the parašu and
the mriga. The band that touches the jatā (this
must be the one which keeps the parašu ), should
be lifted as high as the ear. The height of the
figure of Bhagiratha should be that of the navel,
the chest or the neck of that of Śiva and it should
be made according to the ashta- tāla measurement.
The figure of Bhagiratha should be draped with the
garment made of barks of trees ; the matted hair of
the head of Bhagiratha should be dishevelled and
flowing down and he should have only two eyes
and two arms and these latter should be held in
the añjali pose on his chest or over his head.
Five illustrations of the Gangādharamūrti are
given ; of these the first, Pl. XC, is to be found in
the rock -cut cave at Elephanta and is executed in
a very admirable manner . In the centre of this
fine panel are the figures of Śiva and Umā. The
back right hand is holding a jațā from which a
female, whose figure is broken and whose legs alone
are visible at present, seems to be descending :
near the end of this jațā is Brahmā seated upon a
padmāsana. The front right hand of Śiva is kept
in the abhaya pose. Even though the forearm of
the back left handis broken it is easy to find that
it must have been directed towards the chin of
Umā ; it is not easy to say what there was in the
317
PLATE Xc .

Gangadharamürti : Stone Panel : Elephanta.

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

front left hand of Śiva. To the left of the figure

of Siva is seen standing that of Umā, whose left
hand is let down hanging, while the right is bent
and held up ; the forearm of this hand is broken ; it
is very likely that this hand held in it a flower.
Near the shoulder of the goddess Umā is seen
Vishộu seated upon his vehicle, the Garuda. On
the right and near the foot of Śiva is seated Bhagi
ratha with flowing jațās and facing the lord Śiva.
His arms are broken ; perhaps they were in the
añjali pose. Between Śiva and Umā and to the
left of Umā are two dwarfish gaņas or attendants
of Śiva. On the head of Śiva is a triple headed
goddess who is in all probability the triple river
Ganga after she was joined by the Yamunā and the
Sarasvati branches. On a level with the head of
Śiva are sculptured a number of dēvas, all flying in
the air, which is shown in the conventional manner
of a cumulus cloud. This, like the other pieces of
sculpture in the large cave at Elephanta, is of rare
workmanship and is remarkable for its gigantic size.
The second photograph, Pl. XCI, is that of a
large panel sculptured on the west wall of the rock
cut cave at Trichinopoly. In this Śiva is standing
with his left leg placed straight upon the ground
and the right bent and placed upon the Apasmāra
purusha (or a gaña). His back right arm is lifted
318
PLATE Xci.

Gangādharamurti : Stone Panel : Trichinopoly.

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GIVA.
up and bent to take hold of one jaţā issuing from
his head ; at the end of this jațā is the river
goddess Ganges seated with hands folded on her
chest in the añjali pose. The front right hand
holds a snake in it ; whereas the back left hand
is meant to keep a mriga, which is actually shown
at a distance from this band ; the remaining hand
is resting upon the hip of Śiva. Bhagiratha on
the right and another rishi on the left are holding
up their hands in an attitude of praise. On
either side of Siva is a dēva also praising him.
Besides these, there are some other beings also
praising the lord. The whole panel is supported
by an ornamental platform ; both thu panel and
the base are exquisitely carved . The age of this
piece of sculpture is the middle of the seventh
century and it was carried out by the order of the
Pallava King Mahēndravarman .
The third piece of sculpture given as fig. 1,
Pl . XCII, is to be found on the south wall of the
central shrine of the famous Kailāsa temple at
Ellora. Śiva is seen here also as letting down the
river goddess Gangā from one of his jațās, which
he holds with his front right hand and his back
right one rests upon the hip . The front left arm is
kept bent upwards as if to carry either the parašu
or the mpiga ; the back left arm which is broken ,
319
 PLATE CXII .

Gangad tone haramurti

KS1.,: .ailāsa
Fig Gangad
.:B.ronzeharamurti
2Fig
Ellora
.
.
Vaidyi śvaranköyil
 PLATE XCIII .

Gangādharamurti : Stone : Tāramangalam .

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

was apparently near the chin of Umā. The river

Gangā is descending upon the head of a ſishi seated
with crossed legs supported by the yoga -patta ,
evidently Bhagiratha. From near him it flows to
where the deceased Sagaras are, that is, below the
foot of Śiva ; they are all sculptured as seated
cross legged and with arms folded in the añjali
pose. Above these Sagara -putras are sculptured an
elephant and a horse, for what purpose, it is not
possible to say. At the foot of Śiva is a figure
bending lowly in obeisance; it is perhaps that
of Bhagiratha who expresses his gratitude to Śiva
after his ancestors reach heaven . Above and near
the head of Śiva are two or three celestial figures
praising Śiva. Near Śiva and to his left stands
Umā with one arm resting upon her hip and the
other holding a flower. Her left leg is planted
firmly on the ground and the right is kept bent and
crossing the left one.
The fourth illustration , Pl. XCIII, belongs to
the Kailāsanāthasvāmin temple at Tāramangalam
in the Salem District of the Madras Presidency.
It is of comparatively modern date (circa 15th
century A. D). In this sculpture Śiva is standing
in a very solicitous attitude towards his consort
who is angry with him for having sheltered another
woman, Gangā. He is pacifying her with the
320
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

front right hand placed near her chin ; with one

of his left arms he is embracing her. In his back
left hand which is kept in the kartari hasta pose he
holds Gangā who is descending from a jațā of his
head ; and she is flowing down in the form of water
and the river thus descending is swallowed by a
bull, which is seated on the pedestal on which Śiva
and Umā are standing. In the remaining hand of
Śiva is to be seen (rather faintly in the photograph)
the mriga. The right leg of Śiva is planted firmly
on the ground and the left one is somewhat bent ;
the left leg of Umā is straight while the right one
is somewhat bent. In her left hand is a flower and
the right hand rests upon her thigh.
The fifth illustration ( fig. 2 , Pl . XCII) is that of
a bronze belonging to the Śiva temple at Vaidyēś
varankāyil (Tanjore district) which is exactly
similar to the sculpture of Tāramangalam , just
described.
It is stated in the śiva-purāņa that Brahmā
first begot a number of male beings, the Prajāpatis,
and commanded them to create various other
Arddhanaris beings. They were found later
varamurti.
on to be unfit for the task for
which they were intended and Brahmā, feeling
uneasy at the slow progress of creation, contem
plated on Mahēśvara. The latter appeared before
321
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

