TRAINING MODULE DOC No.

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29040 –TRM - IC- 002B
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CONTENTS

1. General
2. Sample Handling System
2.1. Design Factors
2.2. Sample Take-off Points
2.2.1. Sample Probes
2.3. Sample Transport
2.3.1. Sample Transport Lines- General considerations.
2.3.2. A Single line to the Analyser
2.3.3. A single line to the analyser with a bypass stream
2.3.4. Fast loop systems
2.3.4.1. Design of fast loops
2.3.5. Vaporising liquid samples – Lag time considerations
2.4. Sample Conditioning system
2.4.1. Filtering
2.4.1.1. Stack Gas Sampling
2.5. Sample disposal
2.6. Multistream switching
3. Type of Analysers
3.1. Chromatographs
3.1.1. Chromatographic Column
3.1.1.1. Gas chromatographic analysis
3.1.2. Detectors
3.1.2.1. Thermal conductivity detector (TCD)
3.1.2.2. Flame Ionisation Detector
3.2. Radiant Energy Sensors
3.3. Electrochemical Method
3.4. Type Of Oxygen Analysis
3.4.1. Paramagnetic type
3.5. Area monitoring
3.6. Analysers in Caustic/Chlorine Plants
3.6.1. TCD Analysers
3.6.2. Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyser
3.6.3. Moisture Analyser
3.7. Definitions
4. Calibration
5. Analyser House
5.1. Construction Aspects
5.2. Purge systems
5.3. Location
5.4. Sizing
5.5. Installation of analysers
5.6. Ventilation
5.7. Field mounting of Analysers
5.71. General
5.7.2. Weather protection
6. Utilities
6.1. Lighting
6.2. Electric power supply
6.3. Steam
6.4. Air
6.5. Water

Process Analysers
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1. General

Process analytical systems (Pans), commonly referred to as On-line Process Analysers

make it possible to use chemical concentrations directly as process variables instead of
relying on indirect physical parameters like pressure & temperature .The most common
technique include chromatography, electrochemistry & spectroscopy.

A typical pan system will include the following units or components:

a) Sample handling system

b) Analyser (the sensing unit)
c) Calibration system (may include calibration gases /liquids)
d) Environmental shelter
e) Utilities

2. Sample handling system

Of the above mentioned components the sample handling system is the crucial & most
often the weakest link in the system.

The sample handling system is an integral part of the analysis system which delivers to
the analyser a fresh, sample in which the components to be measured remains
unchanged in relative concentrations. The sample shall be representative for the property
to be measured at a pressure, temperature, flow rate etc best suited for the proper
operation of the analyser.

Basically the sample handling system consists of 4 elements:

a) Sample take-off point.

b) Sample transport system to the analyser.
c) Sample conditioning system.
d) Sample return and/or disposal system.

2.1 Design factors

Sample stream composition

The complete stream composition of all the components and contaminants must be
considered. Some contaminants, such as solids or entrained liquids, may have to be
removed by the sample system. The process conditions and range of all components
during normal and especially abnormal conditions (such as start-up, shutdown, rate
change, and so forth) must be considered for the analyser application and sample system
design.

It shall be realised that different gases as well as liquids do not readily become completely
mixed unless there is an adequate turbulence present. (If the analysis is for a mixture of
gases or liquids) Many a times it is necessary to introduce turbulence in the process
stream, to ensure that it is thoroughly mixed. Following are the methods to introduce
turbulence.

If sample is extracted at the down stream of a long, straight process line it can result
drastic unrepresentative samples.
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2.2 Sample take-off points

The following factors should be considered in determining the optimum sample point
location:

1. Locate the sample tap in the process stream where a representative sample can be
withdrawn.

2. It is important to locate the sample tap where corrective action is best reflected in the
process.

3. Locate the analyser as near as practical to the sample point to minimise sample
transport time. Location should be considered to offer significant differential pressure if
the sample is returned to the process. Avoid sample points and returns around process
control valves.

4. Locate the sample tap for ease of cleaning or maintenance and means of access to
the sample point. Sample take-off points shall be fitted at the side of the process line, the
arrangement shall enable unplugging and flushing of the sample lines.

5. Locate the sample point where the process reaction or mixing is stable, and avoid
sample point location where mixed phases may exist.

6. Locate the sample tap on the top or side of the process line to minimise poor sampling.

In some cases, special provisions may be required at the sample take-off points for
treating a sample, which may otherwise cause difficulties, or to reduce time lag.

The gas samples should be taken from the top &liquid samples from the side of the
horizontal lines. If probes are used in taking out sample, then this need not be followed.

A sampling probe to be fitted to the line with a flanged nozzle.

Process line
Slip-on flange

200 mm

For simple gas sampling, it is often sufficient to make the sampling probe from some
clean smooth pipe with the end cut at an angle of about 45. The size of the pipe depends
on the amount of sample required. Generally 1/4 ” (6mm) or 1/2" nominal bore schedule
80 stainless steel pipes are used.
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 - Centre line of process pipe

45

An alternate probe for vapour & liquid can be used as given below:

 - Centre line of process pipe

Entry holes with centre line spaced 3/8” apart

2.2.1. Sample probes

Sample probes should be used because they provide a more representative sample due
to the higher flow rates away from process pipe walls. Sample probes eliminate wall
contaminates and particulate and act as a first stage of filtration and conditioning. Special
design considerations are required when process velocities are excessive, which may
require thick wall probes and high temperature application. Corrosive service or high
temperatures may require special alloys or materials.

Open probes are typically made of short lengths of stainless steel pipe of tube, or ¾
inches outside diameter and used at temperatures approximately 1000°f (540°c).

Multiport sample averaging probes are used to obtain a sample whose composition is an
average of that existing across the entire duct. Averaging is normally attempted in ducts
under 2 feet in diameter. Multiple probe sample averaging is frequently used in flues and
stacks of large boilers and heaters in which stratification may be a problem or where
required by compliance regulation.

Filter probes are generally used in gas stream such as combustion applications when the
stream contains significant quantities of particulate material. The filter materials used are
primarily sintered or woven stainless steel and various ceramics. These probes must
always be located in the process duct in a manner that minimises their exposure to
particulates, or else frequent cleaning will be required. Locating the probe inside and just
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downstream of a bend, adding baffles just upstream of the probe minimises the probe
exposure.