him in the composite form of a male-female and

asked him to cease feeling distressed. Until then
it did not occur to Brahmā to create a female
also, and at the sight of this composite form
of Mabēśvara he realised his error ; thereupon he
prayed to the female half of Mabēśvara to give him
a female to proceed with the act of creation :
Brabmā’s request was complied with and the crea
tion went on aferwards very well. This story
accounts for the Arddhanārīśvara form of Śiva.
The real meaning of this aspect has already been
adverted to in the Chapter on Lingās.
There is yet another account of the appearance
of Śiva in the Arddhanārīśvara form . On a certain
occasion when Śiva was seated with his consort
Pārvati on the top of the Kailāsa mountain , the
dēvas and rishis went there to pay their homage
to him . All of them except the rishi Bhțingi,
went round both Śiva and Pārvati in their circum
ambulations and also bowed to both. This ſishi
had a vow of worshipping only one Being, that is,
Śiva ; in confornuity with his vow, he neglected to
go round or bow down to Pārvati. Pārvati grow
ing angry with Bhộingi, desired in her mind that
all his flesh and blood should disappear from his
body and instantly he was reduced to a skeleton
covered with only the skin . In this state he
322
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

was unable to support himself in an erect position .

Seeing his pitiable plight Śiva gave him a third
leg so as to enable him to attain equilibrium ;
Bhțingi became pleased with his lord and out of
joy danced vigorously with his three legs and
praised Śiva for his grace. The design of Pārvati
to humble Bhțiigi thus failed and the failure caused
great annoyance to Pārvati who returned to do
penance for obtaining a boon from Śiva. At the
end of the penance, Śiva, pleased with his consort,
granted her wish of being united with his own body.
Thus was the Arddhanāriśvara form assumed by
Śiva, for offering difficulty to the rishi Bhțingi in
circumambulating, or bowing to Śiva alone. But,
undaunted by this impediment Bhțingi assumed
the form of a beetle pierced a hole through the
composite body of Śiva and circumambulated ſiya
alone to the great wonder and admiration of even
Pārvati, who became reconciled to his vow and
bestowed her grace upon the pious rishi for his
steadfastness to his vow.
The description of the image of Arddhanār
iśvara is given in the Aiśumadbhēdāgama, the
Kāmikāgama, the Suprabhēdāgama, the ſilpa
ratna, the Kāraṇāgama and a few other works.
As the name indicates, the form of this image
should be half man and half woman . The right
323
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

half is male, that is, Śiva and the left half is

female, that is, Pārvati. The male half should
have a jațāmakuța on the head , which should be
adorned with the crescent moon. In the right
ear there should be the nakra -kunđala, sarpa
kundala or an ordinary kundala and the right half
of the forehead should have one half of an eye
sculptured in it. The image of Arddhanārīśvara
may have two, three or four arms. If there are
four arms , one of the right hands should be held in
the abhaya pose and the other should keep the
parašu ; or one hand may be in the varada pose
the other carrying a śūla ; or there may be a țaňka
in one hand , and the other may be held in the
abhaya pose ; or one of the arms may be somewhat
bent and rested upon the head of his bull -vehicle
and the other hand held in the abhaya pose ; or
there may be the śūla and the akshamālā in the
two right hands : if there are only two arms , the
right one should be held in the varada pose ; or
there may be the kapāla held in it. The whole
of the right side should be adorned with the
ornaments peculiar to Śiva and the chest on the
right side should be that of a man . On the right
side the garment should cover the body below the
loins only up to the knee and the material of the
garment is the tiger's skin and silk. On the right
324
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

half of the chest there should be the nāga-yajño

pavīta and on the loins of the same side, the
sarpamēkhala (or girdles of snake). The whole of
the right side should be covered with ashes. The
right leg should be somewhat bent (or it may
also be straight) and be resting upon a padma -pītha.
The right half might be terrific in appearance and
should be of red colour. So much about the Śiva
half of Arddhanāriśvara . The left or the Pārvati
half of the Arddhanāriśvara image, is as described
below.
On the head of the female half or the left side
there should be a karanda-makuta or a fine knot of
hair well -combed and divided, or both. On the
forehead of this half a half tilaka mark , contiguous
with the half eye of Śiva should be shown. The
left eye should be painted with collyrium. In the
left ear there should be a kundala known as
vāļikā. * If the image of Arddhanārīśvara has four
arms, of the two left ones, one is to be. bent and
rested upon the head of the bull of Śiva and the
other kept in the kațaka pose, holding a nīlotpala
in it ; or the latter may be let down hanging below.
* This is the rendering of the Tamil word vāļi, which is
the name of an ear-ornament ; such words are common in the
Āgamas, and indicates distinctly the fact that the autbors of
the bulk of the āgamas were residents of the Tamil country ,
325
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

If there be only three arms in the image of

Arddhanārīśvara, there should be only one on the
left side. This hand may keep in it either a flower,
a mirror or a parrot and it must be adorned with
kēyūra, kankaņa and other ornaments ; if, on the
other hand, there are only two arms, the left one
may be hanging below, or keeping in it a mirror, a
parrot or a flower, or it may be bent and resting
upon the head of the bull. The parrot may be
sculptured as perching upon the wrist of Pārvati.
On the left side there should be the bosom of
a woman with a round well-developed breast ;
on this side of the chest and the trunk there
should be sculptured hāras, and other ornaments
made of diamonds and other gems. The female
half should be smeared with saffron, draped in
multicoloured silken female cloth, covering the
body down to the ankles ; or, the garment may
consist merely of white silk. The garment may
be held in position on the loins by three girdles.
On the left ankle there should be an anklet
and the left foot tinged red with the leaves of
henna ( Tam . Marudāņi). The left leg might be
somewhat bent or stand erect upon the padmā
sana . The colour of the left half may either be
parrot-green or dark, and should be of pacific
appearance.
326
 PLATE XCIV .

Arddhanāriśvara : Stone Panel : Badāmi .