A filter probe must always be operated at a temperature well above the dew point
temperature of the stream in which the probe is inserted. Filter probes can be cleaned by
removing the probe from service. However, a more common method is a blow-back
system, which introduces air, nitrogen, or steam into the sample line to blow back through
the filter in the reverse direction. This may be done manually when sample flow begins to
drop to unacceptable levels or automatically at pre-set intervals. Note that blow back gas
should be above the dew point to prevent temperature condensation in the sample lines
or filter probe.

The insertion probes should have a mechanical restraining device to prevent the probe
from blowing out when the packing gland is loosened.

To prevent probe damage, all sampling probes should have a means to judge when the
probe is pulled out past the valve.

2.3. Sample Transport

For good control of the process, the time lag involved in conveying the sample from the
process line to the analyser shall be as minimum as possible. The lag time shall be
smaller than the time constants affecting the measured property of the process.

The aim is to make it less than 1 minute (30-60 seconds is the preferred values), but in
any case shall not increase more than 5 minutes.

The analyser sample in take time (process lag time) can be reduced By two methods
1) by bypass stream or 2)by fast loop.

By conditioning the sample at the process sample tap typically allows for more
reliable operation of extremely difficult samples that cannot be transported easily to a
remote sample conditioning system.

2.3.1. Sample transport lines – General considerations

Tubing runs are recommended because of smaller internal volume, less entrainment due
to abrupt bends, and ease of installation. Piping runs are sometimes required, in which
case, speed loops are used to minimise lag times.

Specification of tubing should include ensuring the compatibility of tubing metallurgy to

sample chemistry and corrosion allowances. The maximum size tube used is ½”. If cu
tubing is used, then it is preferable to use 37 flare tube fittings. Metallic tubing should be
seamless, soft, bright annealed &cold drawn. The materials used to construct the tubing
can be very important, especially in high or low temperature installation and where certain
chemicals can cause stress cracking of the tubing.
Upstream of main filter, the material of the fast loop shall be same as that of the process
line. The material of the remainder of process line shall be of SS316 unless it is not
suitable for the service.
When an analyser is out of service it is advisable to isolate the sample line and to purge it
with dry, clean, oxygen free nitrogen at a low flow rate & plug seal the end.
Keep sample lines short to minimise transport lag time.

Use the smallest diameter line to ensure a representative single-phase sample that is
consistent with the required flow rate and available pressure drop. Sample lines of ¼ inch
of, 0.035-inch wall is common for many analyser systems.
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Provide sufficient pressure to maintain adequate velocities. Typical flow velocities are as
given below
 5 - 10 feet/second for liquids
 20 to 40 feet/second for gases.

Use flow indicators and check valves to ensure that sample flow is in the proper direction.

The sizing of sample transport lines will be influenced by a number of factors as follows:

The state of the process sample, whether liquid or vapour dew point, bubble point, density
and viscosity will influence the calculations of lag time and pressure drop. For relatively
low flow and short line lengths, the pressure drop should not be significant. However, at a
high flow or low line length, the pressure drop may become an important factor in the
system design. Although the specific gravity of gas or liquid does not affect the lag time
calculation, specific gravity must be considered when specifying flow control and
indicating devices.

The flow rate, pressure and sample temperature requirements of the analyser as
configured for the analysis must be considered. In the case of multi-stream analysers,
dead volume of the system and adequate flushing of the previous streams must be
considered to minimise cross contamination and to deliver a representative sample.

Sample conditioning elements contribute to pressure drop and must be considered. A

common way to do this is to consider each element as contributing a pressure drop equal
to some equivalent length of tube and adding all these equivalent lengths to the above
calculated straight run from the sample tap to the analyser. The purge time of each
equipment is dependent on the individual volumes and is calculated as the time necessary
for a minimum of three volumes of the sample stream to flow through the element.

Consideration of operating pressure at the sample tap and of how much pressure can be
used to supply driving power for the sample line is important. For example, even with a
high sample point pressure, there may be some minimum pressure, above which the
sample must be maintained at the analyser in order to avoid problems such as bubble
formation or premature flashing of the sample. Pressure at the process point is very
important since this consideration determines the pressure drop that is available to drive
the sample to the analyser. Also very important is the pressure at the process return
point. Ultimately, this consideration determines if a continuous return line is feasible or if
the sample must be returned to an approved disposal system.

In addition to ensuring turbulent flow in the sample line, provisions must often be made to
maintain the temperature above a dew point so that a representative sample is obtained
at the analyser. In such cases, the sample lines must be traced. Sample composition
can be affected if the lines are heated or cooled excessively. Improper heating of the
lines (especially when analysing for trace amounts) can result in the tendency of some
components adsorbing into the w---- of the tube and changing the sample composition
during transport from the sample tap to the analyser. Manufacturer’s pre-insulated, pre-
traced tubing bundles are recommended.

Sample line routing, in particular accessibility is an important factor for maintenance.

Sharp bends or kinks in the lines should be avoided. To minimise potential for leakage,
also avoid using an excessive number of fittings. Welded tubing may be used if leakage is
critical for the analysis. When possible, the sample lines should be sloped down to the
analyser location avoiding pocketing. Pre-insulated tubing bundles should be run in a
cable tray to eliminate low spots in the lines.
Gaseous samples containing condensables/ liquid samples will require the line to be
heated up to prevent condesation in the first case & to prevent precipitation or freezing in
case of the latter. Lines of such samples shall be vertical & if a horizontal distance to be
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covered they shall be sloping downwards with a catch –pot or a drain valve at the lowest
point. This point shall be very close to the analyser. A slope of 1/12 is sufficient for many
analysers, but a slope of 1/5 shall be considered for viscous liquids.

The sample can be transported to the analyser by one of the following methods.

2.3.2. A single line to the analyser

This system is generally used when the sample line volume is small in relation to the
sample consumption & thus the transportation lag remains within acceptable limits. Hence
this is generally acceptable for field mounted systems which are installed close to the
sample take-off points.

Vent / Drain

2.3.3. A single line to the analyser with a bypass stream

This system consists of a bypass stream branched off close to the analyser to maintain
high sample transport velocity, resulting in a small transportation lag. The bypass stream
will be connected to vent/drain. if economically justifiable a sample recovery system shall
be considered.

Vent / Drain

Vent / Drain

2.3.4. Fast loop systems

Fast loops are circulating loops built over a piece of equipment, which creates differential
pressure. Fast loops are the most preferred sample transport system because there is no
waste of product, the transport time lags are small & the piping can be of reasonable size,
which simplifies the installation.