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA .
Eight photographs are reproduced to illustrate
the description of Arddhanārīśvara given above.
Of these, Pl. XCIV is of a fine panel to be found in
the rock-cut temple at Bādāmi . In this sculpture,
Arddhanārīśvara has four arms ; in one of the right
hands he holds the parašu, wriggling round which
is to be seen a snake, one of the favourite animals
of Śiva ; the same arm has a sarpa-valaya round it.
The remaining right and one of the left hands hold
a vīņā in them and play upon it. On the right
upper arm there is a snake ornament ; there is a
sarpa -kundala in the right ear. On the right half
of the head is the jațāmakuța bearing on it the
crescent moon, the skull and other ornaments. An
exceedingly well wrought necklace adorns the neck.
There is also the yajñāpavīta on the chest. This
side is draped from the loins down to the knees
with deer's skin. The right leg is somewhat bent
and is resting upon an ornamented platform . The
female half has a karanda -makuța, a knot of hair
with bands of jewelled ornaments running across it,
a large number of kankaņas on each forearm and a
well executed kēyūra ; there are mēkhalas or girdles
keeping in position the silk garment which descend
down to the ankles. On the foreleg is an anklet.
The other left hand holds a nilotpala flower.
The whole of the head is surrounded with a

327
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

prablāmaņdala. To the left of Arddbanārīśvara

is a female attendant standing with the right arm
hung down and the left arm bent and carrying
in it a vessel ; she is also beautifully adorned
with all ornaments and is draped in a fine cloth .
Her hair is done up in a knot , dhammilla. To
the right of the central image is the hull of Śiva,
meek and quiet , with its eyes casting glances on the
ground before it. Behind the bull is a human figure
with a thoroughly emaciated body ; it may be
representing either Bhairava or the ſishi Bhțingi.
Its hands are held in the añjali pose. On the right
and left of the head of the central figure are the
representations of Dēvas with their consorts, flying
in the air and praising Śiva. Below the platform
on which stands the figure of Arddhanārīśvara , are
sculptured small figures of the gaņas, some dancing
and others playing upon different musical instru
ments .

The second illustration, fig. 2, Pl . XCV, belongs

to Mahābalipuram . The figure of Arddhanārīśvara
reproduced here is sculptured on the Dharmarāja
ratha. In this, the image has four arms; one of
the right hands holds a parašu and the other is kept
in the abhaya pose. The right half is shaped male
and the left half female ; of the two arms on the
female half one is hanging down and the other one
328
 PLATE XCV.

Arddbanāriśvara
Fig
.1:S.tone SArddbanāriś
.2.tone
:Fig vara
Kumbhakõn
. am Mabāba
. lipuram
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

bent and lifted up holding a flower. The forearm

of this last mentioned arm has a number of brace
lets. In the right ear there is an ordinary small
kuņqala while the left ear bears a big disc of a
patra -kundala.
The third illustration, fig. 1 , Pl . XCV, the
original of which is to be found in the Nāgāśvara
svāmin temple at Kumbhakõņam, represents that
class of the image, with the bull at the back. This
piece of sculpture is one of the finest of the Chāļa
period and is remarkable for the exactness of
the proportions both of the male and the female
portions of the torso and the excellence of its
artistic effect. The figure in this instance has
three arms, two on the right and one on the left ;
of the right arms one is bent and placed upon the
head of the bull and the other bent and lifted up
carrying the paraśu . The left hand keeps a mirror
towards which the head of the image is slightly
turned ; the left forearm bears a number of brace
lets. On the left the hip and the pelvis are shaped
larger than on the right and bring out beautifully
the relative proportions of the male and female
pelvises. The garment on the right side does not
descend below the knee, whereas that on the left
side descends as far as the ankle and has a many
folded portion tucked up in front near the loins.
329
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.
On the whole, this is one of the many excellent
pieces of sculpture in the Nāgāśvarasvāmin temple.
The fourth illustration, fig. 2, Pl. XCVI, is
exactly similar to the third and belongs to about
the same period. The original of this is to be
found set up in the circuit round the Śiva temple
at Tiruchchengāttanguļi in the Tanjore district.
The fifth illustration is a photograph of a
bronze preserved in the Madras Museum (see fig.
1, Pl. XCVI). It is noteworthy in some points : the
back right arm is bent and lifted up and carries a
paraśu ; the front right hand is held in the kataka
pose, apparently to hold a triśūla . Of the two left
arms, the back one is bent and kept raised and
holds in it a nīlotpala flower, whereas the front
one has on its wrist a parrot. In other details, it
resembles the other images described above.
The sixth illustration is entirely different from
all the others noticed above (see Pl. XCVII). The
original stone sculpture is a loose piece lying in
the first prākāra of the Kailāsanāthasvāmin
temple at Conjeevaram and is as old as the middle
of the seventh century A.D. In this, the image
of Arddhanāriśvara has three arms ; the front
right hand is seen carrying a triśūla by its lower
end and the back one is raised up as high as
the head and holds a cobra by its tail ; the
330
h PLATE XCVI .

BArddbabāriśvar
:Fig
.1.ronze a .2.tone
SFig
:Arddhanāriśvara Arddbanāriśvar
:SFig
.3.tone a
.Museum
Madras Dārāsuram
(:) Tiruchchengāțțangudi
.
PLATE xcvii .

Arddhanáriśvara : Stone : Conjeevaram .

 PLATE XCVIII .

Arddhapäriſvara : Stone : Madura.

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

reptile hangs down and lifts up its hood near the

hand holding the triśūla. The left hand, that of
the female half, holds a vīņā in it ; it is bent and its
elbow is resting upon the head of the bull upon the
back of which the figure of Arddhanārīśvara is
seated . Nowhere in the authorities quoted in the
beginning is it stated that the figure of this com
posite aspect of Śiva may be a seated one and this
particular piece of sculpture is noteworthy for its
breach of the rule in this respect. The bull is also
seated, an unusual attitude for this animal, especi
ally in the presence of its master .
The seventh illustration, Pl. XCVIII, comes
from Madura and belongs to the time of Tirumala
Nāyaka (A. D. 17th century). In its details, it
agrees closely with the Mahābalipuram sculpture ;
the workmanship exhibits peculiarities which were
common to the age to which the sculpture belongs,
namely, a conventional mode of standing, sharp
pointed nose, artificial disposition of the drapery
etc. However, it is a strikingly fine piece of work
manship
The eighth and the last illustration, fig. 3,
Pl. XCVI, is an exceedingly interesting and extra
ordinary piece of sculpture ; in this Arddhanārīśvara
has three faces and eight arms. The heads are
surrounded by a prabhā -mandala and the hands
331
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