P Vent/Drain/Sample Return line

Recovery System
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P – Orifice, Impact tubes, control valves, Pumps etc

2.3.4.1. Design of fast loops

1) The supply & return lines of equal diameter

Line size of 1/4” used when there is high differential available across the fast loop & the
flow in the fast loop to be minimised.
Line size of 1/2” used when there is only a low differential available across the fast loop.

2) The returns line one size higher than the supply line.

This means the supply line of 1/4”& the return line of 1/2”. Here the available pressure
drop is fully consumed in the supply line. Pressure at the analyser end is almost equal to
that of the process return point. Hence this can be selected only when the analyser can
operate at that pressure. This has the advantage of minimising the flow in the fast loop &
the lag time same as that if the supply line was of the size as return line. This design shall
be applied wherever possible.

3) The supply line one size higher than the return line

This means the supply line of 1/2” & the return line of 1/4”.Here the available pressure
drop is fully consumed in the return line. Pressure at the analyser end is almost equal to
that of the Process return point. Pressure at the analyser end is slightly less than the
samples take off point. Though this has the advantage of lower flows in the line, it has a
main disadvantage of high lag time in the supply line. Hence this method shall be selected
only when the other two methods are unacceptable in terms of the pressure at the
analyser side.

The sample line of a liquid with some vapour phase present or in the likelihood of flashing
the flow should be in the upward direction to allow free flow of liquid w/o vapour lock. But
if the fluid contains solid particles, the flow shall be in the downward direction so that the
particles are swept out of the system before they can accumulate & coagulate.

2.3.5. Vaporising liquid samples – Lag time considerations

Vaporising a liquid sample can contribute to a severe lag time because of the expansion
effect of a hydrocarbon liquid changing into a vapour. Typically light hydrocarbons can
have a vapour expansion of 600 to 1, which results in 1 cubic centimetre (cc), of liquid
forming approximately 600 cc of vapour. Since vapour speed loops may be only
approximately 2000 cc/min., A representative sample of liquid is not purged adequately in
the sample line, and partial vaporisation might occur if the liquid volume flow is not sized
properly for the vapour flow rate. The liquid volume before the vaporiser must be
minimised to reduce the lag time of liquid vaporisation.

2.4. Sample Conditioning system

- The chances of connecting the analyser to the process are relatively low.

- Most of the process streams require conditioning prior to the introduction into process
analyser. Conditioning is the interface between plant & the analyser. The
requirements set by the analyser shall be carefully compared with the process sample
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conditions. The sample conditioning system shall be provided which can make the
sample measurable.

These involves generally:

1. Filtering
2. Pressure control
3. Flow control
4. Temperature control
5. Phase control/phase change

However it may be kept in mind that, the more the components the less reliable the
system becomes. Hence we shall try to minimise the components in the system. Always
try to draw a clean & dry sample from the process stream possible

2.4.1. Filtering

When the sample is not clean, then filters are used. Mostly they are used to remove large
size particles, which causes choking. In single line systems the filtering shall take place at
the sample take-off point. In the fast loop systems the sample side stream to the
Analyser shall be filtered through a filter placed in the fast loop.

commonly used filters Filter capacity

Ceramic/porous metallic element filter 13

cellulose filter 3

Sintered metallic filter 1

It is advisable that all analysers should be fitted with a strainer near the sample take-off
point so that the downstream components are protected from damage & blockage due to
larger particles .In most of the cases the coarse filtering by wire mesh strainers & auto
clean filters is sufficient. If finer filtration is required then the same shall be done after
coarse filtration.
When interruption of sample stream for filter cleaning is not possible, two filters shall be
placed in parallel.

2.4.1.1. Stack Gas Sampling

When sampling hot wet stack gas, a filter capable of withstanding the gas temperature is
installed at the beginning of the sample line to prevent solids from entering the gas
sample line.
After the sample is cooled the sample goes to coalescing filter to remove suspended
liquids.
Liquid coalescing filter should be located as close to the analyser as possible to minimise
the chance of condensation between filter & analyser. Additional precaution that can be
taken to cool the sample below ambient at the upstream of the coalscer to aid
condensation & to heat the sample line gently at the downstream.
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Solid filter

Process line 900c

Packed Towers with Glass micro-fibre filter tubes can be used to separate droplets of
droplets of liquid, which is immixable with another. (Oil in hydrocarbons or oil in water).
This also can be used to remove suspended gas bubbles from liquid. Since specific
gravity difference between liquids is less, the separation requires longer tubes or the flow
rates have to be very low compared to gases.

Bypass stream can be designed with slipstream bypass filters as given below:

2.5. Sample disposal

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Once the sample has passed through the Analyser it is the final function of the sampling
system to carry the sample to a safe point for disposal. This is often done by returning the
line to the Process at a point were the pressure is suitable. Always the method adopted
should present no hazard to the environment, analyser or the process. Clean, non-
flammable non-toxic gas samples can be vented to the atmosphere & the liquids to the
chemical drain. Corrosive or toxic gases must be rendered harmless by scrubbing before
disposal. Flammable gas should be vented to flare stack or diluted to a safe level before
releasing to atmosphere.

2.6. Multistream switching

Multistream sampling allows sample taken from different locations to be analysed on

sequence by a single analyser. The main advantage is economic. Multistream systems
are best used for sample streams having similar compositions so that the problems of
cross-contamination are minimised.

Factors to be considered:

1. Separate conditioning equipment for each stream.

2. Provisions for venting between switching valving to prevent contamination leakage.
3. Cross contamination due to mechanical failure (leakage) or failure to purge the stream
previously analysed.
4. The relative concentrations of the components in each stream.
5. Response time as long sample line s to the Analyser.
6. Changes in flow rate as sample lines switched i.e. minimum upset of the system is
not achieved.
7. The dead volume shall be kept to a minimum.

Each separate sample stream should be fully conditioned in a separate train of

components before it enters the switching system. Air operated or solenoid operated
valves are used for switching process fluids. The common cause of contamination is leak
through the valves. There are two common approaches to eliminate this. The block &
bleed system & the use of a back flush.

3. Type of Analysers

3.1. Chromatographs

Chromatographs are mainly used in the analysis of compound mixtures, where the
concentration of all the mixtures need to be analysed. Chromatographs work on the
difference in solubility/absorption /adsorption of substances between a mobile &stationary
phase. It relies on the difference in partition behaviour between a flowing mobile phase &
a stationary phase to separate the components in a mixture. A column holds the
stationary phase & the mobile carries the sample through this. (The carrier gas (mobile
phase) takes the sample & move across the stationary phase). If the stationary phase is
contained in a column, it is called column chromatography.

E.g. Gas chromatography or Liquid chromatography.

If the stationary phase occupies a plane surface, it is called planar chromatography.

E.g. Thin layers chromatography & Paper chromatography.
In the case of gaseous sample, gas is used in the mobile phase & liquid / solid in the
stationary phase The compounds get separated on the stationary phase because of the
difference in solubility or adsorption. In case of liquid stationary phase, the separation is
based on solubility and is called Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC). In case of solid
stationary phase, the separation is based on adsorption and is called Gas Solid
Chromatography (GSC). Most frequently used carrier gases are He, H & N2, Ar.
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There are different types under Liquid chromatography:

1) Liquid-Liquid chromatography
2) Liquid –solid chromatography
3) Ion chromatography
4) Size Exclusion chromatography

Solubility & adsorption are temperature dependant properties .So precisely regulated
temperature environment shall be provided to the Chromatograph so as to attain the
actual results.

The main advantages are:

1. Separation of complex mixtures

2. Sensitivity
3. Small sample requirements.

Qualities of Carrier Gas

 It should not chemically interact with the sample or stationary phase.

 It should not interfere or damage the Detector.
 It should be pure & relatively inexpensive.
 The carrier gas is generally supplied in high-pressure cylinders. The pressure is
reduced to 100psig &supplied to the chromatograph at 20-100cm3/min.

The liquid in the gas –liquid chromatography shall be:

 Inert towards the different components in the sample.

 A good solvent for the sample components
 Differ in solvent capacity for the various sample components
 Remains as a liquid in Higher &lower range of application
 Thermally stable at higher temperatures.

In chromatography for separating polar compounds (straight chain alcohols) a polar liquid
phase should be selected. And for non-polar compounds like saturated hydrocarbons
(such as gasoline) a non-polar liquid phase shall be used.

3.1.1. Chromatographic Column

3.1.1.1. Gas chromatographic analysis

Gas chromatographs in many ways are analogous to distillation columns. To analyse a

sample in the GC the following conditions shall be met:

1) Sample should be volatile.

2) It should not be reacting with both mobile & stationary phase.
3) It should be thermally stable.

Gas chromatography is almost used exclusively for organic compounds: except for
permanent gases.

The chromatographic solid support physically support the liquid phase & maintains a thin
film of the liquid phase in maximum contact with the gaseous sample. The solid support
shall have the following characteristics
 Have a large surface area
 Have a pore structure with uniform pore size
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 Resist crushing &abrasion during handling

 Have uniform particle size
 Be inert to the Sample, liquid phase &column.

When this solid support possess adsorption characteristics, they themselves will be used
as the stationary phase.

Most encountered column tubing materials are:

1) Copper
2) Aluminium
3) Nickel
4)Stainless steel

Glass is the best tubing material, but not recommended for process chromatographs
because of its fragile nature.
Generally the columns are U shaped or coiled. But U-shaped columns give better results.
The packing is held in place with little glass wool or SS mesh as packing retainer.

3.1.2. Detectors

After separating the compounds, the compounds elude from the stationary phase &at that
time they can be quantified by a detector.

The type of detector available with GC is:

1. Thermal conductivity Analyser

2. Flame Ionisation Detector
3. Electron Capture Detector
4. Nitrogen phosphorus Detector
5. Flame Photometry Detector
6. Mass Spectrometry

Out of the 6, the most commonly used ones in process chromatographs are the first
three.

3.1.2.1. Thermal conductivity detector (TCD):

Thermal conductivity analyser is based upon the principle of heat transfer property of
gases. Depending on the type of the element used the TCD is known as cathorometer,
thermistor, hot-wire detector etc. a simplified circuitry of TCD is given below:

The TCD consists of a block containing a cavity through which the gas flows. A heated
element is positioned in the cavity & looses heat to the block. There is a reference
detector identical to the measuring detector. The measuring & reference detectors are
usually placed in a comparatively massive single metal block of high heat capacity to
minimise errors due to transient heating & cooling. The first filament looses heat by all the
heat loss mechanisms: conduction, convection & radiation: Of which the major heat loss
is by thermal conductivity of the gas which surrounds the filament. The resistance or
resistance change is measured electronically. The extend &duration of change is
proportional to the respective gas components. The thermal conductivity of carrier gas is
not a factor as this gas passes over the reference detector as well.

The thermal conductivity of gases are roughly proportional to the square root of the
Molecular weights.
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The principles of hot air or thermistor detectors are the same. The sensitivity of thermistor
w.r.t a hot metallic wire ( filament) is very good since the temperature coefficient of
resistance of thermistor is much higher than that of metallic wires. But the temperature
range on which it has this advantage is very narrow. At higher temperature its sensitivity
is too low & at lower temperatures its resistance is too great for the input impedance of
the amplifier. When H2 is the carrier gas thermistor again has a problem, as it reduces the
metallic oxide semiconductor except at low temperatures.
The choice between the two is based on temperature considerations:
a. Ambient & sub –ambient Temperatures - Thermistor.
b. Higher temperature -Metal wires

Filaments are fabricated from Tungsten, nickel, platinum etc.

Advantages:

1. Linear over a wide range.

2. Non-destructive to the sample
3. Simple in construction.

3.1.2.2. Flame Ionisation Detector

In the FID, the gases that elude from column mix with H2 & burn in O2 or air. Electrons
&ionic molecular fragments are formed in the flame. The gas stream from the flame,
which contains electrons, enters an electrode gap. This electronically charged particle
completes a circuit & let current flow in an external circuit. The current is measured
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electronically & is proportional to the Mass flow of electrons &ions in the stream, which is
in, turns proportional to the concentration of s component in the stream.

F
E

A
C

A - Sample component from chromatograph. B-air supply.

C- Fuel supply. D - flame tip. E-polariser.
F – Igniter. G - collector

3.2. Radiant Energy Sensors

If radiation at different wavelengths is passed through a process material the amount of

absorption is an indication of sample identity or composition .By Beer’s Law,
A = Ln (I0 / I ) = a b c

A. - Absorbance. a –molar absorption b – sample path length c – absorber

concentration

I0 –Radiation intensity entering the sample

I - Radiation intensity leaving the sample

The probe version of IR analyser eliminates the need for a sample the need for a sample
handling system & can be used for both liquid & gas phase process. The refractive index
is a unique property of any chemical compound.

UV analysers are more sensitive than IR but can handle only clean, single-phase
samples.