carry in them the akshamālā, the khaąga, the pāśa,

the musala (?), a kapāla, a lotus flower and other
objects. The right side of the figure is male and
represents Śiva and the left side is female and
represents Pārvati. In no Sanskrit work that has
been examined do we meet with a description of
Arddhanārīśvara which agrees with the image
whose photograph is reproduced here.
Having described the image of Arddhanār
iśvara it is easy to describe the figure of Haryard
dhamūrti. Before proceeding with its description
it is necessary to say a few words regarding the
origin of this aspect of the deity ; it is related
in the Dāmana- purāņa that Vishņu is reported to
have said to a rishi that he and Śiva were one and
that in him resides Śiva also and manifested
himself to the rishi in this dual aspect of his. In
the Arddhanārīśvara form the left half is occupied
Haryarddha by the Dēvi or Prakțiti and Puru
murti or Hari- sha and Prakriti are united with
haramurti,
each other for the purpose of
generating the universe ; the same idea is, as we
have already noticed, represented by the linga and
the yāni. Umā, Durgā or Dēvi is also considered
to be a female aspect of Vishņu . It is necessary
in this connection to draw the attention of the
readers to the fact that Durgā, the consort of Śiva,
332
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GIVA.
is represented in all sculptures with the sankha
and the chakra, the weapons characteristic of
Vishịu. In one instance, she is also called the
sister of Vishņu. Vishộu is also viewed as the
prakriti-tatva and hence we see Vishņu substituted
in the place occupied by Dēvi in the Arddhanār
iśvara aspect of Śiva.
Again, it appears likely that the sculpturing of
the Haryarddhamūrti and its worship as a chief
image in many temples came into existence after the
conflicts between the partizans of the cults of Śiva
and Vishịu had abated and a compromise was
arrived at, namely, that Śiva is Vishņu and Vishņu
is conversely Śiva and that they are essential
for the creation , protection and destruction of the
Universe. It is gratifying to note that during the
mahotsavas in the temples of Harihara, the
vehicles, decoration and ceremonies are alternately
those that are peculiar to Śiva and to Vishņu res
pectively and these festivals are attended by both
Vaishṇavas and Śaivas.
In the figure of Harihara or Haryarddhamūrti,
the description of the right half or the Šaiva portion
is exactly identical with the description given under
Arddhanārīśvara . The left half or the Vaishṇava
portion is described in the Sanskrit texts as
follows : On the left side of Harihara there should

333
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

be two arms, of which one should be carrying the

chakra, the sankha or the gadā and the other held
in the kațaka pose near the thigh. On the head,
in the Vaishṇava half, there should be a kirīta set
with precious stones and of excellent workman
ship ; there should be a makara -kuņdala in the left
ear. The arms on this side should be adorned with
kēyūra, kařkaņa and other ornaments. On the
right foreleg there should be an anklet shaped like
a snake while that on the left leg should be set
with all precious stones. The Vaishṇava half is to
be draped with a yellow silk garment. The colour
of the Saiva half is snow-white and that of Vishņu
either green or bluish brown. It is also stated that
the two legs of Harihara should be kept without
any bends in them. The right half should be
terrific and the left half pacific. On the Śaiva
portion of the forehead the third eye of Śiva must
be half visible and behind the head of the image of
Harihara there should be a śiraśchakra or halo.
The Vishnudharmõttara adds that to the left of
the figure of Harihara there should be sculptured
that of Garuda and to the right, that of Nandi .
Of the two photographs given in illustration
of the Haryarddhamūrti one, Pl. XCIX, belongs to
the panel found in the lower cave temple at
Bādāmi. The central figure in this panelis
334
 PLATE xcix.

Blues

Haryarddbamūrti (or Haribara, śaikara- Nārāyaṇamūrti) : Stone Panel : Bādāmi.

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

Harihara ; a clear vertical line of demarcation bet

ween the jațāmakuța of Śiva and the kirīța -makuța
of Vishņu is visible in the head-gear. In the right
ear is a sarpa -kundala whereas in the left one there
is a nakrakundala. In the right back hand the
image carries a paraśu with a snake round it : and
the back left hand keeps a śankha. The front
right hand, though broken , appears from its posi
tion to have been held in the abhaya pose :
the corresponding left hand is resting upon the
thigh . There is a siraśchakra surrounding the
crown of the head and the legs stand straight. On
the right and left are two goddesses, evidently
Pārvati and Lakshmi, the consorts respectively of
Śiva and Vishņu. Between Pārvati and Harihara
is a short figure of the bull-faced Nandi carrying in
his right hand a danđa ; and on the left between
Lakshini and Harihara is a dwarfish figure of
Garuda. Below the panel and in a long horizontal
niche in the platform , over which the figures of
Harihara and others stand, are carved a number
of gaņas, some playing upon musical instruments
and others dancing .
On the top of the panel and on both sides of
the head of Harihara are shown two celestial
beings with their wives as flying in the air and
carrying in their hands a flower garland each.
335
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

The second photograph, Pl. C, is that of a

beautiful image of the Chālukya period preserved
in the Office of the Superintendent of Archæology,
Western Circle . In all details regarding the orna
ments and dress this is not different from the first.
In this sculpture the hands in the Saiva half carry
the triśūla and the akshamalā, whereas those on
the Vaishṇava half keep the gadā and perhaps a
sank (this hand is broken and hence the object
carried cannot be correctly guessed). As in the
previous illustration here also there are the two
dēvīs, Pārvati and Lakshmi each one carrying a
fruit and a flower in the two hands. Garuda is
kneeling on the left and Nandi, here represented
wholly in the form of a bull, is standing on the
right. The sculpturing of this image is excellent ;
great credit is due to the sculptor for the remark
ably minute carving of the ornaments. At the back
of the central figure is a prabhāvaļi. Even here
distinction is shown between the Saiva and
Vaishṇava halves, the right half being an ordinary
prabhāvaļi and, the left being one-half of an
expanded hood of a five -headed snake ; but on
the top of the prabhāvaļi the central figure is the
face of a lion. On the right and near the blades
of the triśūla might be observed the figure of
Brahmā seated crosslegged, with hands in the usual
336
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA,

poses and carrying the objects characteristic of

this deity .
Sati, the daughter of Daksha and the consort
of Śiva was dead. The asura , Tāraka, was offering
great annoyance to the dēvas and brāhmaṇas and
could not be disposed of by any one but one born
of Śiva. In the absence of a wife Śiva can have
no progeny and the gods became interested in the
Kalyan asun- marriage of Śiva. Sati was already
daramurti.
born to the god of the Himālaya
( Himavān ) as Pārvati and was herself performing
austerities to be joined to her lord once again. It
was at such a moment that, induced by the dēvās,
Kāma the god of love, tried bis artifices upon Śiva
and met with his end. But when once the mind of
Śiva was disturbed he could not at once gather his
mental determination and he yielded to the prayers
of the gods ; he resolved to enter marital life. He
wanted to try the steadfastness of Pārvati. The
Varāha -purāņa is alone in giving the following
account of how he tested it. Śiva assuming the
form of an old, decrepit brāhmaṇa, approached
Pārvati, who was absorbed in her austerities, and
begged to be supplied with food, as he was feeling
very hungry. Pārvati was pleased to ask him to finish
his bath and other ablutions and come for meals.
The old man went to the river very near the

337
PLATE C.

Haribara : Stone : Poona .

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

hermitage of Pārvati and as soon as he got down

into the water contrived to be caught by a
crocodile. He called out to Pārvati for help . Pārvati
came to the riverside, but she could not strech her
arm, which was never meant even in rendering
help to be held by any other than
her lord , Śiva ,
Perplexed with this feeling she stood still for
some moments but the danger of the guest
being swallowed by the crocodile very soon became
patent to her and she was obliged to give up her
vow of not being touched by a hand other than
that of Śiva ; she stretched out her arm and
took hold of that of the old brāhmaṇa and pulled
him out of the water and the crocodile also left
him . Pleased with Pārvati, Śiva showed his
real self to her and she was immensely gratified
with her lord for having saved her from being held
up to obloquy for having caught hold of a hand
other than his. She dedicated herself to Śiva
and the regular marriage was celebrated later
on. The details of the celebration and the descrip
tion of the images of the gods and goddesses that
are to be represented as having taken part in it are
found in the Agamas.
In the composition of the scene of the marriage
of Pārvati with Śiva there should be Śiva and
Parvati forming the central figures facing the east.
338
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.
Vishņu and his consorts Lakshmi and Bhūmi as
the givers - acting the parts of the parents in a
brāhmaṇa marriage -of the bride should be there ;
of these Lakshmi and Bhūmi should be standing
behind the back of the bride, touching her at the
waist indicative of handing her over to her lord ;
and Vishņu should be standing in the back -ground,
between Śiva and Pārvatí with a golden pot of
water ready to pour it at the ceremony of giving
the bride to the bridegroom ; then, there should
be Brahmā in the foreground, seated and perform
ing the ceremony of homa or making offerings to
the fire. In the back -ground and at various dis
tances should be seen the eight Vidyēśvaras (or the
lords of learning ), Ashtadikpālakas (or the guar
dians of the eight quarters), Siddhas (persons who
have attained the eight great powers ), Yakshas
(semi-divine beings), ſishis (sages), Gandharvas
(another class of semi-divine beings), the Mātņikās
(or the seven mothers) and a host of other gods
with their respective goddesses, all of them standing
with arms folded in the añjali pose, and with the
feelings of pleasure, happiness and wonder portrayed
in their faces. Such are the details of the general
composition of this remarkable scene and the indivi
dual figures are described in detail as follows:
Śiva should be sculptured as standing firmly
339
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

on the left leg and with the right one resting upon
the ground somewbat bent ; or, the left leg may be
represented as slightly bent and the right straight
and standing firmly on the ground. The front
right arm should be stretched out to receive the
right arm of the bride, Pārváti; the front left hand
should be held in the varada pose. In the back
right hand there should be the paraśu and in the
back left one the mriga. There should be three
bends in the body of Siva, that is, should be of the
tribhanga posture. The head of Śiva should be
adorned with a jațāmakuța with the crescent moon
tucked up in it, and all other parts of the body, with
their appropriate ornaments such as the hāra, the
kēgūra, the udarabandha and the waist zone. The
snake Vāsuki should serve Śiva as the sarpa -kun
đala, Takshaka as the waist band and Pushkara as
the hāra. The figure of Śiva should be that of a
young man who has just come of age. The colour
of Śiva should be red. As usual Śiva should have
three eyes.
To the left of the figure of Śiva * should be
standing that of Pārvati, of dark complexion, with
* Some autborities state that Parvati should be standing
to the right of Siva and there are sculptures representing
Páryati as standing botb on the right and on the left sides of
Śiva.
340
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

her right arm stretched out to receive that of Śiva,

in the act of pāņigrahaņa (the ceremony of taking
hold of the hands) and with her left hand keeping
a nīlātpala. Her head should be slightly bent down
in shyness and her person should be adorned with
all ornaments appropriate to the occasion. The
figure of Pārvati should be as high as the eye, the
chin, the shoulder or the chest of Śiva and she
should be represented as a well-developed youthful
maiden, with two eyes and two arms and draped in
silk garments .
In front of Siva and seated on the ground
should be the figure of Brahmā doing homa or
making offerings to the fire. The figure of Brahmā
should be as high as the chest of Śiva. The
Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama gives numerical proportions
for the height of the figures of Brahmā and Vishịu.
It is therein stated that the height of Vishịu might
be seven-twelfths, eleven-twelfths, three-fourths or
two -thirds of the height of Śiva and the height
of Brahmā either equal to or one-sixth , one -seventh
or one-eighth less than that of Vishņu .
Brahmă must be seated upon a padmāsana
facing the north, with, in front of him, a kunda in
which the fire is burning with tapering flames. As
usual he should be represented with four faces, four
arms and as being busy in the performance of
341
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

the homa ceremony. He should be adorned with

a jațāmakuţa and the body with a yajñāpavīta, a
girdle made of muñja grass, and all other ornaments;
he should wear an upper cloth . In his front right
and left hands he should hold the sruva and sruk
respectively, and in the back right and left hands
there should be the akshamālā and the kamandalu
respectively. The colour of Brahmā should be red
like the fire.
The size of the sacrificial kuņqa is then given
as follows : the kunda should have three mēkhalas
(broad tiers going round the central pit in which
the fire is kindled ) each of twelve angulas in width
and the extreme length of the whole kunda includ
ing the mēkhalas being 22 angulas. In the pit of
the kuņņa, the fire should be shown as possessing
seven or five jvālas or tongues of flame which ought
to be a fourth of the height of Brahmā ; and the
breadth of the flames of fire must be half their
height. The angula mentioned here is the dēha
labdha -angula of the central figure of Śiva.
On the north of the homa-kunda should be stand
ing the figure of Vishņu, whose height should come
up to that of the nose , shoulder or chest, of Śiva . If it
is as high as the nose, it is said to be a uttama
figure ; if as high as the chest, adhama. Dividing
the distance between the nose and the chest into