3.3. Electrochemical Method

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Electrochemical Method requires an electrolytic cell, which contains an electrolyte & two
electrodes. The parameters associated with electrochemical cell are voltage, current &
resistance (conductance). The use of electrochemical methods is restricted to the
samples, which conducts electrical current.

Applications: Measurement of process water for contaminants such as Hardness,

ammonia, salinity & chlorine & ionic strength, oxidation-reduction potential, ionic
contaminants & environmentally related analysis such as pH, chlorine, toxic metal ions.
The most common electrochemical method is potentiometry. Potentiometric method
measures the voltage change or potential across the potentiometric cell as the
concentration of one or more components of the electrolyte changes.
E.g.: pH electrode

Amperometric electrochemical analysis is the measurement of current through the sample

as the concentration of an electrolyte or sample component varies.
Conductivity measurement regards the sample as a resistance in an electrical circuit. A
change in the concentration of the compound of the electrolyte changes the resistance in
the circuit.

3.4. Type Of Oxygen Analysis

1. Paramagnetic type

2. Electrochemical technique

3.4.1. Paramagnetic type

Oxygen molecule is attracted by magnetic field due to unpaired electrons present in the
outer shell. Thus O2 is defined as paramagnetic gas. Gas molecules, which are repelled
from the magnetic field, are called diamagnetic gases. Paramagnetic susceptibility of O2
is much higher than that of other gases. Most of the gases are diamagnetic. Other gases
having appreciable paramagnetic susceptibility are nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide & chlorine
dioxides.

Magneto-dynamic type: this is based on Faraday’s method of determining the

paramagnetic susceptibility, by measuring the force developed by a strong non uniform
magnetic field on a diamagnetic test body suspended in the sample gas.

The cell consists of two nitrogen filled quartz spheres arranged in the form of a dumb-bell.
A single turn of platinum wire is placed around the dumb-bell, which is suspended in
asymmetrical non-uniform magnetic field. When the gas enters the cell, which contains
O2, the dumb-bell spheres are pushed out-of the magnetic field due to the change in the
field caused by the paramagnetic oxygen. The torque acting on the dumb-bell will be
proportional to the paramagnetic property of the surrounding gas. Hence can be used as
a measure of the O2 concentration.
The distortion of the dumb-bell will be sensed by a light beam & projected on a mirror
attached to the dumb-bell. It is reflected to a pair of photocells. When both the photocells
are illuminated the output is zero. If the O2 content of the gas sample changes, the
corresponding output is proportional to the O2 present in the gas.

The paramagnetic susceptibility of O2 varies inversely as the square of the absolute

temperature. A temperature sensitive element in contact with the measuring cell assembly
is also included in the feedback circuit in order to provide compensation for changes in
analyser temperature.

Points to be taken care

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 The temperature of the sample gas entering the analyser shall be -10c to +40 c.
Use a cooler & condensate drain in case of higher temperature.

 Sample gas flow rate shall be 6-60l/hr. (fast response at the maximum flow rate).

 Sample gas must be dust –free. In all cases an external fine filter shall be
incorporated in the system.

 Installation shall be free from vibrations.

 The reading will vary in direct proportion to barometric pressure. To avoid this the
outlet of the outlet of the analyser shall be discharged to freely into open atmosphere.

 Cross-sensitivity shall be taken care during the calibration

3.5. Area monitoring

3.5.1. Location

The position of the measuring head depends on the purpose whether systems or persons
shall be protected.

3.5.2. Leakage monitoring

Leakage in systems with dangerous concentrations has to be recognised early.

3.5.3. Area monitoring

If the potential leakage cannot be located this is called Area Monitoring. Based on the
type of hazard one measuring head can monitor an area from 40 m2 to 80 m2.

3.5.4. Personal protection

In case of the contaminant sources cannot be located or difficult to locate the measuring
heads are located in the Inhalation area (head height).

Sensors should be placed in such a way that gas accumulation is detected before they
create a significant hazard. This requires the detailed knowledge of many factors:

1. Site design
2. Identifying the potential source of release.
3. Type of gas releases.
4. E.g. high pressure, slow leakage etc.
5. Wind Speed, Rain Fall
6. Local Environment outside Plant boundaries.
7. Localised ventilation equipment.
8. Structural arrangements .(Walls .Troughs ,Partitions etc)
9. Number of Plant Employees.
10. Avoiding chances of Tampering.
11. Consideration for maintenance of sensors.
12. Chemical &physical data of the component to be detected.

Sensors should be placed in such a way that gas accumulation is detected before they
create a significant hazard.

3.5.4. Gas types

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For the installation of measuring heads the density of the measuring gas has to be
considered. There are only seven flammable gases, which are lighter than air.

1. Hydrogen
2. Methane
3. Ammonia
4. Acetylene
5. Hydrochloric acid
6. Ethylene
7. Carbon monoxide

Gases under Pressure / liquid gases can flow downwards in case of a leakage due to
cooling down taking place during expansion.

All other flammable gases and all other flammable vapours are heavier than air. They can
flow across the ground covering wide areas.

3.6. Analysers in Caustic/Chlorine Plants

3.6.1. TCD Analysers

These analysers are for the measurement of concentration of H 2 present in the mixture of
the sample gas. The amount of H2 present in the chlorine gas is an important parameter
in the caustic plant as this indicates the performance of membranes. Above certain H2
concentrations (>5%) the mixture of chlorine becomes Explosive.

The normal composition of this stream is as given below:

COMPONENT % V/V

Cl2 65.6
H2 0.6
O2 26.6
CO2 5.15
Inert 2.01
Moisture 0.06

The thermal conductivity factors for different gases are as given below:

GASES TC factor

1 Cl2 0.381
2 H2 6.99
3 O2 1.052
4 CO2 0.690
5 N2 0.996
6 CO 0.962
7 SO2 0.377

The measurement is based on the thermal conductivity of hydrogen. Hydrogen is highly

thermal conductive compared to the other components present in the mixture
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3.6.1.1. Measurement

The sample that is taken to the sampling system is diverted into two paths. One stream
flows through an UV reaction attachment. UV reaction attachment is used to convert
certain gas components in the sample gas. Many measurements require a chemical
reaction (auxiliary reaction) be initiated before the sample gas enters the Analyser. The
reasons
1. Improve the detectability of the component of interest
2. Eliminate the effect of gases that lead to incorrect results.
This auxiliary reaction is initiated by UV radiation. A low pressure Hg vapour lamp emits
UV radiation at 254nm wavelength. The radiation pass through a double walled reaction
tube made of quartz & is reflected by a reflector. The sample gas passes through the
reaction tube. The sample flow rate is determined by the reaction time. The low pressure
Hg vapour lamp emits around 150mW of power, which is sufficient to initiate the following
reaction.