342
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

eight equal divisions, we shall get the nine classes,

composed of the uttama , madhyama and adhama
forms of Vishņu, that is, uttamõttama, uttama
madhyama, uttamādhama and so forth. Vishņu
should be adorned with a kirița -makuța on his
head and all other ornaments in their proper
places. In the back right and left hands he should
bear the chakra and the sankha, while the front
right or left hands should carry a golden pot, held
ready for pouring water from in the act of giving
the bride Pārvati to the bridegroom Śiva. The
colour of Vishņu should be, as usual, dark .
The figure of Lakshmi is required to be as
high as the chin or the shoulder of Vishņu, with
arms resembling the trunk of an elephant adorned
with kēyūras, kankaņas and other ornamerts. The
hip of Lakshmi should be broad and graceful and
she should be draped in richly embroidered silk
cloth .
Such are the descriptions of the individual
figures composing the picture depicting the favourite
theme of the Indian artist, as given in the
Amśumadbhēdāgama, Uttara -kāmikāgama and the
Pūrva -Kāraṇāgama. Let me now turn to the
descriptions of the actual sculptures found in the
various parts of India, whose photographs are
reproduced on Pls. CI to CVII.
343
 PLATE CI .

Kalyäņasundaramürti : Bronze : Tiruvorriyūr ,

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY,

Seven photographs are given in illustration

of the marriage scene of Śiva with Pārvati ;
the original sculptures are of varying degrees of
complexity and consist in one instance of barely
Śiva and Pārvati standing hand in hand, while in
others with all the divinities surrounding them and
each doing a duty in connection with the marriage.
Let me therefore describe each of them separately.
The first photograph, Pl. CI, is that of the
bronze images of Śiva and Pārvati in the act of
taking hold of each other's hand in marriage. The
original image of Śiva is nearly three feet in height
and has four arms and three eyes. The front right
hand is held out to receive that of Pārvatī, while
the back right one carries a paraśu with its head
turned away from the face of Śiva. The front left
hand is held in the abhaya pose and the back left
one carries a mriga. The right leg of the image of
Śiva is placed firmly on the ground and the left one
is slightly bent and is resting upon the ground .
There are two bends (dvibhanga) in this image.
On the head of this image is a jațāmakuta adorned
with very nicely executed ornaments ; the hāra and
the yajñāpavīta, the kēyūra and the kațakas the
udarabandha and the katibandha - all these are
also artistically made. The image is apparently
draped in tiger's skin and on the feet are the
344
 PLATE cii .

Kalyāṇasundaramurti : Stone Panel : Ratanpur (Bilāspūr District) .

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA .
anklets. The figure is standing upon a padmāsana.
The image of Pārvati, with its face slightly bent
down in shyness, stands by the right side of that
of Śiva, with the right arm stretched out to receive
that of Śiva , while the left hand is kept in the
kațaka pose. On the head of Pārvati is a karanda
makuța and her person is adorned with a large
number of ornaments of good workmanship ; she
wears an exquisitely embroidered cloth which
descends in flowing folds on either side and is held
on the loin by mēkhalas (a kind of belt). The
figure of Pārvati is also standing on a padmasana
with two bends in its body . This piece of sculpture
appears to belong to the early Chāļa period (A. D.
1000-1100 ).
The second sculpture whose photograph is
reproduced on Pl. CII, comes from Ratanpur in
the Bilaspur district of the Central Provinces. In
this panel Śiva stands with his front right hand
stretched out to receive that of Pārvati, who in this
instance alone, stands to the left of Śiva. His
front left hand rests upon the right shoulder of
Pārvati. In the back hands he carries perhaps the
sūla and the damaru. Brahmā is seen seated
before the fire, on the right of Śiva and is busy
making fire-offerings ; the fire is burning in a cup
placed in front of him. Near the kunda or cup of
345
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY .

fire stands the bull of Śiva. Surrounding the

central figures of Śiva and Pārvati are a large
number of gods and goddesses, several in the añjali
attitude and some with their arms resting upon
their hips ( katyavalambita ).
The next illustration , CIII, is to be found in
the Cave temple at Elephanta. It is a remarkably
well-executed panel, but very unfortunately here
and there mutilated. But what remains is suffi
cient to disclose the master-hand of the artist who
sculptured this most interesting scene. Śiva is
standing with Pārvati to his right ; his front right
hand is as usual stretched out to receive that of
Pārvati. The figure of Pārvati is of striking
beauty ; her slightly bent head and down-cast look
depict an amount of shyness: her narrow waist
and the broad hip, the well -formed bosom and the
easy posture of the legs all lend a charm to the
figure which is all its own. Brahmā is making
hõma to the left of Śiva and Lakshmi is seen
standing behind Pārvati with her hands touching
her back and behind Lakshmi stands her consort
Vishņu with a large pot of water for pouring water
at the ceremony of giving the bride to the bride
groom . The figure of a very well built man is to
be seen standing behind Pārvatí with his right
hand bent and resting upon the right shoulder of
346
PLATE CIII.

Kalyanasundaramurti : Stone Panel : Elephanta .

 PLATE civ.

Kalyāṇasundaramūrti : Stone Panel : Ellora .

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA .

Pārvati. From the size of the figure and from the

fact that it has only two arms, as also from a sort
of inferior head -gear, one may presume it repre
sents Parvatarāja, the father of Pārvati. If that
is he, it is indeed noteworthy to find him in the
panel . Below the right hand of this figure is a
large drum , also very well-carved. A number of
gods with their respective goddesses are seen in
the air in the attitude of flying and praising the
married couple. In point of size also this panel is
most remarkable ; the height ofthefigure of Pārvatí
is 8 feet and 6 inches and the panel itself measures
approximately 10 feet square.
The photograph reproduced on Pl . CIV is of
the panel found in the Dhumar Lena Cave at
Ellora. In its details the panel is exactly similar
to that of the Elephanta Cave, though its work
manship has not the latter's fineness and artistic
finish .
The large panel whose photograph is given on
Pl. CV belongs to the Cave temple of Rāmās
vara at Ellora. It is divided into three sections,
the two on the left are depicting scenes from the
marriage of Pārvatí with Śiva. In the extreme
left section and at its right end is seen Pārvati
standing erect on the mountain between two fires,
performing penance to become Śiva’s spouse , in
347
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

marriage. Her left hand rests upon her thigh, while

the right one is counting the beads of an akshamālā.
To her left stands a woman carrying a box ; a male
figure, with outstretched right hand as though
asking for something from Pārvatī, is seen standing
to the left of the tall girl with the box in her
hand. It is the figure of Śiva as a hungry beggar
asking for food. A little to the left, the scene
changes : the beggar, who was asked by Pārvatí,
according to the Varāha-purāna, to go to the river
to bathe and return for meals, is in knee deep
water, the surface of which is covered with lotus
flowers and leaves ; his left leg is caught hold of
by a makara and he is calling out for help. Pār
vati who repairs to the spot to see what has become
of her guest, sees him in this miserable plight ;
after hesitating for a moment if she should now
offer her hand or not to this beggar, and with
great reluctance, she tries at last to lift him ир with
her left hand - note, she keeps her right one far
away from the man and holds it in the vismaya pose .
To save her from the tongue of slander Siva
appears to her in his real person , represented in
the panel, just above the head of the beggar.
His jațā -makuţa and other ornaments readily
proclaim his identity. It should be noted here
that water, fire and mountain are represented
348
PLATE CV.