H2 + Cl 2 = 2HCl

The thermal conductivity of HCL is almost equivalent to that of CL 2. The reacted sample
gas out-of the reaction attachment enters the flowing reference side of the basic
conductivity sensor.
The other stream enters the measuring side of the sensor. The difference in thermal
conductivity between the two is sensed as the conductivity of H 2 present in the stream &
thus concentration of H2 present in the stream.

The conversion of H2 & CL2 to HCL takes place in the presence of UV radiation where the
amount of CL2 present in the mixture is above 20% v/v. When CL2 concentration is
below 20%v/v, a tubular furnace is used where the mixture is heated upto 800 Dec C for
enabling the reaction.

3.6.1.2. Points to be taken care

1. Life of the Mercury vapour lamp is at the most 1year. Hence the unit shall be replaced
after this period.
2. At intervals of 6-8 weeks, a leak test shall be performed & purging sample gas flow
rate to be maintained 10 l/h.

3.6.2. Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyser

This analyser is used for the analysis of Oxygen present in liquid chlorine. Since chlorine
causes little cross interference, the same shall be taken care in the calibration.

How is it taken care?

N2 is used as the Zero gas. While passing N2 through the system adjust the value to 0.9
vol. % using the zero pot, since Cl2 causes a cross-sensitivity of –0.9 vol. % at 50c.

3.6.2.1. Span calibration

Span calibration is done using pure air and adjusting the meter to 21.9 vol. %.

3.6.3. Moisture Analyser

Moisture in chlorine is important to analyse, as the drying tower efficiency will be known
from this.
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3.6.3.1. Measuring principle

Measuring of low moisture contents in gases is based on the adsorption of water vapour
by a hygroscopic electrolyte (Phosphoric acid). Two platinum electrodes are situated in
the electrolyte. The platinum electrodes are wound around a high ohm glass. A stabilised
current passed through the electrodes. The water present in the sample dissociates in
equilibrium & current flowing during dissociation is a measure of the water concentration
in the sample gas.

This principle can be used for the measurement of moisture in any gas, provided
Such gases do not react with phosphoric acid or have a tendency to polymerise or
corrode the platinum.
E.g.; NH3, Alkalis- neutralises phosphoric acid
Olefins - polymerises.

3.6.3.2. Points to be taken care.

1. Operating pressure of the analyser - 70 mbar

Hence depending on the process line pressure , PCV or sample gas pump shall be
used.
2. Operating temperature of the analyser - 35c.
Hence sample gas cooler must be installed upstream of the analyser.
3. Measuring cell shall be cleaned once a month & shall be coated with phosphoric acid.
(Take out the cell body & rinse with distilled water. Treat with acetone for easy drying
& dip in 50% H3PO4. Heavy foaming occurs due to decomposition of water in air & in
H3PO4. This subsides slowly & the system can be put back in operation.
4. All kinds of flexible tubing shall be avoided as they have a tendency to absorb water
from atmosphere, which can cause an error in measurement.
5. Supply of humid gas to the cell for more hours can cause malfunctioning of the
analyser.

3.7. Definitions

1. On-stream factor

It is the total time the analyser is operating reliably, relative to process operations.

2. Overall system response time

This is the total time required to take a representative sample, condition it, analyse the
sample & output the results.

3. Safety / Environmental requirements

If the analyser is required for the monitoring pollution and/or occupational environment,
then it shall comply with the appropriate regulation requirements applicable for such a
measurement.

4. Turn around time

It is the total time of sample system lag, dead time and the analyser response time.
That is the time elapsed from when the sample is taken in at the sample point to the time
the data is transmitted system

5. Sample transport time

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Sample transport time or lag-time is a function of the sample line length & diameter, the
absolute pressure in the line & the sample flow rate.

t (Liquid) = V * L / flow rate

lag

t (Vapour) = V * L * (P+14.7) * 530

lag Fs 14.7 460+T

t - Sample transport time in minutes

lag
P - Sample line pressure in psig

V - Tubing Volume In cc/ft

L - Total line length in ft

Fs - Flow rate in cc/min. at standard conditions (14.7 psia , 70 deg c).

T - Temperature in Deg F

6. Validation

Validation is observing & noting the difference between the analyser reading & the
agreed analysis standard introduced into the analyser (if any), without any adjustment
made to the analyser.

4. Calibration

Calibration is adjusting the analyser output to agree with a standard introduced into the
analyser.
It is preferable to calibrate the Analyser with the entire sampling system.

4.1. Calibration gas (span gas)

Calibration gas is an accurately made-up mixture containing only the components to be

measured, but may contain an inert diulent.

Calibration gas is needed to check the range of the analyser, so the concentrations of
components should be about 80%of the maximum value.

4.2. Zero gas

Zero gas is often the span gas diluent and contains none of the other impurities expected.
It is used to check the analyser zero. Nitrogen in suitable purity is used as the zero gas.

4.3. Gas cylinder life

The life of cylinder ( t days) = vc (pf –pd)

pd (qc +q1 )

Where vc – cylinder volume in litres

pf - the maximum filling pressure in bars
pd - the regular delivery pr. In bar (a)
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qc - flow rate of gas to analyser (litres/day)

q1 - average flow rate of gas leaking

Cylinder has to be replaced before the cylinder pressure drops to delivery pressure.
Cylinder life depends upon the constancy of the gas mixture. If there is a leak small
molecules will leak preferentially. Because of these reasons the cylinder life is limited to
about 150-300 days.

4.4. Storage of calibration liquids

When mixtures of liquids are stored in cylinders these should only be partially filled. The
rest of the portion shall be filled with an inert gas as n2 at such a pressure as to not let the
liquid vaporise and then fractionate. .

5. Analyser House

Analyser houses are enclosed premises in which one or more analysers and their
associated piping, wiring and auxiliary instrumentation are installed.

The objectives in going for an analyser house are:

1. To create a non-hazardous atmosphere within an otherwise zone 1 or zone2 area

of the plant so that testing or calibration and maintenance of the analyser can be
performed with casings opened and electrical circuits alive.

2. To create a good environment in which analysers and their associated equipment

are adequately protected against adverse whether conditions.

Centralisation of analyser has, besides the above-mentioned maintenance aspects, a

number of economic advantages, such as combined instrument cable channels, common
supply of power, water and steam; and common drain and vent lines. Analyser houses
shall therefore be provided as a standard.

Analysers & their associated piping usually contain flammable gases or liquids. However
they are normally confined in closed piping and can be escaped only during accidental
rapture of the system or due to malfunction of the system.

To ensure safe area inside the analyser house it has to be well ventilated. There are two
ways of providing ventilation.

1. Forced ventilation: Artificial ventilation effected by blowing air into the Analyser shelter.

2. Induced ventilation: Artificial ventilation effected by withdrawal of air from the Analyser
shelter.
Out of which forced ventilation shall be provided to systems & induced ventilation is
unacceptable.

In case of the failure of ventilation, the atmosphere inside the analyser house becomes
hazardous. This can occur due to the following reasons:

1. Because of the possible leakage from analysers & their piping system or
2. Due to outside flammable material entering the inside of the analyser house.
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5.1. Construction Aspects

Analyser houses of higher size shall have two doors for personal safety. The doors shall
be located at the two ends of the house & should open outwards. Both should be fitted
with armoured glass windows or lenses to enable internal inspection from outside. The
interior of the building shall be readily visible from the outside through this. It shall be
possible to open the doors from the inside by means of a simple door handle or push bar.
If frequent personnel traffic is envisaged, then air locks shall be provided at the entry
points. Manual shutdown valves & manual sample take-off points shall be positioned
outside the house.
There shall be one standard key to all doors in all analyser houses in the Plant.

The doors shall be tight fitting, outward opening with automatic closures. Each door shall
be provided with a window of at least 0.2 square meter. The window material shall be
glass of aprox.6.4mm thick & laminated with 1.5 mm interlayer. The door window shall be
designed to withstand an overpressure of 2 kg/cm2 from either direction.

The type of materials selected for the construction of the analyser house shall neither
cause operational difficulties nor create safety hazards.

For example, analyser houses constructed of sheet metal without provisions for heat
insulation may absorb enough heat from sun radiation to raise the temperature inside the
house to an unacceptable level. In tropical areas the roof shall be well insulated.

Floors shall be of material which can be easily cleaned from oil spills and which is acid
resistant when there is a chance of spillage of chemicals used in the analysers or in their
cleaning/repair.

The concrete floor of the analyser house absorbs liquids &thus creates a resultant hazard.
Hence the concrete floor of the analyser house be coated with fire resistant, non-slippery
material which is hard & does not crack easily. Vitreous clay ceramic tiles are more
suitable. This should be fixed to a concrete floor with non-porous cement. The floor
should slope towards the drain. The floor beneath the liquid analyser should be filled with
a curb to avoid spreading of spillage.

The walls of the analyser house shall be strong enough to take the load of wall-mounted
analysers and appertaining sample handling systems.

An acid resistant sink shall be provided, plus domestic water supply with ample space
between sink and tap. The analyser house shall be connected to the oil contaminated
drain system via a corrosion resistant drainpipe and a water lock.
Drain pits for sample disposal shall be provided at the ends of the longest walls outside
the analyser house.

A small workbench shall be placed in the analyser house as well as storage shelves or
cupboards with wire mesh doors for tools or cleaning material. Fully enclosed cupboards
in which hazardous vapours or gases may accumulate must not be used.

The clearance between rows of analysers should be 1.5m.This is adequate for

maintenance & safety. The central space shall be kept clear of obstacles for personal
safety in case of a fire.

To protect sample-handling systems mounted on the outside walls of analyser house as

well as maintenance personnel from the direct adverse winter conditions, corridors may
be built along the longest walls of the house. The corridors shall be vented by openings
low and high in the outside walls, to permit sweeping out gases heavier and lighter than
air gases, and to allow some free ventilation.
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Installation of electrical equipment in these corridors shall be prevented wherever possible

(except lighting armatures).

If the electric equipment is not suitable for div.2 applications, then a safe guarding
system shall be designed to switch off the electric supply to the system.

5.2. Purge systems

Analysers on flammable material will create a div.2 area around them, even if the area is
safe otherwise. When these analysers are installed in closed shelters for weather
protection the area classification can become div.1

Purging is a commonly applied method for, reducing explosion hazards by preventing the
accumulation of flammable material to dangerous concentrations in the vicinity of a source
of ignition, by pressurising and/or ventilating the casing with a stream of dry air or inert
gas.

Materials inside non-explosion proof cases must not only be safeguarded by adequate
pressurising to prevent ingress from the outside atmosphere, but also an adequate flow of
air must be maintained to prevent combustible material from reaching explosive
concentrations in case of seal failure in case the purge medium is air. Where the purge
medium is an inert gas, pressurisation only is adequate.

In a few cases it may be possible to reduce explosion hazards inside analyser casings by
increasing the purge pressure above the pressure inside the seal thus preventing the
accumulation of combustible materials in the analyser case in the event of seal failure.

Instrument air shall be the normal purge medium. Inert gas (nitrogen) shall be considered
when LEL is easily reached with air.

The disposal of the purge medium for casings containing flammable material shall be via
open vent lines terminating outside the analyser house &away from places where they
could spoil area classification of other equipment.

5.3. Location

Analyser houses shall be located as close as possible to the sample points of the relevant
analysers, to minimise sample transport time lag and other sampling problems.

The location of the analyser house shall be such that a safe area for the ventilation air
inlet can be found in the immediate vicinity. This safe area shall preferably be vertically
above the analyser house.
Since sample conditioning equipment mounted on the outside walls will create a division 2
area around the analyser house, it is not necessary to locate the analyser house in an
area, which was originally, safe (at grade level).

The selected location shall

1. Allow free access for motor vehicles, to enable transport of heavy equipment, such as
compressed gas bottles, test equipment and analysers.

2. Be free from spillage of cleaning water and process liquids

3. Be free from shock and vibration from railroads, highways and/or vibrating process
equipment such as reciprocating compressors.
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4. Allow free evacuation in case of emergency in the analyser house or in the process
area.

5.4. Sizing

The sizing of the analyser house shall be such that all instruments are easily accessible
on all sides where adjustments, connections and repairs must be made.

Sufficient space shall be provided for a sink, work bench, terminal boxes for signal cables
and auxiliary equipment such as recorders, control units, peak holding equipment, signal
converters, etc.

Attention shall be given to the space required on the outside walls. Some sample
conditioning equipment may require more space on the outside wall, than the relevant
analyser requires on the inside wall.