Subrabmanya teaching Siva : The scene of marriage between siva and Pārva

Stone
 (To face page 347)

Pārvati doing penance to obtain the hand of Śiva in marriage.

el : Ellora .
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.
in the conventional manner described elsewhere.
Proceeding then to the next scene, that of the
actual marriage ceremony, which is depicted in
the middle section of the panel, it is seen that
Pārvati, standing to the right of Śiva is offering
her right hand to him, who receives the same in
his right hand. At the background and between
the bride and bridegroom is Vishņu standing
with a pot of water ready to pour in the hands
of Śiva, in making the gift of the bride. Lakshmi's
face is seen behind the head of the bride and she is
standing behind Pārvati and presenting her to her
lord, Śiva. Behind the bride are two female attend
ants, one of them carrying a box and behind the
bridegroom are two dēvas and a gana, the latter
being easily recognised by his size and head - gear.
Brahmā, assisted by a ſishi, is seen performing the
fire-offering (hôma). The strangest thing in the
panel is the anachronistic presence of Gaņēša
and KārttikĒya, the two sons of Śiva and Pārvati,
during the marriage of the two !! . The little
Gaņēśa is standing between the legs of Śiva and
Pārvati and Kārttikēya between those of Śiva and
the gaña . The latter appears to carry in his left
hand a kukkuța (cock) whose tail is visible in the
photograph. The presence of these two children
is, in all probability, meant to indicate that they
349
 PLATE CVT

Kalyānasundaramurti : Stone : Madura .

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

were not born of the union of the couple but had

existed from eternity like all gods, but at a later
period assumed the position of the sons of Śiva and
Pārvati.
The remaining portion of the panel represents
another scene in the life of Śiva. He is seen
learning the significance of the mystic syllable Om
from his son Subrahmaṇya. An account of this
event will be found given in the chapter on
Subrahmaṇya. Subrahmanya with six heads (of
which three are visible in the sculpture) is seated
on a high pedestal with a ſishi; one of his right
hands is held in the chin -mudra pose, while the
other is kept with fingers outstretched . One left
hand is resting upon his lap. He wears the cloth
in the upavīta fashion ; the legs are hanging below
the seat and resting upon the ground. The rishi
has also both his legs hanging down the seat and
seems to have his hands kept in the añjali pose.
In front of Subrahmaṇya is seated cross-legged on
the ground Śiva with his right hand held in the
jñāna -mudrā pose and the left one resting, in the
yoga -mudrā pose, on his lap. He also wears his
upper garment in the upavīta fashion. Behind
him is seen standing Pārvati, his consort.
Below this remarkable composite panel is a
row of most humourous gañas some with animal
350
 PLATE CVIL

Kalyāṇasundaramūrti : Stone : Madura .

 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

faces, others with animal-mouthed bellies (vriko

daras) and the rest like human beings taking active
part, with great cheerfulness, in the arrangements
in connection with the marriage festivities. The
two first on the right end are seen carrying each a
banner and the third a mace ; the fourth is dancing.
Three gaņas are seen carrying a four -footed article
resembling a table, which is evidently a raised seat.
On the left of this group another gana is seen
playing upon the flute ; next to him is a lion faced
gaña playing upon a stringed musical instrument.
Adjoining this, there is a bear-faced gaṇa carrying
something on his head ; another, tiger-faced, holds
in his left hand something kept in a round leaf,
apparently that of the lotus. The fourth from the
left is a vrikādara ; the rest are carrying some
article or other in their hands.
The next two illustrations, Pls. CVI and CVII,
are from South India. They are found in Madura,
the one in the Pudu -mandapa and the other in the
maņờapa in front of the central shrine of Sundarēs
vara temple ; the first belongs to the reign of
Tirumalai Nāyaka and the second, a copy, made
some forty years ago. In these the principal
figures are Pārvati, who is being given to Śiva in
marriage by Vishņu pouring water in the hands
of Śiva ; and Śiva standing on the left with his
351
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

right hand stretched out to receive the gift; in

front of and between him and Vishņu is seen , with
the head bent down in shyness, Pārvati keeping
her right hand lifted up so as to be taken hold of
by Śiva ; and on the left is Vishņu pouring water
from a vessel on the hand of Śiva. Below, and
in a countersunk panel is seen Brahmā making
fire -offering. The whole subject is treated with
great cleverness and the effect is very striking.
There is not that elaborateness which one meets
with in the Cave temples of Northern and Western
India, but the very simplicity of the sculpture
carries a great charm with it. The shyness
depicted on the countenance of the bride is very
noteworthy.
One of the favourite modes in which Śiva is
represented in sculpture is known as the Vșisha
vāhana or Vțishabhārūdhamūrti; that is, Śiva
seated upon the bull , his vehicle. It is in this
aspect which is held in high veneration by the
people that Śiva has often appeared in person before
his devotees. One day, among
Vrish a bha
rudhamurti. the ten days' festival in any Śiva
temple in South India, the image of
Śiva is seated upon a bull and carried round the
streets in procession and that day is held by people
as the most important of all the days of the
352
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GIVA.

festival. Hence also this form of the image of Siva

is described in great detail in allathe important
āgamas.
Vșishavāhanamūrti should be standing with
his right leg placed firmly on the ground and the
left slightly bent ; the left arm should be bent and
its wrist resting on the head of the bull ; the hand
of this arm may be hanging fully open so that the
tip of the middle finger may reach the level of his
own navel. The right hand should carry a vakra
daņdāyudha (a crooked stick like the one carried
by Śāsta, Mannannār Krishņa, etc.). This stick
should be of the thickness of the small finger and
should have three bends at its top end and its
length equal to the distance between the hikka
sūtra and the knee. In the back right hand there
must be the tanka or parašu and in the back left
hand the mriga. The head might be adorned with
a jațāmakuța, or a hanging jațābhāra or a jață
bandha, the choice of which is left to the sculptor.
The figure should be adorned with all ornaments
the colour of Śiva, as also that of his garments is
to be red. On the right side or the left should be
the figure of Dēvi, standing with the right leg kept
firmly on the ground and the left one slightly bent.
The right arm of the Dāvi should be bent and
that hand should carry an utpala flower. The left
353
 PLATE CVIII .