The size of the analyser house shall preferably be determined after making a detailed
layout for the best arrangement of all equipment to be installed.

As a standard the internal width of the analyser house shall be 3 metres, the internal
height shall be 2.70 metres. The length of the analyser house shall suit the quantity of
analyser. The wall length per analyser can be taken as 900 mm as an average, but 1800
mm shall be reserved for certain large analysers, such as PGC’s, viscometers or vapour
pressure analysers.

5.5. Installation of analysers

Analysers can be either wall or rack mounted or free standing and shall be installed along
the two longest walls. To reduce the explosion or toxicity hazards inside the house, the
sample conditioning equipment (refer section 7) shall not be installed inside the building
unless this is mandatory for proper operation of the analyser. From the sample
conditioning equipment either a single ¼” or 1/8” od stainless steel tube (or a secondary
fast loop) is taken to the analyser.

An engineered orifice shall restrict the flow in these lines, a constant flow unit or a sample
dosing pump. Flow restrictions shall also be provided in those lines entering the house
which transport hazardous materials from bottles such as hydrogen carrier gas for PGC’s.
The sample conditioning equipment shall also be mounted on the outside wall close to the
location of the relevant analyser on the inside wall of the analyser house and be
adequately weather protected.
Auxiliary instruments, such as programmers, control units, peak holding equipment,
service recorders and signal converters shall be installed in small panels or on the walls in
the analyser house, but not in closed cubicles. They shall be mounted at working level,
but never underneath equipment handling or using liquids of any kind. The centre line of
the equipment mounted on the shelter wall shall be between 1.25 &1.75m minimum.
Space shall be reserved for sample conditioning system on the outside walls of the shelter
in such a way that the analysers & their related sample conditioning systems are situated
back to back.
To ensure adequate access for maintenance at least 300 mm spacing shall be provided
between equipment mounted along the shelter walls.

Since this equipment is in general not suitable for operation in hazardous areas, adequate
purging has to be provided.

In order to make easy tie-ins with equipment in the control centre and to reduce the types
of service recorders, it is advisable to standardise the output of analysers to 4-20 mA.
Overhead cable trays shall be provided in the analyser house for interconnection cables
between analysers and auxiliary instruments. The signal cables going to the control centre
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Also may be routed this way.

When equipment installed in the control centre is also necessary for carrying out work in
the analyser house an independent telephone communication system shall be provided in
the Analyser house.

5.6. Ventilation

Climatic conditions

The temperature inside the analyser house shall not be below 15ºc for comfort and
sometimes for technical reasons. The effective temperature inside the analyser house
shall not exceed 30ºc.

For cold and temperature climates realisation of the lower limit will not crease any
difficulties.

The upper temperature limit becomes a more complex matter in tropical areas. Due to
heat developed by the equipment inside the building and heat from sun radiation, the
temperature can easily rise to an unacceptable level. The effective temperature can be
lowered by the following two methods:

1. Increasing the air velocity in the analyser house above the velocity required for safety.

2. Lowering the actual air temperature, by means of a suitable air conditioning unit.

5.7. Field mounting of Analysers

5.7.1. General

Field mounting of analysers may only be considered when:

1. The cost of an analyser house would be disproportionate to the anticipated

advantages

2. The selected location of the analyser house(s) would result in unacceptable time lags.

3. The sample is non-flammable and the proposed mounting position is in a safe area.

When considering field mounting in a dangerous area, it should be realised that

maintenance on an open analyser, with the electric power switched on, is not permitted
without a clearance certificate, unless the installation is intrinsically safe.

5.7.2. Weather protection

Field mounted analysers shall be provided with adequate protection against adverse
climatic conditions, rain, sun radiation, process and water spills. In some cases, shielding
against radiant heat from surrounding equipment must be provided.

Cabinets or shelters, which are substantially open and free from surrounding obstructions
to the passage or air, take the area classification of the surrounding area. If free
ventilation is obstructed, the area classification of the interior is div. 1. Analysers and
other electrical equipment shall be selected in accordance with these classifications.

Where necessary, suitable heating shall be provided to protect the analysers and
associated sample handling equipment. It should be realised that even analysers with
internal, thermostatically controlled heating may require keeping the external temperature
within reasonable limits
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6. Utilities

6.1. Lighting

Adequate artificial lighting shall be provided inside and outside the analyser house, as
required for carrying out delicate repairs and adjustments on complicated equipment. The
illumination of at least 500 lux at working levels shall be considered. Rapid start lamps
with Zone 1 certification shall be used. External lighting shall be provided with 400 Lux at
working levels.

6.2. Electric power supply

It shall be possible to de-energise analysers and appertaining electrical equipment per

analyser or per separate analyser installation in the analyser house either by a switch or a
wall socket.

Socket outlets for electric tools or test equipment shall be provided. Since these socket
outlets are interlocked on the ventilation system, they may be of the industrial type and
preferably similar to those used in the shop so that test equipment from the shop can be
readily used. In any case, the execution of these sockets shall be different from other
socket outlets in the analyser house so that test equipment cannot readily be used on
outlets, which are not interlocked. The power supply distribution board shall be outside the
building in the vicinity of the analyser house or in the electric power switch house.

Since it is not possible to obtain all analysers suitable for 220 v 50 Hz supply voltage, it is
advisable to provide per analyser house one common step down transformer for all
analysers requiring 110v 50 Hz rather than having individual step down transformers with
each analyser.

6.3. Steam

Where steam is required for analysers, the common steam supply line must be provided
with a block valve, condensate drain, and a strainer. After the strainer, copper tubing or
stainless steel shall be used.

6.4. Air

The common air supply shall be provided with a block valve, and a filter/reducing station.

An automatic lubricator of the oil mist type shall be installed in the airline to equipment
using pistons such as pneumatically driven sample dosing pumps.

Copper tubing shall be used downstream of the air filter.

6.5. Water

The common cooling water line shall be provided with a block valve, filter and reducing
station. Individual users of cooling water shall be provided with a variable area meter and
needle valve to adjust the flow.

Preferably sweet water shall be used for cooling. Used cooling water can be piped to the
waste sample drain header.

Note: where sweet cooling water is expensive, not available, or its temperature is too
high, cooling with mechanical refrigerators or vortex coolers may be considered. In some
cases, a system with a circulating cooling fluid and one common mechanical refrigerator
can be considered.
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29040 –TRM - IC- 002B
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ANALYSERS
Uhde India Limited Page : 28 o f 27