Vrishavābanamurti : Bronze : Vēdāranvam .

 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

hand should be hanging down freely. The figure of

Dēvishould be sculptured according to themeasure
ments given in the āgamas for female images; the
direction of thebends in its body would depend upon
its situation to the right or left ofthe image of Śiva.
The rishabha (bull) should be standing behind
Śiva and should be of the height either of the chest,
navel, root of the penis or even the thigh or the
foreleg. (Evidently in the last two or three instan
ces the animal should perhaps be sculptured as
sitting on the ground ).
The illustrations which fit in almost exactly
with the description given above are the images of
Vpishavāhanamūrti of Vēdāraṇyam ,that reproduced
from the Viśvakarma and that of Tāramangalam ,
whose photographs are given as Pls. CVIII, CIX and
CX respectively. In the first instance, as in others,
it is not the left arm that is resting on the head of
the bull but the right. The left arm is let down
and its hand is resting upon the thigh and not as
required, held in the kațaka pose. The tip of the
middle finger of the right hand held in the patāka
hasta reaches, as is required by the āgamas, the
level of the navel. It is to be noted that the figure
of Śiva in the present instance has only two instead
of four arms. The left leg stands firmly on the
ground and the right one is slightly bent and resting
354

1
PLATE CIX .
PLATE CX

Vrishavābanamurti : Stone : Tāramangalam.

 PLATE CXI .

M tone am
amurti
.:Sababalipur
Vrisbavāban
 PLATE CXI !

Vřisbabhārudba
:SFig
.1.tone mūrti SVrishavābanamu
:Fig
.2.tone rti
.
Halebid u Madura
.
 OTHUR IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

on the ground on its toes. The bull is as high

as the thighs of Śiva. Pl. CIX is true to the very
description given in the āgamas.* Its left arm
rests on the head of the bull and the right hand is
held in the kataka pose to receive in it a separate
metallic or wooden crooked stick. The right leg is
kept firmly on the ground and the left one is kept
slightly bent. In the image of Tāramangalam,
Pl. CX, the front right hand is kept in the abhaya
pose, but in other respects it is uactly similar to
the one on Pl. CIX .
The third photograph reproduced on D ! CXI
is that of the sculpture to be found on the wal!
of one of the so-called rathas at Mahābalipuram .
It almost resembles the image represented on
Pl. CVIII. The image of Śiva has four arms. The
left hand is in a manner held in the kataka pose.
On either side of this Vishavāhanamūrti is a Dēva,
with his consort, praising Śiva.
The photographs reproduced as figs. 1 and 2
on Pl . CXII are similar in treatment. The agamic
description agreeing with this mode of representa
tion of the Vộishavāhanamūrti is not available at
present. So, we should be satisfied with the de
scription as we find it recorded in the sculptures.
*
Mr. V. A. Smith calls this image " Siva in sandhyāoritta
39
dance ."

355
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

Here, Śiva and Pārvati are seated exactly as in the

aspect of Umāsahita-ālinganamūrti , or Sõmāskanda
mūrti, on a seat placed upon the back of a full sized
bull. In fig. 1 , Śiva isembracing Pārvati and in fig. 2 ,
he is not. In the first piece of of sculpture Śiva carries
in his back hand the śūla and the damaru and the
front right hand is kept in the abhaya pose and
the front left is thrown on the shoulder of Pārvati ;
in the second sculpture the back hands carry the
paraśu and the miriga and the front hands are in
the abhaya and the varada poses respectively. An
elaborately carved prabhāvaļi is seen surrounding
the figures of Śiva and Pārvati. The first piece nt
sculpture belongs to the Hoyasala School and the
second to the modern Nattukkottai artisans and the
former is fitted up now in the reconstructed Kēdā
rēśvara temple at Halebiļu and the latter in the
Sundarēśvara temple at Madura.
The aspect of Śiva known as the Vishāp ha
raņāmūrti appears to be regarded as a kind of
anugrahamūrti ; since it is not
Vishapaharana definitely mentioned as such in
murti.
the āgamas it is included in
this chapter. We have already mentioned that
Śiva swallowed the dreadful poison that emerged
from the ocean , when it was churned by the Dēvas
and the Dānavas for obtaining ambrosia (amrita)
356
 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SIVA.

from it. We have a description of this mūrti in

the Kāraṇāgama ; therein it is stated that Śiva,
as usual, should have a face with three eyes on it,
wearing a jațāmakuta and having four arms. In
two of his hands there should be the parašu and
the mriga ; in one of the remaining hands there
should be the cup containing the poison and the
fourth hand should be held in the varada pose.
His gaze must be fixed upon the poison and the
general attitude should be such as to indicate that
he is about to sip the poison immediately. He
should be adorned with all kinds of ornaments .
On the left of Śiva there should be his consort
Pārvati embracing her lord about the neck with her
right arm and appearing highly perplexed and
distressed . Her complexion should be dark, she
should have two eyes, two arms and be standing in
the tribhanga posture, (with three bends in her
body ), with her right leg placed vertically on the
ground and the left one kept slightly bent. Another
description adds to the above the following details :
that the appearance of Śiva should be made terrific
(ugra) by the addition of side tusks; his com
plexion should be white as the full-moon and he
should be draped in garments made of tiger's skin ;
there should be a garland made of small bells, and
along with the other usual ornaments, there should
357
 HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

be some others composed of scorpions ( vriấchika ).

In the right hands of Śiva there should be the
triśūla and a beaked vessel (gākarņa) containing
the poison ; and in one of the left hands the kapāla.
Since no object is mentioned as being in the fourth
hand, it appears that this arm may be taken to
have been employed in the act of embracing the
Dēvi. In the first description Śiva and Pārvati are
required to be standing, but in this one, they are
said to be seated on the bull- vehicle of Śiva.

368
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Heinrich Zimmer
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